On this page you will find information about interesting facts related to language families of the world, individual languages \u200b\u200bor their calculus systems.
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The numbers after the names of the languages \u200b\u200bindicate the number of carriers, according to Levin's book.
Indo-European family
The most studied and most common family of languages \u200b\u200bin the world. The similarity between the languages \u200b\u200bwas noted in ancient times; But awareness of what they occurred from the once existed practice, as well as the presence of an important connection with Indoran languages \u200b\u200bwas clearly stated by William Jones in 1786. Over the century, the Proto-Indo-European language has been reconstructed by scientists.
One of the bright distinguishing features of FIRE - these are changes in the root vowels in touch: rare cases of such remnants can be found in the forms of English verbs, eg: Sing / Sang / Sung. Files had a rich flexion system, three numbers (the only / dual / multiple) and three kinds.
German group.
The earliest texts in Germanic languages \u200b\u200bthat have survived to this day are a translation into the Gothic language of the Bible in the 4th century. The earliest English texts belong to the 7th century. But the English took place not from the ancient Germansky, but rather, both of these languages \u200b\u200boccurred from Protokermansky.
Italian group.
Of the several Italian languages \u200b\u200b( osksky, Umbra and Falsk) On which only one Latin has been preserved in Italy from ancient times. Some of them continued to exist in the 1st century of our era, but all modern Romanesque languages \u200b\u200boccurred from Latin. The earliest texts in Romanesque languages: texts in French 9th century AD
We have an array of texts on; The earliest are dating about 500 BC. There are many properties on Latin used and understood, like that: Venimus Ad Galliam Sed Non Currimus, "We go to Gallia, but not run", or Dulce Et Decorum Est Pro Patria Mori.Amarumet.indecorumeST.a.Vesuvio.interfici, "Sweet and defissible to die for your country. Bitterly and indecent be buried W. Vesuvia»
.
Celtic group.
Irish is one of the official languages \u200b\u200bof Ireland. In Ireland, government agencies are also called in Irish.
The earliest monuments of writing in Celtic languages \u200b\u200bbelong to 1 century - this is the inscriptions in the Gallic language.
Celtic numbers are preserved in the counting of sets in English, the so-called scores.; They are used in the counting of sheep, stitches, and in children's games. Here is an example: yan, Tan, Tethera, Pethera, Pimp, Sethera, Lethera, Hovera, Covera, Dik.
Greek group.
Miktensky Greek Epoch Language linear letter B.Related by the beginning of the 14th century BC, also belongs to this group, which was proven by Michael Ventris in 1952. Linear letter B. has nothing to do with the centuries invented later; The invented alphabet began to use a sludge alphabet.
Toroic And in - these are two extinct languages \u200b\u200bon which they once spoke in Xinjiang. Their existence became known only in the 1890s.
Albanian It was one of the last languages \u200b\u200bthat were attributed to the Indo-European family. It was replaced by a significant part of the Indo-European vocabulary.
.
Baltic group.
Slavic group.
The earliest Slavic texts belong to the 9th century.
Anatolian group.
Texts on the Hett language belonging to the 17th century BC, are today the most ancient Indo-European textswhich were discovered only about a century ago. They are the most obvious confirmation of historical and linguistic forecasting - namely postulateing sausage coefficientssonantiques.. It is proof of the existence of the so-called Laringels in Proto-Indo-European language, which there were no testimony in any language, but which were in the Hett language. On the other hand, the Hatt language turned out to be little similar to other languages, which led to the need for the reassessment of the defense. Some believe that the Hatt and Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bwere branches of the earlier "Indo-Hett" language.
Indoran group.
There are ancient inscriptions in the Persian dated 6 centuries to our era, as well as Sanskrit texts related to about 1000 BC.
In the 18th century, having acquainted with Sanskrit, European scientists revealed his similarity with Greek and Latin. It marked the beginning of philological studies that ended with the reconstruction of the proto-indeside language (chauvinistically called IndogerManisch, because German scientists were mainly involved in the study). Early it was believed that Sanskrit is closest to the defense, but with obtaining the results of linguistic studies, it turned out that it was not. Linguists retain respect for the accuracy of the grammar of ancient Sanskrit, such as Panini (Panini) (4th century BC).
Ardhamagadhi (Ardhamagadhi), one of the post-sanskrit dialects. Prakrites are the language of Jain Scripture.
Elam language
In antiquity, it was spoken in the southwestern part of Persia. The earliest inscriptions refer to 25 centresses to our era. There is no established connection with other languages, although the steering wheel, following the Macylpine, refer to Dravidian.
Dravida group
Common mostly in the southern part of India, but there are regions north, in particular, Brahi, in Pakistan, where these languages \u200b\u200bare also used. It is likely that Dravidian languages \u200b\u200bwere once distributed throughout India, but then were ousted aryskiy (Indo-European) tribes Three thousand years ago. Features of Dravidian languages, such as retroflex consonants, spread to Indian languages, and Sanskrit, in turn, had a huge impact on Dravidian languages.
Nakhali.
