World War I 1914-18 World War I 1914-18 - a war between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) and the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, later Japan, Italy, Romania, USA, etc.; 38 states in total). The reason for the war was the murder in Sarajevo by a member of the terrorist organization Young Bosnia of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. On July 15 (28), 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, July 19 (August 1) Germany - Russia, July 21 (August 3) - France, July 22 (August 4) Great Britain - Germany. Having created a superiority in the forces on the Western Front, Germany occupied Luxembourg and Belgium in 1914 and began a rapid advance in northern France towards Paris. However, already in 1914 the German plan for the rapid defeat of France collapsed; this was facilitated by the offensive of Russian troops in East Prussia, which forced Germany to withdraw part of the troops from the Western Front. In August - September 1914, Russian troops defeated the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia, in late 1914 - early 1915 - the Turkish troops in Transcaucasia. In 1915, the forces of the Central Powers, conducting a strategic defense on the Western Front, forced the Russian troops to leave Galicia, Poland, part of the Baltic States, and defeated Serbia. In 1916, after an unsuccessful attempt by German troops to break through the Allied defenses in the Verdun area (France), the strategic initiative passed to the Entente. In addition, the heavy defeat inflicted on the Austro-German troops in May - July 1916 in Galicia actually predetermined the collapse of Germany's main ally, Austria-Hungary. In August 1916, under the influence of the successes of the Entente, Romania entered the war on its side, but its troops acted unsuccessfully and at the end of 1916 were defeated. At the same time, in the Caucasian theater, the initiative continued to be retained by the Russian army, which in 1916 occupied Erzurum and Trebizond. The collapse of the Russian army that began after the February Revolution of 1917 allowed Germany and its allies to intensify their actions on other fronts, which, however, did not change the situation as a whole. After the conclusion of a separate Brest peace with Russia (March 3, 1918), the German command launched a massive offensive on the Western Front. The Entente troops, having eliminated the results of the German breakthrough, went over to the offensive, which ended in the defeat of the Central Powers. Bulgaria capitulated on September 29, 1918, Turkey on October 30, Austria-Hungary on November 3, Germany on November 11. During the First World War, about 74 million people were mobilized, the total losses amounted to about 10 million killed and over 20 million wounded.
Historical Dictionary. 2000 .
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THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914 18, a war between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers (Germany, Austria Hungary (see AUSTRIA HUNGARY), Turkey, Bulgaria) and the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, later Japan, Italy, Romania, USA ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
War between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers (Germany, Austria Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) and the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, later Japan, Italy, Romania, the USA, etc.; 34 states in total). The reason for the war ... ... Political science. Dictionary.
Imperialist., Unjust war that began in Europe between Austro-German. the bloc and coalition of England, France, Russia; subsequently, many entered the war. state of the world, military. actions also took place on D. and Bl. East, Africa, Atlantic., ... ... Soviet Historical Encyclopedia
War between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers (Germany, Austria Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) and the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, later Japan, Italy, Romania, the USA and others; 34 states in total). The reason for the war ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
World War I Clockwise: British Mark IV tank crossing the trench; Royal Navy battleship HMS Irresistible, sinking after the explosion of a naval mine in the Battle of the Dardanelles; machine gun crew in gas masks and a biplane ... ... Wikipedia
FIRST WORLD WAR 1914 1918, a war between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers (Germany, Austria Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) and the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, later Japan, Italy, Romania, USA, etc.; 34 in total ... ... Russian history
An imperialist war between two coalitions of capitalist powers for the redivision of an already divided world, the redistribution of colonies, spheres of influence and capital investment, and the enslavement of other peoples. At first, the war engulfed 8 European states: Germany and ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
the first world war 1914-18 - a war between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers (,) and the Entente (,.; a total of 38 states). The reason for the war was the murder in Sarajevo by a member of the Young Bosnia terrorist organization, the heir to the Austro ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary "World History"
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Clockwise: British Mark IV tank crossing the trench; Royal Navy battleship HMS Irresistible, sinking after a naval mine detonated in the Battle of the Dardanelles; machine gun crew in gas masks and a biplane Albatros D.III ... Wikipedia
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Allies (Entente): France, Great Britain, Russia, Japan, Serbia, USA, Italy (participated in the war on the side of the Entente since 1915).
Friends of the Entente (supported the Entente in the war): Montenegro, Belgium, Greece, Brazil, China, Afghanistan, Cuba, Nicaragua, Siam, Haiti, Liberia, Panama, Honduras, Costa Rica.
Question about the causes of the First World War is one of the most discussed in world historiography since the beginning of the war in August 1914.
The outbreak of the war was facilitated by the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. France was hatching plans to return the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of regaining its lands of Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war the possibility of rebuilding a state destroyed by the divisions of the 18th century. Many peoples inhabiting Austria-Hungary aspired to national independence. Russia was convinced that it would not be able to develop without restricting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary and expanding its influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of the countries of Central Europe under the leadership of Germany. In London, it was believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing the main enemy - Germany.
In addition, international tensions were exacerbated by a series of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905-1906; the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austrians in 1908-1909; The Balkan Wars in 1912-1913.
The immediate cause of the war was the Sarajevo murder June 28, 1914austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand nineteen-year-old Serbian student Gavrila Princip, who was a member of the secret organization "Young Bosnia", fighting for the unification of all South Slavic peoples in one state.
July 23, 1914Austria-Hungary, having enlisted the support of Germany, presented Serbia with an ultimatum and demanded that its military formations be allowed into Serbia in order to jointly with Serbian forces to suppress hostile actions.
Serbia's response to the ultimatum did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and July 28, 1914she declared war on Serbia. Russia, having received assurances of support from France, openly opposed Austria-Hungary and July 30, 1914announced a general mobilization. Germany, taking advantage of this opportunity, announced August 1, 1914 war on Russia, and August 3, 1914- France. After the German invasion August 4, 1914 to Belgium Great Britain declared war on Germany.