Genetic affiliation has been naked to a particular language family not defined. About 40% of vocabulary has similarities with vocabulary languages \u200b\u200bMunda, and some linguists refer to this language to the specified group. From numbers, 2-4 - borrowed from Dravidian languages, and 5-10 of the Indian.
Burusha
Isolated language, which is common in a remote area of \u200b\u200bthe Pakistani part of Kashmir. Language is associated with Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bdue to its four-generic system (male genus, female genus, living genus, other objects), and with the Basque language, in view of their ergative building and type of construction offer - SOV, but such only typological similarities are unlikely to serve as strong The base for establishing linguistic kinship.
Afro-Asian Family
Semitic group
Semitic languages \u200b\u200bare distinguished by flexions that have a change in vowels in relation to a troconant root. For example, the Arab KTB root produces such verb shapes as kataba. - "He wrote," katabat. "She wrote", taktubu. "you write", taka: Taba. "Make a correspondence with each other", yukattibu. "Make writing"; and nominal shapes: kita: B. "book", kutubi.: "Seller", kita: B. "writer", maktaba. "Library" and so on.
Semitic languages \u200b\u200balso have one of the most ancient letterswhich goes back to the Akkadian period of about 3000 BC. There are Canaan inscriptions dating 20 century to our era. Jewish Bible Tanakh. It was written in the period from 1200 to 200. BC.).
The earliest belong to the 4th century AD. However, example classical Arabic The language is the coran, the appearance of which is attributed to the 7th century. In the regions where Arabic is distributed, is observed digliaWhen the oral and written languages \u200b\u200bdiffer greatly. In the whole Arab world, as a standard written language (which, by the way, is also used in formal speech), a classic Arabic language is applied, on which no one speaks, as in his native language - but it is definitely taught at school. The conversational language has greatly moved away from this standard and varies from the country to the country. Non-educated Arabs from different ends of the Arab world can no longer understand each other. Egyptianthe family of languages \u200b\u200bboasts one of the most ancient written monuments (from 3000 BC). This writing has 4500 years! Even the Chinese letter appeared only approx. 2700 g BC Modern Egyptian language is a descendant of not ancient Egyptian, but ancient cough. Modern descendant of the language of pharaohs - copticis still used as the liturgical language of Egyptian Christians. Nybia, the dialect of Guandara's language belonging to the Chiangian family is known for its twelve-sized system of numbers. 12- " tù.ni ", 13 - " tù.ni.m`bé.dA " - "12 + 1", 30 - gù.me.bInì.shíd é. - "24 + 6", etc.
Sumerian language
Basque
Etruscan
Murgean language
Merochsky was the language of Mero, the ancient kingdom, located south of Egypt.
Hurritsky
Caucasian family
Caucasian languages \u200b\u200b(which many scientists are divided into two or even four unlawful families) have the characteristic order of words like Sov. and the ergative case of cases - which indicates similarity with the Basque language. This similarity led to the emergence of numerous assumptions and theories, but there was no evidence between these languages. Caucasian languages \u200b\u200bare also characterized by a pretty fancy system of consonants - in Ubeby language, for example, 82 consonant phones.
Nilo-Sugar family
Koisan family
Unusual symbols in Koisansky languages \u200b\u200b(on which they speak southwestern Africa) are clicking soundsUsed as a phoneme only in this group and some neighboring languages. Kung Language (! XU ~ ), from this family differs from other languages \u200b\u200bin that it has the largest number of phonemes: 141. In most languages, the number of the phone varies between 20 and 40.
Kordofan family
These languages \u200b\u200bare usually united with Niger-Congolese languages \u200b\u200bin the Niger-Kordofan family.
The Niger-Congolese family is not fully investigated (although some of its submissions are well classified, for example, a bow). There are no forms of reconstruction of Proto-Niger-Congolese language on a par with IE, Semitic, Austronesian, Algonkin, etc. languages.
Interesting fact about language krono: The numbers are verbs. (The same is observed in some Amerindian languages.)
Niger Congolese Family
This numerous family owns most of the languages \u200b\u200bof Africa (about the southern border of the Sahara). For the Latin alphabet, this is a real test: most of the languages \u200b\u200bof this family not only distinguish open and closed sounds. e. and about (the letter is depicted as e. and e.
, about and about
), but also a tonality. In some languages \u200b\u200bthere are words with a "floating tone", which is not associated with any syllable in the word, but is realized in general Word!
The numerical system of Niger Congolese languages \u200b\u200bis based mainly on a five-paired system. Figures "6-9", for example, often look like "5 + 1-4". Sometimes changes in the sound make a unclear the origin of the word (Wed. Spanish word once \u003d 10 + 1) or borrowing (for example, in the language of Swahili from Arabic, 6-9 are borrowed). Other ways of word formation are also possible. Sometimes a separate word is used to designate the numbers "8" (it itself was apparently formed from two fours), and "9" \u003d 8 + 1; Also, for the expression of the number "7", the word is used to designate the numbers "6". The numbers "9" and sometimes "8" can be expressed as "10 minus 1 (or 2)".
For more complex numbers, tens, and in Western languages \u200b\u200bare used, and twenty in Western languages.
The system of the yoruba numbers is characteristic of using subtraction, for example: 19 ookan.dIN.logun. = 20 — 1, 46 = 60 — 10 — 4, 315 orin.dIN.nirinwo.odin.marun. = 400 — (20 * 4) — 5.
The word "7" in Kumbundu (Language Bantu), sambuari.is derived from "6 + 2" - serving euphemism, replaces the original word denoting "7", which itself is taboo.
As can be seen from the study of the Tanzanian language Johnston in 1919 and 1970s, complex words for the designation of the numbers "6-9" are replaced in many languages \u200b\u200bby numbers borrowed from the Sugili language (which in turn were borrowed from Arabic).
Ural family
About existence ural family It was known in the 18th century. The earliest evidence of Finnish languages \u200b\u200bis the inscription in Karelian language of the 13th century, the inscriptions in Ugric and Hungarian belong to 1200g. In view of obvious typological similarities with Altai languages, the relationship between these families is not excluded.
Altai family
The real genetic classification of Altai languages \u200b\u200bcauses strong doubts: the complexity of the question is that these languages \u200b\u200bexisted in mutual contact for several thousand years, so it is not easy to separate borrowing from genetic kinship.
Korean
Korean language relationship with any other language is not established. Perhaps there is a remote connection with the Japanese and Altai languages.
Japanese language
Sino-Tibetan Family
Chinese languages \u200b\u200b- tonal like thai Languages \u200b\u200band languages hmong - But they are not closely connected with each other. Tibeto-Burmese, as a rule, are not tonal. In Chinese refer to 17th century BC.; on Tibetan - to 7 c. N.E.; on Burmese - to 12 V. AD
Chang (dzug) languages. Information on this branch of the Tibeto-Burmese family of languages \u200b\u200bonly recently fell into the field of view of Western scientists, thanks to the Chinese studies of the 80s and 90s. This family belongs to the dead today Tangut or SI language, which is clearly represented in the logographic form of the letter 11B.
Miao-Yao
Tai Cadai Languages
Thai languages \u200b\u200bwere once common in South China, right up to the Yangtze River. Tai-kadai and Chinese languages \u200b\u200bhad a strong impact on each other, so now it's not so easy to determine what was borrowed from. It used to be believed that Thai and Chinese are related to each other, but now it is a big doubt, since similarities are due to borrowing.
Austro-Insian Languages
Yumbar is the first language with which I encountered where no numbers in general. There are words meaning "little" and "a lot." It is noteworthy that neremoyseems to correspond to the concept of "one" in other Austro-Insias, for example, Rengao mó.i '?
Aynsky
Austronesian family
Austronesian family is the largest language family in the worldThere are about 1000 individual languages. The proto-Austronesian proto-Austronesian was partially reconstructed.
Often people think that linguists spend the classification of languages \u200b\u200bin families based on similar sound words. In fact, the basis is taken regular sound matches In languages, regardless of whether the words sound the same or not. Good example - the eastern group of languages \u200b\u200bSanto: words iedh. (Sakao language) and tharr. (Language Shark Bay) is absolutely not similar to sound, like the word *
vati. (proto-vanuate language). But in fact, they are all single words, indicating the connection of these languages \u200b\u200bamong themselves.
Linguist Jacques Gi reconstructed changes in words as follows. In both languages, long-lifting consonants have changed to the tooth front of the front rows, with the loss of finite vowels: *
vati -\u003e *thati -\u003e *that..
In addition, in the Sakao language, a complex shift of vowels was observed in the language, after which almost all the consonants became weakened: deaf explosive and ringing slotted, slotted and approximants (slotted sonorny) appeared: *
that -\u003e *thet -\u003e *yedh..
Finally, in the Language of Shark Bay, the final -t changed to the vibrating: *
that -\u003e *tharr.. Q.E.D.
Chukotka-Kamchatka
Yukagir
Yenisei
Gilyatsky
Indo-Pacific Macros
Indo-Pacific Macros - is a poorly studied group of 60 or more of small Language families of New Guinea. Genetic links between these languages, if any, cannot be accurately determined until the grammatical and lexical interpenetrations are carefully analyzed on a wide scale.
Australian languages
A classification of Australian languages \u200b\u200bwas carried out on small families, but to collect them together in a large family turned out to be extremely difficult. R.M. Dickson believes that the model of the genealogical tree of languages \u200b\u200bis not quite suitable for Australia. Here, most likely, the situation is as follows: hundreds of languages \u200b\u200bexisted in dynamic equilibrium, grammatical features and lexemes passed from some languages \u200b\u200bto others in various regions or throughout the continent.
Many Australian languages \u200b\u200bhave a limited set of numbers. (This does not mean that these are simple languages \u200b\u200b- these languages \u200b\u200bare quite complex). Some words denoting numbers are not a specific number, but the range of numbers.