The First World War consisted of five campaigns. During first campaign in 1914 Germany invaded Belgium and northern France, but was defeated at the Battle of the Marne. Russia captured parts of East Prussia and Galicia (East Prussian operation and Battle of Galicia), but was then defeated by the German and Austro-Hungarian counteroffensive.
1915 campaign connected with the entry into the war of Italy, the disruption of the German plan for the withdrawal of Russia from the war and bloody fruitless battles on the Western Front.
1916 campaign associated with the entry into the war of Romania and the conduct of a grueling trench warfare on all fronts.
Campaign of 1917associated with the entry into the war of the United States, the revolutionary withdrawal of Russia from the war and a number of successive offensive operations on the Western Front (Operation Nivelle, operations in the Messines region, on Ypres, near Verdun, at Cambrai).
1918 campaigncharacterized by a transition from positional defense to a general offensive by the armed forces of the Entente. From the second half of 1918, the Allies prepared and launched retaliatory offensive operations (Amiens, Saint-Miill, Marne), during which they eliminated the results of the German offensive, and in September 1918 went over to a general offensive. By November 1, 1918, the allies liberated the territory of Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, entered after the armistice into the territory of Bulgaria and invaded the territory of Austria-Hungary. On September 29, 1918, Bulgaria concluded an armistice with the allies, on October 30, 1918 - Turkey, on November 3, 1918 - Austria-Hungary, November 11, 1918 - Germany.
June 28, 1919at the Paris Peace Conference was signed Treaty of Versailleswith Germany, which officially ended the First World War of 1914-1918.
On September 10, 1919, the Saint-Germain Peace Treaty was signed with Austria; November 27, 1919 - Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria; June 4, 1920 - Trianon Peace Treaty with Hungary; August 20, 1920 - Treaty of Sevres with Turkey.
In total, World War I lasted 1,568 days. It was attended by 38 states, in which 70% of the world's population lived. The armed struggle was fought on fronts with a total length of 2500-4000 km. The total losses of all the warring countries amounted to about 9.5 million killed and 20 million wounded. At the same time, the losses of the Entente amounted to about 6 million people killed, the losses of the Central Powers about 4 million people killed.
During the First World War, for the first time in history, tanks, aircraft, submarines, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns, mortars, grenade launchers, bomb throwers, flame throwers, super-heavy artillery, hand grenades, chemical and smoke shells, and toxic substances were used. New types of artillery appeared: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escort. Aviation became an independent branch of the armed forces, which began to be subdivided into reconnaissance, fighter and bomber. Tank troops, chemical troops, air defense troops, and naval aviation emerged. The role of engineering troops increased and the role of cavalry decreased.
The results of the First World War were the elimination of four empires: German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman, and the latter two were divided, and Germany and Russia were cut territorially. As a result, new independent states appeared on the map of Europe: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, Finland.
The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources
CHAPTER SEVEN
FIRST WAR WITH GERMANY
July 1914 - February 1917
Illustrations can be seen in a separate window in PDF:
1914 year - the beginning of the First World War, during which and, in many respects, thanks to it, there was a change in the state system and the collapse of the Empire. The war did not end with the fall of the monarchy, on the contrary, it spread from the outskirts to the interior of the country and lasted until 1920. Thus, the war, in total, went on six years.
As a result of this war, the political map of Europe ceased to exist at once THREE EMPIRE: Austro-Hungarian, German and Russian (see map). At the same time, a new state was created on the ruins of the Russian Empire - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
By the time the World War began, Europe had not experienced large-scale military conflicts for almost a hundred years, since the end of the Napoleonic Wars. All European wars from 1815 to 1914 were predominantly local in nature. At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. an illusory thought was in the air that war would be irrevocably banished from the life of civilized countries. One of the manifestations of this was the Hague Peace Conference of 1897. It is noteworthy that in May 1914 in The Hague, in the presence of delegates from numerous countries, the opening Peace Palace.
On the other hand, at the same time, the contradictions between the European powers grew and deepened. Since the 1870s, military blocs have been forming in Europe, which in 1914 will oppose each other on the battlefields.
In 1879 Germany entered into a military alliance with Austria-Hungary against Russia and France. In 1882, Italy joined this union, and the military-political Central Bloc was formed, also called Triple alliance.
In contrast, in 1891 - 1893. the Russian-French alliance was concluded. Great Britain entered into an agreement in 1904 with France, and in 1907 - with Russia. The block of Great Britain, France and Russia was named Of heartfelt consent, or Entente.
The immediate reason for the start of the war was the murder by Serbian nationalists 15 (28) June 1914 in Sarajevo the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany, presented an ultimatum to Serbia. Serbia accepted most of the terms of the ultimatum.
Austria-Hungary remained dissatisfied with this, and began military operations against Serbia.
Russia supported Serbia and announced first a partial and then a general mobilization. Germany presented Russia with an ultimatum demanding that the mobilization be canceled. Russia refused.
On July 19 (August 1), 1914 Germany declared war on her.
This day is considered the date of the beginning of the First World War.
The main participants in the war from the Entente were: Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro, Italy, Romania, USA, Greece.
They were opposed by the countries of the Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria.
Military operations took place in Western and Eastern Europe, the Balkans and Thessaloniki, Italy, the Caucasus, the Near and Far East, and Africa.
The First World War was notable for its unprecedented scale. At its final stage, it was attended by 33 states (out of 59 existing then independent states) with by a population of 87% population of the entire planet. The armies of both coalitions in January 1917 totaled 37 million people... In total, during the war, 27.5 million people were mobilized in the Entente countries, and 23 million people in the countries of the German coalition.
Unlike previous wars, the First World War was total in nature. A large part of the population of the states participating in it was involved in it in one form or another. It forced the transfer of enterprises of the main branches of industry to war production, and put the entire economy of the belligerent countries into service. The war, as always, gave a powerful impetus to the development of science and technology. Previously non-existent types of weapons appeared and began to be widely used: aviation, tanks, chemical weapons, etc.
The war lasted 51 months and 2 weeks. The total casualties were 9.5 million killed or wounded and 20 million wounded.
The First World War was of particular importance in the history of the Russian state. It became an ordeal for the country, which lost several million people at the front. Its tragic consequences were revolution, devastation, civil war and the death of old Russia. "
PROGRESS OF COMBAT OPERATIONS
Emperor Nicholas appointed his uncle, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich Jr., commander-in-chief on the Western Front. (1856 - 1929). From the very beginning of the war, Russia suffered two major defeats in Poland.
East Prussian operation lasted from August 3 to September 2, 1914. It ended with the encirclement of the Russian army at Tannenberg and the death of the general from infantry A.V. Samsonov. Then there was a defeat in the Masurian Lakes.
The first successful operation was the offensive in Galicia September 5-9, 1914, as a result of which Lvov and Przemysl were taken, and the Austro-Hungarian troops were pushed back across the San River. However, already on April 19, 1915, on this sector of the front retreat began Russian army, after which Lithuania, Galicia and Poland came under the control of the German-Austrian bloc. By mid-August 1915, Lviv, Warsaw, Brest-Litovsk and Vilno were abandoned, and, thus, the front moved to the territory of Russia.
August 23, 1915 year Emperor Nicholas II removed the lead. book Nikolai Nikolaevich from the post of commander-in-chief and took over the powers. Many military leaders considered this event fatal for the course of the war.
October 20, 1914 year Nicholas II declared war on Turkey, and hostilities began in the Caucasus. The commander-in-chief of the Caucasian Front was appointed General of Infantry N.N. Yudenich (1862 - 1933, Cannes). Here in December 1915 the Sarakamysh operation began. On February 18, 1916, the Turkish fortress Erzurum was taken, and on April 5, Trebizond was taken.
May 22, 1916 years on the Southwestern Front, the offensive of Russian troops began under the command of General A.A. Brusilov. It was the famous "Brusilov Breakthrough", but the neighboring commanders of neighboring fronts, Generals Evert and Kuropatkin, did not support Brusilov, and on July 31, 1916, he was forced to stop the offensive, fearing the encirclement of his army from the flanks.
This chapter uses documents and photographs from the state archives and from publications (Diary of Nicholas II, Memoirs of A. Brusilov, Verbatim records of State Duma meetings, poems by V. Mayakovsky). Using materials from home archives (letters, postcards, photographs), one can get an idea of \u200b\u200bhow this war affected the lives of ordinary people. Some fought at the front, those living in the rear participated in helping the wounded and refugees in the institutions of such public organizations as the Russian Society of the Red Cross, the All-Russian Zemstvo Union, the All-Russian Union of Cities.
It's a shame, but just during this most interesting period, no one has survived in our Family Archives. diaries,although perhaps no one was leading them at the time. It's good that my grandmother kept lettersthose years that her parents wrote from Chisinau and sister Ksenia from Moscow, as well as several postcards by Yu.A. Korobyina from the Caucasian front, which he wrote to his daughter Tanya. Unfortunately, the letters written by herself have not survived - from the front in Galicia, from Moscow during the Revolution, from Tambov province during the Civil War.
To somehow make up for the lack of everyday records from my relatives, I decided to search the published diaries of other participants in the events. It turned out that the Diaries were regularly kept by Emperor Nicholas II, and they are "posted" on the Internet. Reading his Diaries is boring, because from day to day in the entries the same small everyday details are repeated (like got up, "Took a walk" took reports, had breakfast, walked again, swam, played with the children, dined and drank tea, and in the evening "Dealt with documents" in the evening played dominoes or dice)... The emperor describes in detail the reviews of troops, ceremonial marches and ceremonial dinners given in his honor, but speaks very sparingly about the situation on the fronts.
I would like to remind you that the authors of diaries and letters, unlike memoirists, don't know the future, and for those who read them now, their "future" has become our "past", and we know what awaits them.This knowledge leaves a special imprint on our perception, especially because their "future" was so tragic. We see that participants and witnesses of social catastrophes do not think about the consequences and therefore do not know what awaits them. Their children and grandchildren forget about the experience of their ancestors, which is easy to see when reading the diaries and letters of contemporaries of the following wars and "perestroika". In the world of politics, too, everything is repeated with amazing monotony: after 100 years, the newspapers again write about Serbia and Albania, someone again bombing Belgrade and fighting in Mesopotamia, again there are Caucasian wars, and in the new Duma, as in the old, members are engaged in verbiage ... As if you were watching remakes of old films.
PREPARATION FOR WAR
The diary of Nicholas II serves as a background for the publication of letters from the Family Archive. The letters are printed in the places where they chronologically coincide with the entries from his Diary. The text of the records is given with abbreviations. Italic highlighted daily used verbs and phrases. Subheadings and footnotes are provided by the originator.
Since April 1914, the royal family lived in Livadia. Ambassadors, ministers and Rasputin, whom Nicholas II calls in his diary, came to the tsar Gregory... It is noticeable that Nicholas II attached special importance to meetings with him. Unlike world events, he certainly noted them in his diary. Here are some typical entries from May 1914.
DIARY OF NICHOLASII
May 15th.Walked in the morning. Had breakfastGeorgy Mikhailovich and several lancers, on the occasion of the regimental holiday ... In the afternoon played tennis. Was reading [documents] before lunch. The evening was spent with Gregory, who arrived in Yalta yesterday.
May 16th. Went for a walk quite late; it was hot. Before breakfast accepted Bulgarian military agent Sirmanov. Played good tennis in the afternoon. We drank tea in the garden. Graduated from all papers. After lunch there were the usual games.
May 18th. In the morning I went with Voeikov and examined the terrain of the future large carriageway. After mass was sunday breakfast. Played during the day. B 6 1/2 took a walkwith Alexey along the horizontal path. After lunch rode in the motor in Yalta. Seen Gregory.