Supplements from the language Yir Yoront (Yir Yoront), where there is a complete set of numbers, but the account in most Australian languages \u200b\u200bis stopped by 2, 3 or 4. As in many languages, the words in Yir Yororont, denoting numbers, Reference directly to the account process in hand: 5 \u003d "Whole hand", 7 \u003d "The whole hand + two fingers", 10 \u003d "Two hands".
Amerindian languages
In Indo-European languages, we are accustomed to the numbers whose roots are impossible to subjected to further analysis. In other families, the names of numbers may be derivatives that are often associated with the counting process on the fingers and legs - for example, in the language of Chocto "5" \u003d talhlhaapih. "The first (hand) is over"; Bororo "7" - iké.rAmetúya.pogé.du - "My hand, and my friend"; Klamat "8" - ndan-kSAHPTA. "Three fingers that I have bent"; Diva "11" - aTKAHAKHTOK "Down to the leg"; Shasta "20" - tsec. "Man" (it is believed that a person consists of 20 calculated limbs).
On-day
Navajo one of the Americans with the highest amount of carriers in the United States is about 100,000 people.
Greenberg united all below the submitted Americans (that is, without taking into account the Eskimo-Aleutian languages \u200b\u200band languages \u200b\u200bon-day) in a single family, amerinda. Its conclusions are based only on the "mass comparison", and not on the method of comparative analysis, which some linguists are not accepted.
North American languages \u200b\u200bhave been studied quite well, and many families are well classified here, there are reconstructed forms of proto-languages. However, with South America, the situation is different. Let's see what will be fifty years.
Almosanian languages
Algonkinsky languages
Cree is one of the Indian languages \u200b\u200bwith the highest amount of carriers in Canada -Okolol.
Cerez.
Sioux
Aztec-Tanoan macro
Naiathl (Aztec) - language known for its twenty calculus system: for example, "37" is cempoalli.oNCAXTOLLI.omome. "20 + 17". There is also a special word for "400", tzontli. (literally "hair", in the figurative sense of "abundance"). Numbers from 1 to 19 are grouped by five (for example, "17" - cAXTolli.omome. "15 and 2"), so the system can more accurately be called - "System" 5-20 ".
Otomanga Languages
The northern dialect of the Pama language is interesting for its octal calculus system.
Penouction language
Many languages \u200b\u200bof Mexico, Central America and California have a number of calculus systems, which are based on the number 10, and 20. It is not always obvious with numbers from 11 to 19, because Some of which can be complex words, as in the decimal system. However, clarity gives numbers above 19: for example, 100, this is "five to twenty", etc.
Languages \u200b\u200bMaya are distinguished by the developed letter of the letter, which was completely deciphered only in this century. In this system, there is a separate symbol for the number of zero.
Chibchansky languages
In some Amazonian languages, such as Janas, there are only the roots of numbers from 1 to 3. It does not mean at all (as some observers hastily conclude) that people can only consider before 3. They have fingers and legs, and they know How to use them for an account. If Indian Janas leaves you 20 arrows and leaves, and returning, not at least one, is the grief to you. Perhaps the lack of names for numbers allows you to invent special names every time depending on the situation.
Andean languages
Kechua is one of the most common Americans, which speaks more than 7 million people. It was this language that was the language of the Empire of the Inca, and received distribution also thanks to the missionary work of hispanic-speaking colonizers.
Inci exchanged accounting information with kipu.s (literally "nodules"), knot bundles in the form of strings. In each row, one or more numbers were recorded, and the lines were grouped into colored ligaments, sometimes the final account was made, as in the table. The numeric code was decimal; each number was represented by the number of nodules from 0 to 9; The nodules were made in different ways, so on one line it was possible to encode several numbers.
Urain language (Ruhlen) has included this language in this group, but other linguists believe that this language is isolate) has two very unusual features among all languages \u200b\u200bof the world: there is no sound / r / (for example, the word pusaq. "8" was borrowed in the form fusa-), The order of words in the proposal in this language is OVS (object-verb subject).
Equatorial group
Guarani can be considered the most efficient modern Amerindian language. It says the majority of (88%) Paraguay population - the main part of which is methius, and not clean Indians. Perhaps, therefore, the language has gained popularity in Paraguay society. In Paraguay, they can speak both in Spanish and Guarani.
G-pan-caribbean
In Bakairi language, a binary calculus system: numbers above 2 ( ahage.) are formed using a combination of words meaning "1" and "2" (although this expense ends at 6, and after that the word is repeated mERA. "this"). Connoisseurs of the computer will return that in the binary system there must be words only for "0" and "1", but for example, our own decimal system does not work so much: we have a word meaning the number "ten".
IN language Chert The word meaning the number "2" ( ponhuane), it is literally translated as "deer trail" (apparently, in view of a split imprint of a deer hoof).
Languages \u200b\u200bof Pydaj and Creole
Although the languages \u200b\u200bof this section are almost all based on Western European languages, there are languages \u200b\u200bof Ponda and Creole languages \u200b\u200bthat have taken the languages \u200b\u200bof other families. Two of them belong to the Americas: jargon Chinuk and mobilian trade language. Other examples: ponda Hamemer (based on the Omotsky language Hamer), hiri Mota (based on Austronesian language moto), kituba (based on Congolese languages), and fanagalo (Another Pijan Bantu).
Michif language is difficult to understand: (too simplified), nouns, pronouns and numeral (except 1) - French, verbs - from the language of Cree - quite complex verbs, by the way. You can not consider this tongue with your pidgin. Most likely, this language has developed in a bilingual environment.
There are also artificial languages, information about which will be no less interesting. But about them - in the following articles.
There are a large number of language families and diverse languages \u200b\u200bin the world. The latter exists more than 6000 on the planet. Most of them belong to the greatest language families in the world, which are allocated in the lexical and grammatical composition, kinship of origin and the general geographical position of their carriers. However, it should be noted that the community of residence is not always an integral factor.
In turn, the linguistic families of the world are divided into groups. They stand out by a similar principle. There are also languages \u200b\u200bthat are not related to any of the selected families, as well as so-called isolated languages. Also, scientists are made to allocate macros, i.e. Group of language families.
Indo-European family
The most fully studied is the Indo-European language family. It began to highlight it in ancient times. However, a relatively recent work began on the study of the proto-indeside language.
Indo-European language family consists of groups of languages \u200b\u200bwhose supports live in the vast territories of Europe and Asia. So, they belong to the German group. The main languages \u200b\u200bof it are English and German. Also the numerous group is the Romance, which includes French, Spanish, Italian and other languages. In addition, the Indo-European family includes the Eastern European peoples speaking the languages \u200b\u200bof the Slavic Group. It is Belarusian, Ukrainian, Russian, etc.
This language family is not the largest language in the number of languages. However, in these languages \u200b\u200bis almost half of the population of the Earth.
Afro-Asian Family
Languages \u200b\u200brepresenting Afro-Asian Language Family are used by more than a quarter of a million people. It includes Arabic, Egyptian, and Hebrew, and many others, including extinct languages.
This family is customary to divide five (six) branches. This includes the Semitic branch, Egyptian, Chadskaya, Kushitskaya, Berbero-Libyan and Omotskaya. In general, the Afro-Asian family includes more than 300 languages \u200b\u200bof the African continent and part of Asia.
However, this family is not the only one on the continent. In large quantities, especially south, in Africa there are other languages \u200b\u200bthat are not related to it. Allocate them at least 500. Almost all of them were not presented in writing to the XX century. and applied only orally. Some of them to this day are exceptionally oral.
Nilo-Sugar family
Language Families Africa also includes the Nilo-Sugar family. Nilo-Sugar Languages \u200b\u200bare presented with six language families. One of them is Songai Zarma. Languages \u200b\u200band dialects of another - the Sugar family are common in Central Sudan. There is also a mother of Mamba, the carriers of which are inhabited by Chad. Another family - Four - also spread in Sudan.
The most difficult is Shari-Nile Language Family. It, in turn, is divided into four branches, which consist of language groups. The last family is a coma - distributed in Ethiopia and Sudan.
Language families represented by Nilo-Sugar macro have significant differences between themselves. Accordingly, they present a greater complexity for linguistic researchers. In the languages \u200b\u200bof this macros, the African Asian macro was greatly influenced.
Sino-Tibetan Family
The Chinese-Tibetan language family has more than a million native speakers. First of all, it became possible due to the large number of Chinese people speaking in one of the branches of this language family in Chinese. In addition to him, Dungan language is included in this branch. They are formed in the Chinese-Tibetan family a separate branch (Chinese).
Another branch includes more than three hundred languages, which allocate as a Tibeto-Burmese branch. The carriers of its languages \u200b\u200bmake up about 60 million people.
Unlike Chinese, Burmese and Tibetan, most languages \u200b\u200bof the Sino-Tibetan family do not have a written tradition and are transmitted from generation to generation solely orally. Despite the fact that this family was deeply and for a long time, she still remains insufficiently studied and hides many not yet disclosed secrets.
North and South American languages
Currently, as you know, the overwhelming majority of Northern and South American languages \u200b\u200brefers to Indo-European or Romanesque families. Calm the new light, European colonists brought with them their own languages. However, the adverbs of the indigenous population of the American continent did not disappear at all. Many monks and missionaries who arrived from Europe to America recorded and systematized the languages \u200b\u200band dialects of the local population.
So, the languages \u200b\u200bof the North American continent of the north of this mexico were presented in the form of 25 language families. In the future, some experts have revised this separation. Unfortunately, South America was not studied as well in the linguistic terms.
Language families of Russia
All the peoples of Russia speak in languages \u200b\u200brelated to 14 linguistic families. In total, Russia has 150 different languages \u200b\u200band dialects. The basis of the country's linguistic wealth is four basic linguistic families: Indo-European, North Caucasian, Altai, Uralskaya. At the same time, most of the country's population speaks in languages \u200b\u200brelating to the Indo-European family. This part is 87 percent of the total population of Russia. Moreover, the Slavic Group takes 85 percent. It includes the Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian, which are the East Slavonic Group. These languages \u200b\u200bare very close to each other. Their carriers can almost easily understand each other. This is especially true of Belarusian and Russian languages.