THE KING'S VISIT TO ROMANIA
May 31, 1914Nicholas II left Livadia, moved to his yacht "Standart" and, accompanied by a convoy of 6 warships, went on a visit to Ferdinand von Hohenzollern (b. in 1866), which became in 1914 Romanian king... Nikolai and Koroleva were relatives along the line Saxe-Coburg-Gotha At home, the same one to which both the ruling dynasty in the British Empire and the Russian Empress (Nikolai's wife) belonged on the mother's side.
Therefore, he writes: “In the pavilion of the Queen had breakfast as a family». In the morning 2 June Nikolay arrived in Odessa, and in the evening got on the train and went to Chisinau.
VISITING CHISINAU
3rd June... Arrived in Chisinau at 9 1/2 on a hot morning. We rode around the city in carriages. The order was exemplary. From the cathedral with a procession, they went to the square, where the solemn consecration of the monument to Emperor Alexander I took place in memory of the centenary of the annexation of Bessarabia to Russia. The sun was hot. Acceptedthere and then all the volost elders of the province. Then let's go to the reception to the nobility; from the balcony they watched the gymnastics of boys and girls. On the way to the station, we visited the Zemsky Museum. In an hour 20 minutes. left Chisinau. Had breakfast in great stuffiness. At 3 o'clock we stopped in Tiraspolwhere made a review [hereinafter, parts are omitted]. Received two deputations and got on the trainwhen the refreshing rain began. Until the evening read papers .
Note by N.M. Nina Evgenievna's father, E.A. Belyavsky, a nobleman and a full state councilor, served in the Excise Department of the Bessarabian province. Together with other officials, he probably participated in the “celebrations of the consecration of the monument and in the reception of the nobility,” but my grandmother never told me about this. But at that time she also lived with Tanya in Chisinau.
June 15 (28) 1914 in Serbia, and the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne was killed by a terrorist in the city of Sarajevo archduke Franz Ferdinand.
Note by N.M... From 7 (20) to 10 (23) Julypresident of the French Republic Poincaré visited the Russian Empire. The President had to persuade the Emperor to go to war with Germany and her allies, and for this he promised the help of the allies (England and France), to whom the Emperor was in an irrevocable debt since 1905, when the bankers of the USA and Europe gave him a loan of 6 billion rubles under 6% per annum. In his Diary, Nicholas II, naturally, does not write about such unpleasant things.
Strange, but Nicholas II did not note in his Diary the assassination of the Archduke in Serbia, therefore, when reading his diary, it is not clear why Austria presented this country with an ultimatum. But he describes Poincare's visit in detail and with obvious pleasure. Writes , how "a French squadron entered the small raid of Kronstadt", with what honor the president was greeted, how the ceremonial dinner with speeches took place, after which he names his guest "Kind president ". The next day they ride with Poincaré "For review to the troops."
July 10 (23), Thursday, Nikolai escorts Poincaré to Kronstadt, and in the evening of the same day.
THE START OF THE WAR
1914. NICHOLAS'S DIARYII.
12th July.On Thursday evening Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia with requirements, of which 8 are unacceptable for an independent state. Obviously, everywhere we talk is only about this. From 11:00 to 12:00 I had a meeting with 6 ministers on the same issue and on the precautions we should take. After talking, I went with my three older daughters to the [Mariinsky] theatre.
15 (28) July 1914. Austria declared war on Serbia
July 15th.Acceptedrepresentatives of the congress of the naval clergy with his father Shavelskyin charge of. Played tennis... At 5 o'clock. let's go with our daughters to Strelnitsa to aunt Olga and drank tea with her and Mitya. B 8 1/2 accepted Sazonov, who said that austria declared war on Serbia at noon today.
July 16th.In the morning acceptedGoremykina [Chairman of the Council of Ministers]. In the afternoon played tennis... But the day was unusually restless... I was constantly called to the phone by Sazonov, or Sukhomlinov, or Yanushkevich. In addition, he was in urgent telegraphic correspondence with Wilhelm.In the evening was reading [documents] and more acceptedTatishchev, whom I am sending to Berlin tomorrow.
July 18th.The day was gray, the same was the inner mood. At 11 o'clock. a meeting of the Council of Ministers took place at the Farm. After breakfast I took the German ambassador. Walkedwith daughters. Before lunch and in the evening was engaged.
July 19 (August 1) 1914. Germany declared war on Russia.
19th July.After breakfast I called Nikolashand announced to him about his appointment as supreme commander-in-chief until my arrival in the army. Went with Alix to the Diveyevo monastery. Walked with the children.Upon returning from there learned, what Germany has declared war on us. Dined... In the evening I arrived english Ambassador Buchanan with telegram from Georgie. Long was with him answer.
Note by N.M. Nikolasha - uncle of the king, led. book Nikolai Nikolaevich. Georgie - Cousin of the Empress, King George of England. The beginning of the war with a cousin "Willie" caused Nicholas II to "lift his spirits", and, judging by the entries in his diary, this mood persisted to the end, despite constant setbacks at the front. Did he remember what the war with Japan that he had started and lost had led to? After that, the first Revolution happened after that war.
20th July.Sunday. A good day, especially in the sense uplifting... At 11 went to mass. Had breakfast alone. Signed a manifesto to declare war... From Malakhitova they went out into the Nikolaev hall, in the middle of which the manifesto was read and then a prayer service was served. The whole audience sang “Save, Lord” and “Many Years”. He said a few words. On their return, the ladies rushed to kiss their hands and batteredAlix and me. Then we went out onto the balcony on Alexandrovskaya Square and bowed to a huge mass of people. We returned to Peterhof at 7 1/4. The evening was spent calmly.
July 22nd.Yesterday Mom and came to Copenhagen from England via Berlin. From 9 1/2 to an hour continuously took... The first to arrive was Alec [the Grand Duke], who returned from Hamburg with great difficulty and barely reached the border. Germany declared war on France and directs the main onslaught on her.
July 23rd. I learned in the morning kind[??? – comp.] message: England declared war on Germanyfor the fact that the latter attacked France and in the most unceremonious manner violated the neutrality of Luxembourg and Belgium. The campaign could not begin in the best possible way for us. Took all morning and after breakfast until 4 o'clock. The last one I had french Ambassador Palaeologus, came to officially announce the break between France and Germany. Walked with the children. The evening was free [the Department - comp.].
July 24 (Aug 6) 1914. Austria declared war on Russia.
July 24th.Today Austria, finally, declared war on us. Now the situation is completely determined. Since 11 1/2 I've had meeting of the Council of Ministers... Alix went to town in the morning and returned with Victoria and Ella. I took a walk.
Historical meeting of the State Duma July 26, 1914 from. 227 - 261
STENOGRAPHIC REPORT
Greeting Emperor NicholasII
The State Council and the State Duma,
Interim speech Chairman of the State Council Golubev:
“Your Imperial Majesty! The Council of State casts down before you, the Great Sovereign, loyal feelings imbued with boundless love and all-subject thanksgiving ... The unity of the beloved Sovereign and the population of His Empire aggravates its power ... (and so on) "
Speaker of the State Duma M.V. Rodzianko: “Your Imperial Majesty! With a deep sense of delight and pride, all of Russia listens to the words of the Russian Tsar, calling his people to complete unity .... Without differences of opinion, views and convictions, the State Duma on behalf of the Russian land calmly and firmly says to its Tsar: dare, Sire, Russian people are with you ... (etc.) "
At 3 hours 37 minutes. the State Duma meeting began.
M.V. Rodzianko exclaims: "Long live the Sovereign Emperor!" (Long incessant clicks: hooray) and invites the State Duma Members to stand to listen to the Supreme Manifesto of 20 july 1914(Everybody gets up).
Supreme Manifesto
By God's Grace,
WE ARE NICHOLAS II,
Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia,
The Tsar of Poland, the Grand Duke of Finland and so on, and so on, and so on.
“We declare to all our loyal subjects:
<…> Austria hastily launched an armed attack, opening the bombardment of defenseless Belgrade... Forced, due to the circumstances, to take the necessary precautions, We ordered to bring army and navy to martial law. <…> Germany, allied with Austria, contrary to Our hopes for a century-old good neighborhood and not heeding Our assurance that the measures taken by no means have hostile goals, began to seek their immediate cancellation and, having met with a refusal, suddenly declared war on Russia.<…> In the terrible hour of trial, let internal strife be forgotten. May it be strengthened even more closely the union of the King with His people…
Chairman M.V. Rodzianko: Hurray for the Emperor! (Long incessant clicks: Hurrah).
Explanations of the ministers about the measures taken in connection with the war follow. Speakers: Chairman of the Council of Ministers Goremykin, Foreign Secretary Sazonov, Minister of Finance Barque. Their speeches were often interrupted stormy and prolonged applause, voices and clicks: "Bravo!"
After the break M.V. Rodzianko invites the State Duma to stand listening second manifesto of 26 July 1914
Supreme Manifesto
“We declare to all our loyal subjects:<…> Now Austria-Hungary has declared war on Russia, which saved it more than once. In the upcoming war of nations, We [that is, Nicholas II] are not alone: \u200b\u200btogether with Us [with Nicholas II] stood our valiant allies [Nicholas II], also forced to resort to force of arms, in order to finally eliminate the eternal threat of the German powers to the common world and calmness.
<…> May the Lord Our Almighty bless [Nicholas II] and our allied weapon, and may all of Russia rise to the feat of arms with an iron in his hands, with a cross in his heart…»
Chairman M.V. Rodzianko:Long live the Sovereign Emperor!
(Long incessant clicks: Hurrah; vote: Anthem! Members of the State Duma sing folk anthem).
[AFTER 100 YEARS THE MEMBERS OF THE DUMA OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION ARE ALSO GLORISING "THE STATE" AND SING ANTHEM !!! ]
Discussion begins on government clarifications. Social Democrats are the first to speak: from the Labor Group A.F. Kerensky (1881, Simbirsk -1970, New York) and on behalf of the RSDLP Khaustov... After them, various “Russians” (Germans, Poles, Little Russians) spoke out with assurances of their loyal feelings and intentions “to sacrifice life and property for the unity and greatness of Russia”: Baron Felkersam and Goldman from Kurland province, Yaronsky from Kletskaya, Ichas and Feldman from Kovenskaya, Lutz from Kherson. Speeches were also made: Milyukov from St. Petersburg, Count Musin-Pushkin from Moscow Province, Markov 2nd from Kursk Province, Protopopov from Simbirsk Province. other.
Against the background of the loyal verbiage that gentlemen Members of the State Duma were engaged in that day, the speeches of the socialists look like the exploits of the Gracchus brothers.
A.F. Kerensky (Saratov province): The labor group instructed me to read out the following statement: “<…> The responsibility of the governments of all European states is inescapable, in the name of the interests of the ruling classes, which have pushed their peoples into a fratricidal war.<…> Russian citizens! Remember that you have no enemies among the working classes of the belligerent countries.<…> Protecting to the end everything that is native from attempts at capture by the hostile governments of Germany and Austria, remember that this terrible war would not have happened if the great ideals of democracy - freedom, equality and brotherhood - guided the activities of governments all countries».
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Poems: “You are all cold, // Far from ours.
Can't be compared to sausage // Съ Russian black porridge.
Notes of a Petrograd layman during the Russian-German war. P.V. from. 364 - 384
August 1914.“The Germans are waging this war like the Huns, vandals and desperate super-scoundrels. They take out their failures on the defenseless population of the regions they occupy. The Germans mercilessly rob the population, impose monstrous indemnities, shoot men and women, rape women and children, destroy monuments of art and architecture, burn precious book depositories. In support of this, we cite a number of excerpts from correspondence and telegrams for this month.