Altai language family
Altai language family consists of Turkic, Tunguso-Manchurian and Mongolian linguistic groups. The difference in the number of representatives of their carriers in the country is great. For example, Mongolian is represented in Russia exclusively by Buryats and Kalmyks. But several tens of languages \u200b\u200bare counted to the Turkic group. Among them, Khakassky, Chuvash, Nogai, Bashkir, Azerbaijani, Yakut and many others.
To the group of languages \u200b\u200bof the Tunguso-Manchurskaya include Nanayan, UDEGY, Evensky and others. This group is under threat of disappearance due to the preferences of their native speakers to enjoy the Russians on the one hand, on the other - Chinese. Despite the wide and long-term study of the Altai language family, it is extremely difficult for specialists to determine the reproduction of the Altai Protep. This is due to the large number of borrowing of his carriers from other languages \u200b\u200bdue to close contact with their representatives.
Ural family
Ural languages \u200b\u200bare represented by two large families - Finno-Ugric and Sami. The first of these includes Karelians, Mariers, Komi, Udmurts, Mordva and others. In the languages \u200b\u200bof the second family, they say Enzi, Nenets, Selkup, Nganasans. The carriers of the Ural macros are largely the Hungarians (more than 50 percent) and Finns (20 percent).
The name of this family comes from the names of the Ural Range, where, as it is believed, the formation of the Ural Praäthazy took place. The languages \u200b\u200bof the Ural family had some influence on neighboring Slavic and Baltic. In the same way, the languages \u200b\u200bof the Ural family are more than twenty both in Russia and abroad.
North Caucasian family
The languages \u200b\u200bof the peoples of the North Caucasus represent a tremendous difficulty for linguists in terms of their structuring and study. In itself, the concept of the North Caucasian family is quite conditionally. The fact is that too little studied are the languages \u200b\u200bof the local population. However, thanks to the painstaking and deep work of many linguists studying this problem, it became clear how disunity and complex are many of the North Caucasian lawlessness.
Difficulties relate not only to the generally grammar, structure and rules of the language, for example, as in Tabasaran language - one of the most complex languages \u200b\u200bon the planet, but also the pronunciations that sometimes is simply not available for people who do not speak these languages.
A significant obstacle to the studies of their specialists is the inaccessibility of many mountainous regions of the Caucasus. However, this linguistic family, despite all the contradictions, is customary to divide into two groups - Nakh-Dagestan and Abkhazo-Adygh.
Representatives of the first group inhabit mainly areas of Chechnya, Dagestan and Ingushetia. These include Avarians, Lezgins, Laksi, Darginians, Chechens, Ingush, etc. The second group consists of representatives of related peoples - Kabardians, Circassians, Adygetsi, Abkhaz, etc.
Other language families
Language families of the peoples of Russia are not always extensive, uniting many languages \u200b\u200bin one family. Many of them are very small, and some are even isolated. Such nationalities first of all live in the territory of Siberia and the Far East. Thus, the Chukotka-Kamchatka family unites Chukchi, Itelmen, Koryakov. Aleuts and Eskimos speak Aleuto-Eskimo.
A large number of nationalities scattered through the enormous territory of Russia, being extremely few (several thousand people, and even less), possess their own languages \u200b\u200bthat do not enter into any well-known linguistic family. As, for example, the Nivhi, inhabiting the shores of Amur and Sakhalin, and Kets, located in the Yenisei.
However, the problem of linguistic extinction in the country continues to threaten the cultural and linguistic diversity of Russia. Under the threat of disappearance, not only individual languages \u200b\u200bare provided, but also entire language families.
All languages \u200b\u200bchange over time. Comparison of the Russian language period of the "Tale of Bygone Years", the time of A.S. Pushkin and modern shows us how much changes language Over the centuries.
If two people speaking in one language, to settle in different places, then over time, their languages \u200b\u200bwill change in many directions. First of all, they will have a different accent, then the vocabulary composition of the language will change (or under the influence of other languages, or because of natural processes). When this happens, various dialects appear; But still people speaking different dialects will be able to understand each other. If dialects continue to develop yourself, then the time will come when the oral speech cannot be understood. At this stage, people will start talking in different languages.
In the history of Western civilization there is a bright example the emergence of different languages From one. Latin language He was the language of the Roman Empire, our era. With the collapse of the empire in the 4th century different parts of Europe: Italian Peninsula, Gaul, Iberian Peninsula, Carpathians Steel from each other are isolated with the peoples who have mastered them spoken in Latin (People's Latin). Languages \u200b\u200bof these peoples began to develop independently and formed modern languages: italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian and DR.
Modern languages \u200b\u200bof India: hindi, urdu, punjabi, bengal Oz Sanskrit. language spoken in Northern India.
Ancient Peresidskygave rise to such languages \u200b\u200bas farsi, kurdish and pushta.