<…> Confirmed is the news from the Western Front that German troops set fire to the town of Badenville, shooting women and children in it. One of the sons of Emperor Wilhelm, arriving in Badenville, delivered a speech to the soldiers in which he said that the French are savages. "Exterminate them as much as you can!" Said the prince.
Belgian envoy cites irrefutable evidence that the Germans maim and burn the villagers alive, kidnap young girls, and rape children. Near lensino villages there was a battle between the Germans and the Belgian infantry. Not a single civilian took part in this battle. Nevertheless, the German units invading the village destroyed two farms, six houses, gathered the entire male population, put them in a ditch and shot them.
London newspapers full of details about the terrible atrocities of the German troops in Louvain. The pogrom of the civilian population continued incessantly. Moving from house to house, the German soldiers indulged in robbery, violence and murder, sparing neither women, nor children, nor the elderly. The surviving members of the city council were herded into the cathedral and stabbed there with bayonets. The famous local library containing 70,000 volumes has been burned. "
It is done. Rock with a stern hand
Raised the veil of time
Before us are the faces of a new life
Worried like a wild dream.
Covering capitals and villages
Banners soared, raging.
According to the pastures of ancient Europe
The last war is going on.
And everything about which with barren heat
Fearfully they argued for centuries.
Ready to blow
Her iron hand.
But listen carefully! In cramped hearts
Summon the Tribes of the Enslaved
Bursts into a war cry.
Under the stomp of armies, thunder of guns,
A buzzing flight underneath the Newports
All that we talk about, like a miracle,
Dreamed, maybe it gets up.
So! for too long we stagnated
And Belshazzar's feast continued!
Let, let from the fiery font
The world will be transformed!
Let the bloody fall
The shaky structure of centuries, -
In the wrong illumination of glory
The world to come new!
Let the old vaults collapse
Let the pillars fall with a roar;
The beginning of peace and freedom
Let there be a terrible year of struggle!
V. MAYAKOVSKY. 1917.ANSWER!
The drum is thundering and thundering.
Calls iron to stick alive.
From every country for a slave to a slave
throw a bayonet on the steel.
For what? The earth trembles hungry, stripped.
Vaporized humanity in a blood bath
just to someone somewhere
got hold of Albania.
The anger of the pack of men is clinging,
falls on the world after blow blow
only for free Bosphorus
someone's trial took place.
Soon the world will have no unbroken rib.
And they will pull out the soul. And they will trample t and m her
just for so someone
i took control of Mesopotamia.
In the name of what does the boot trample the ground with its creaking and rude?
Who is freedom above the sky of battles? the God? Ruble!
When you get up to your full height,
you who give your life yu them?
When you throw a question in their face:
what are we fighting for?
The First World War is the first world-wide military conflict, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved.
The main reason for the war was the contradictions between the powers of two large blocs - the Entente (the coalition of Russia, England and France) and the Triple Alliance (the coalition of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy).
The reason for the start of an armed clash, a member of the Mlada Bosna organization, high school student Gavrilo Princip, during which on June 28 (all dates are given according to the new style), 1914 in Sarajevo, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife were killed.
On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia, in which it accused the country's government of supporting terrorism and demanded that its military formations be allowed into the territory. Although the Serbian government's note expressed its readiness to resolve the conflict, the Austro-Hungarian government declared that it was not satisfied and declared war on Serbia. On 28 July, hostilities broke out on the Austro-Serbian border.
On July 30, Russia announced a general mobilization, fulfilling its allied obligations to Serbia. Germany used this pretext to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3, as well as on neutral Belgium, which refused to let German troops pass through its territory. On August 4, Great Britain with its dominions declared war on Germany, on August 6 Austria-Hungary - on Russia.
In August 1914, Japan joined the hostilities, in October, Turkey entered the war on the side of the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc. In October 1915, Bulgaria joined the bloc of the so-called Central States.
In May 1915, under diplomatic pressure from Great Britain, Italy, which initially took a position of neutrality, declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany.
The main land fronts became the Western (French) and Eastern (Russian) fronts, the main naval theaters of military operations - the North, Mediterranean and Baltic seas.
Military operations began on the Western Front - German troops acted according to the Schlieffen plan, which involved a large offensive against France through Belgium. However, Germany's hopes for a quick defeat of France turned out to be untenable; by mid-November 1914, the war on the Western Front took on a positional character.
The confrontation took place along a line of trenches about 970 kilometers long along the German border with Belgium and France. Until March 1918, any, even minor, changes in the front line were achieved here at the cost of huge losses on both sides.
During the maneuvering period of the war, the eastern front was located on a strip along the border of Russia with Germany and Austria-Hungary, then - mainly on the western border strip of Russia.
The beginning of the 1914 campaign on the Eastern Front was marked by the desire of the Russian troops to fulfill their obligations to the French and to draw back German forces from the Western Front. During this period, two major battles took place - the East Prussian operation and the Battle of Galicia, during these battles the Russian army defeated the Austro-Hungarian troops, occupied Lvov and pushed the enemy back to the Carpathians, blocking the large Austrian fortress Przemysl.
However, the losses of soldiers and equipment were colossal, due to the underdevelopment of transport routes, they did not have time to arrive in time for replenishment and ammunition, so the Russian troops could not develop their success.
On the whole, the 1914 campaign ended in favor of the Entente. German troops were defeated on the Marne, Austrian - in Galicia and Serbia, Turkish - at Sarikamish. In the Far East, Japan seized the port of Jiaozhou, the Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands, which belonged to Germany, British troops seized the rest of Germany's possessions in the Pacific Ocean.
Later, in July 1915, British troops after protracted battles captured German South-West Africa (German protectorate in Africa).
The First World War was marked by the testing of new means of warfare and weapons. On October 8, 1914, an air raid took place for the first time: British planes equipped with 20-pound bombs raided the German airship workshops in Friedrichshafen.