Over time, in the context of various migrations of peoples, one language can develop in a whole seven languages.
A group of related languages \u200b\u200bwith one common ancestor is called language family. Languages \u200b\u200bone groupsare nearby languages \u200b\u200bthat were divided in the last 1000 - 2000 years ( latinFor example, gave the beginning romanesque group Languages indo-European family).
Languages \u200b\u200bof different groups of the same family can be considered as relatedlanguages. In most families, the separation of such languages \u200b\u200boccurred more than 2,000 years ago. For each family, the timeline is different.
Inside the same family, languages \u200b\u200bhave a lot of common grammatical features and a large number of keywords, especially words of earlier origin, which indicate the overall origin. The table below provides an example of a word comparison. "month"in various Indo-European languages:
You can compare this word month In the languages \u200b\u200bof other language families (non-Indo-European).
Languages. Dialects.
The difference between the concept " language"and "dialect" It may be more political than linguistic. For example, linguistically croatian and serbian Very close to each other dialects of one language. Nevertheless, they use different writing; And people who speakers in these languages \u200b\u200bbelong to different religions: Catholic Christianity in Croatia and Orthodox Christianity in Serbia. For political reasons, these languages \u200b\u200bare considered separate.
Bulgarians consider macedonian dialect of his tongue while themselves macedonians They call it a separate language. Since Bulgaria has for a long time claimed to Macedonia as part of its own territory, the motives of each party are fully explained!
Low German(on which they say in Northern Germany) I. dutch (Netherlands) From a linguistic point of view, there are dialects of one language, but politically they are different languages. Nizhnenenecsky and swiss German languages They differ so much that those speakers in these languages \u200b\u200bmay not understand each other, however, and the other are considered to be neemcym. Between languages \u200b\u200bon which they speak in different cities Italymuch more differences than between Dutch, Norwegianand Swedish.
Basic language Iraq and Morocco Consider arab, Which and there and there is different. Official language of China Consider m. andarinsky
- the remaining languages \u200b\u200bof the republic are considered as dialects (for example cantoneseand w.) While they sometimes differ very much from each other.
Learning languages \u200b\u200band their relationships, we get an idea of \u200b\u200bthe migration of peoples with the course of history. We can also trace when plants and animal domestication occurred, the appearance of tools. Each language is a unique way of thinking. Those peoples that live in the isolated parts of the world and are not developed in the technological plan, have a less perfect language than those peoples who live in modern cities. In each language there are simple and complex parts. But the complexity of the language does not depend on the lifestyle of people speaking on it (compare the grammar of Latin and French, Old Russian and Russian).
Most languages \u200b\u200bexisting in the world are combined into families. Language family is a genetic linguistic association.
But there are isolated languages, i.e. Such that do not enter into any well-known language family.
There are still non-classified languages, which are more than 100.
Language family
In total there are about 420 language families. Sometimes families are united in macros. But at present, only theories about the existence of the Nostratic and Afrazian macros are obtained a reliable rationale.
Nostratic languages - hypothetical macros of languages, uniting several language families and languages \u200b\u200bof Europe, Asia and Africa, including Altai, Cartewelle, Dravidian, Indo-European, Urals, sometimes Afrazian and Eskimo-Aleutian languages. All the Nostratic languages \u200b\u200brise to a single nostratic defense.
Afrazian languages - Macros of languages, distributed in the northern part of Africa from the Atlantic coast and Canary Islands to the coast of the Red Sea, as well as in West Asia and on Malta Island. Group speakers in Afrazian languages \u200b\u200b(mainly these are various dialects of the Arabic language) are available in many countries outside the main range. The total number of speaking about 253 million people.
The existence of other macros remains only a scientific hypothesis that requires confirmation.
A family - This is a group definitely, but far enough related languages \u200b\u200bthat have at least 15% of the coincidences in the basic list.
Figuratively linguistic family can be represented as a tree with branches. Branches are groups of close languages. They do not have to be one level of depths, only their relative order within one family is important. Consider this issue on the example of an Indo-European family of languages.
Indo-European family
This is the most common language family in the world. It is represented on all the dwelling continents of the Earth. The number of carriers exceeds 2.5 billion. Indo-European seven languages \u200b\u200bconsider the macros of the Nostratic languages.
The term "Indo-European languages" introduced the English scientist Thomas Jung in 1813
Thomas Jung
The languages \u200b\u200bof the Indo-European family comes from a single Pyranceo European language, the carriers of which lived about 5-6 thousand years ago.
But it is impossible to define the origin of the Pyranceo European language, there are only hypotheses: they call regions such as Eastern Europe, anterior Asia, steppe territories at the junction of Europe and Asia. With the most likely the archaeological culture of the ancient Indo-Europeans, the so-called "yammy culture" can be considered, the carriers of which in the III millennium BC. e. dwells in the east of modern Ukraine and the south of Russia. This is a hypothesis, but it is confirmed by genetic studies that indicate that the source of at least part of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bin Western and Central Europe served as a wave of migration of nominal culture from the territory of the Black Sea and Volga steppes approximately 4500 years ago.