After this raid, aircraft of a new class began to be created - bombers.
The defeat ended the large-scale Dardanelles landing operation (1915-1916) - a naval expedition, which was equipped by the Entente countries at the beginning of 1915 with the aim of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, withdrawing Turkey from the war and attracting the allies to the side Balkan states. On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian forces had driven the Russians out of almost all of Galicia and from most of Russian Poland.
On April 22, 1915, during the battles near Ypres (Belgium), Germany first used chemical weapons. After that, poisonous gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used by both warring parties regularly.
In the 1916 campaign, Germany again shifted its main efforts to the west in order to withdraw France from the war, but a powerful blow to France during the Verdun operation ended in failure. This was largely facilitated by the Russian South-Western Front, which broke through the Austro-Hungarian front in Galicia and Volyn. Anglo-French troops launched a decisive offensive on the Somme, but, despite all efforts and the attraction of huge forces and resources, they could not break through the German defenses. During this operation, the British used tanks for the first time. At sea, the largest battle of Jutland in the war took place, in which the German fleet failed. As a result of the 1916 military campaign, the Entente took over the strategic initiative.
At the end of 1916, Germany and its allies for the first time started talking about the possibility of a peace agreement. The Entente rejected this proposal. During this period, the armies of the states that actively participated in the war numbered 756 divisions, twice as many as at the beginning of the war, but they lost the most qualified military personnel. The bulk of the soldiers consisted of reserve elderly people and youth of early conscriptions, poorly trained in military-technical terms and insufficiently trained physically.
In 1917, two major events radically influenced the alignment of enemy forces. On April 6, 1917, the United States, which had held neutrality in the war for a long time, decided to declare war on Germany. One of the reasons was the incident off the southeastern coast of Ireland, when a German submarine sank the British liner Lusitania, which was sailing from the USA to England, with a large group of Americans on board, killing 128 of them.
Following the USA in 1917, China, Greece, Brazil, Cuba, Panama, Liberia and Siam entered the war on the side of the Entente.
The second major change in the confrontation of forces was caused by Russia's withdrawal from the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks who came to power signed an armistice agreement. On March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Russia renounced its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardahan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey. In total, Russia has lost about one million square kilometers. In addition, she was obliged to pay Germany an indemnity of six billion marks.
The major battles of the 1917 campaign, Operation Nivelle and Operation at Cambrai, showed the value of using tanks in battle and laid the foundation for tactics based on the interaction of infantry, artillery, tanks and aircraft on the battlefield.
On August 8, 1918, in the battle of Amiens, the German front was torn apart by the Allied forces: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight - this battle was the last major battle of the war.
On September 29, 1918, after the Entente offensive on the Thessaloniki front, Bulgaria signed an armistice, Turkey surrendered in October, and Austria-Hungary on November 3.
In Germany, popular unrest began: on October 29, 1918, in the port of Kiel, a team of two warships broke out of control and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. Mass riots began: the soldiers intended to establish in northern Germany councils of soldiers and sailors' deputies on the Russian model. On November 9, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated the throne and a republic was proclaimed.
On November 11, 1918, at the Retonde station in the Compiegne forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiegne armistice. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks, establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; transfer weapons and transport to the allies, free all prisoners. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the cancellation of the Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties, financial provisions for the payment of reparations for destruction and the return of valuables. The final terms of the peace treaty with Germany were determined at the Paris Peace Conference at the Palace of Versailles on June 28, 1919.
The First World War, which for the first time in the history of mankind covered the territories of two continents (Eurasia and Africa) and huge sea areas, radically redrawn the political map of the world and became one of the most ambitious and bloody. During the war, 70 million people were mobilized into the ranks of the armies; of these, 9.5 million were killed and died of wounds, more than 20 million were injured, and 3.5 million were crippled. The largest losses were suffered by Germany, Russia, France and Austria-Hungary (66.6% of all losses). The total cost of the war, including property losses, was estimated at between $ 208 and $ 359 billion.
The material was prepared on the basis of information from RIA Novosti and open sources
Contemporaries said that this would be a war that would put an end to all wars, and they were very wrong. World War I began on August 1, 1914 with a provocation and regicide and ended with the first Compiegne truce on November 11, 1918. The influence on the territories and countries that participated in the war was so great that it became possible to sum up its results and conclude the Treaty of Versailles only in the middle of the next, 1919 of the year. Six out of ten people around the planet have experienced this war to one degree or another. This is one of the darkest chapters in human history.
They say she was inevitable... Too strong were the disagreements between the future participants, leading to constantly creating and breaking alliances. The most inconsistent was precisely Germany, which at almost the same time tried to turn Great Britain against France and organize a continental blockade of Britain itself.
Prerequisites for the First World War
If you look at the position from which the countries were involved in the First World War 1914-1918, the reasons, in fact, will lie on the surface. England, France and Austria-Hungary at the beginning of the twentieth century sought to redistribute the world map. The main reason for this was the collapse of colonialism and prosperity only at the expense of their own satellites. The main European powers were faced with a difficult choice, since the resources important for the economy and prosperity of the country (first of all, its elite) could no longer be taken from India or Africa.
The only possible solution lurked precisely in military conflicts over raw materials, labor and territory for life. Major conflictsthat flared up on the basis of territorial claims were as follows:
How the war began
It can be said very unambiguously when World War I (WWI) began... At the end of June 1914, on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the city of Sarajevo, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Franz Ferdinand, was killed. It was a provocation by the Austrians and with the active participation of British diplomats and the press, a pretext for the escalation of the conflict in the Balkans.
The killer was a Serbian terrorist, a member of the extremist organization "Black Hand" (otherwise called "Unity or Death") Gavrilo Princip. This organization, along with other such underground movements, tried to spread nationalist sentiment throughout the Balkan Peninsula in response to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 by Austria-Hungary, initiating the Bosnian crisis.
There have already been several assassination attempts on the account of such formations. both successful and unsuccessful, on prominent political figures of the empire and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The day of the assassination attempt on the Archduke was not chosen by chance, because on June 28 he was supposed to participate in the events dedicated to the anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Such events on this date were considered by many Bosnians to be a direct insult to their national pride.
In addition to the assassination of the Archduke, these days there were several attempts to eliminate public figures who opposed the outbreak of hostilities. So, a few days before June 28, an unsuccessful attempt was made on the life of Grigory Rasputin, known, among other things, for anti-war sentiments and great influence at the court of Emperor Nicholas II. And the next day, June 29, Jean Jaures was killed. He was an influential French politician and public figure who fought against imperialist sentiments, colonialism and, like Rasputin, was an ardent opponent of the war.
UK influence
After the tragic events in Sarajevo, the two largest European powers, Germany and the Russian Empire, tried to avoid open military confrontation. But this situation did not suit the British at all and diplomatic leverage was used... So, after the murder of Franz Ferdinand by the Principle, the English press openly began to call the Serbs barbarians and call on the top of the Austro-Hungarian Empire to give them a decisive and harsh response. At the same time, through the ambassador, they created pressure on the Russian emperor, urging to provide Serbia with all possible assistance if Austria-Hungary decides on any provocations.
And she made up her mind. Almost a month after the successful assassination attempt on the heir, Serbia was presented with demands that were impossible to fulfill. For example, one of its points was the admission of police officers to the territory of a foreign state. The Serbs did not accept only this point, which, as expected, served as a declaration of war. Moreover, the first bombs fell on its capital the very next morning, which clearly indicated the readiness of the Austro-Hungarians to fight immediately.
The Russian Empire, which has always been considered a shield of Orthodoxy and Slavism, had to, after unsuccessful attempts at a diplomatic ceasefire, to declare the mobilization of the entire country. Thus, Russia's participation in the First World War was inevitable.
The course of the war
After a series of provocations the hotbed of military conflict began to flare up even faster... In about six months, two main military alliances were formed that took part in the confrontation:
1914 events
There were several major theaters of military operations - the war was raging in France, Russia, the Balkans, the Middle East and the Caucasus, and in the former colonies of Europe. The German "Schlieffen" plan, which implied lightning war, lunch in Paris and dinner in St. Petersburg, failed due to Germany's systematic underestimation of its rivals and repeated revisions of strategic tables. In general, the overwhelming majority of the participants in the war were absolutely sure about its imminent end, confidently speaking about the possibility of winning in a few months. No one expected the conflict to take on such proportions, especially on the Western Front.
First, Germany occupied Luxembourg and Belgium. At the same time, the invasion of the French into Alsace and Lorraine, important for them, was unfolding, where after the successful actions of the German army, which held back and then reversed the offensive, the situation changed dramatically. The French, instead of seizing their historical territories, ceded part of their land, without putting up enough decisive resistance. After the events called by historians "Run to the sea" and France's retention of its most important ports, a period of trench warfare followed. The confrontation severely exhausted both sides.
Eastern front was opened by an offensive on the territory of Prussia by Russian troops on August 17, and the very next day a major victory was won over the Austro-Hungarians in the Battle of Galicia. This made it possible to withdraw the empire from the confrontation with Russia for a long time.
Serbia this year knocked the Austrians out of Belgrade and took it firmly. Japan declared war on the Triple Alliance and launched a campaign to take control of the German island colonies. At the same time, in the Caucasus, Turkey entered the war with Russia, entering into a coalition with the Austrians and Germans. Thus, she cut off the country from the allies and involved in hostilities on the Caucasian front.
The failure of Russia in 1915
On the Russian front, the state of affairs has deteriorated... The army was poorly prepared for the offensive in winter, failed it and received a counter-offensive operation from the Germans in the middle of the year. Poorly organized supply of troops led to a large-scale retreat, the Germans carried out the Gorlitsky breakthrough and, as a result, received first Galicia, and then a significant part of Polish territory. After that, the stage of trench warfare began, largely due to the same reasons as in the west.
In the same year, on May 23, Italy entered the war with Austria-Hungary, which led to the collapse of the coalition. However, Bulgaria, which took part in the confrontation on her side in the same year, not only marked the rapid formation of a new union, but also accelerated the fall of Serbia.
Highlights of 1916
During this year of the war, one of its largest battles continued - battle of verdun... Due to its scale, the nature of the collisions and the consequences, it was named the Verdun meat grinder. A flamethrower was first used here. The losses of all troops amounted to over a million people. At the same time, the Russian army launched an offensive known as the Brusilov Breakthrough, pulling significant German forces away from Verdun and alleviating the Entente's situation in the region.
The year was also marked by the largest naval battle - Jutland, after which the Entente fulfilled its main goal - to dominate the region. Some members of the enemy tried already then to agree on peace negotiations.
1917: Russia's withdrawal from the war
The year 1917 was rich in major events in the war. It has already become obvious who will win. It is worth noting 
The 3 most important points for understanding the situation:
- The United States, having waited time, joined the obvious winner - the Entente.
- The revolution in Russia actually brought her out of the war.
- Germany uses submarines, hoping thereby to turn the tide of battles.
1918: German surrender
The withdrawal from active hostilities of Russia eased the state of affairs of Germany, because without the Eastern Front, she could concentrate her forces on more important things. The Brest Peace was concluded, parts of the Baltic region and the territory of Poland were occupied. After that, active operations began on the Western Front, which were not crowned with success for her. Other participants began to leave the Quarter Alliance and conclude peace treaties with the enemy. In Germany, a revolution began to flare up, forcing the emperor to leave the country. The end of the active phase of hostilities can be considered the signing of the act of surrender of Germany on November 11, 1918.
If we talk about the results of the First World War, then for almost all participating countries they were with a minus sign. Briefly point by point:
It should be noted that already then the prerequisites for the Second World War began to take shape. It was only a matter of time before the emergence of a leader who would rally the revenge-hungry inhabitants of defeated Germany.