Indo-European family includes the following branches and groups: Albanian, Armenian, as well as Slavic, Baltic, German, Celtic, Italy, Romanesque, Illyrian, Greek, Anatolian (Hetto-Luvian), Iranian, Darland, Indoary, Nuristan and Torak Language Groups (Italy, Illyrian, Anatolian and Torak Group are represented only by the dead languages).
If you consider the place of the Russian language in the systematics of the Indo-European language family in levels, it will look like this:
Indo-European a family
↓
Branch: Balto-Slavic
↓
Group: Slavyanskaya
↓
Subgroup: East Slavic
↓
Language: Russian
Slavic
Isolated languages \u200b\u200b(isolates)
They are more than 100. In fact, each isolated language forms a separate family consisting of only this language. For example, Basque (Northern Spain areas and neighboring southern regions of France); Buruschi (in this language tells the people of Burisha, living in the mountainous regions of the Hunza (Kanjut) and Nagar in the north of Kashmir); Sumerian (the language of the ancient Suchmers, which was spoken in the southern interfluve in the IV-III millenniums BC.); Nivkhsky (the language of Nivkhov, common in the northern part of Sakhalin Island and in the Amguna River Basin, the influx of Amur); Eamsky (Elam - the historical region and the ancient state (III Millennium - Ser. Vi in. BC) in the south-west of modern Iran); Hadza (in Tanzania) languages \u200b\u200bare isolated. Isolated only those languages \u200b\u200bfor which there is enough data and entry into the linguistic family was not proven for them even after strengthened attempts to do so.
language families of the world
The following classifications (+ cards) are based on the book Merrit Rulen " Long Travel Guide"(A Guide to the World's Languages), released by the Publishing House of Standford University in 1987), which, in turn, relies more to the work of the Great Linguist Joseph Greenberg, who deceased on May 7, 2001. Maps and statistical data is only an approximate correspondence of reality. Mistakes are valid.
Koisan family
In this family, about 30 languages, which speak about 100,000 people. The Koisan family includes the peoples that we call Bushmen and the Gottente.
Niger-Cordofan family
The largest sub-sugar African family of languages, it includes 1,000 languages \u200b\u200bwith the number of carriers up to 200 million people. The most famous languages: Mandinka, Swahili, Yoruba and Zulu.
Nilo-Sugar family
In this family approx. 140 languages \u200b\u200band 10 million media. The most famous language: Maasai, on which the militant nomads of East Africa say.
Afro-Asian Family
This is a large language group that includes 240 languages, which speak 250 million media. It includes: Ancient Egyptian, Hebrew and Aramaic, as well as the well-known Nigerian House of Haus. Some says OK. 200 million people!
Indo-European Family (including isolates: Basque language, Burusski and Nahali)
The only large language family, Indo-European, in which is OK. 150 languages \u200b\u200bfrom 1 billion media. Among languages \u200b\u200bof this family: Hindi and Urdu (400 million), Bengali (200 million), Spanish (300 million), Portuguese (200 million), French (100 million), German (100 million), Russian (300 million), and English (400 million) in Europe and America. The number of speakers in English worldwide may reach 1 billion people.
In the region of distribution of this family of languages, 3 isolates are presented, which cannot be attributed to any family: basque languageliving in the territory between France and Spain, burusski and NakhaliWhat are located on the Indian Peninsula.
Caucasian family
Total exists 38. caucasian languagesThey say about 5 million people. The most famous: Abkhaz and Chechensky.
CARTNELY LANGUAGES Considered by many linguists as a separate family, possibly related to the Indo-European family. This includes the Georgian language.
Dravidian family
These are ancient languages India, total ok. 25, the number of carriers of 150 million people. The most famous of the languages \u200b\u200bof this family: Tamil and Telugu.
Ural-Yukagir family
This family refers 20 languages \u200b\u200bwith the number of carriers of 20 million. The most famous of the languages: Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian, Sámi - Lapland Language.
Altai family (including the isolates of Ketsky and Gilyatsky languages)
The Altai family includes about 60 languages, which speak about 250 million people. This family includes Turkish and Mongolian languages.
Many discussions are conducted in relation to this family. The first controversial question: how to classify the Altai and Ural languages \u200b\u200b(see Hashe), since they have a similar grammatical structure.
The second controversial question: Many linguists doubt that Korean, Japanese (125 million media), or Ain must be included in this family, or even that these three languages \u200b\u200bare related to each other!
Insulates are also presented here: Ketsky and Gilyatsky languages.
Chukchi-Kamchatka family (Paleosibirskaya) family
Perhaps this is the smallest family in which only 5 languages \u200b\u200bon which 23,000 carriers say. Areolet distribution of these languages \u200b\u200bis the northeast of Siberia. Many linguists believe that these are two different families.
Sino-Tibetan Family
A very significant language family, which includes about 250 languages. Only on says 1 billion people!
Languages \u200b\u200bMiao-Yao, Austro-Asian and Dai Family
Austro-Asian (Munda Languages \u200b\u200bin India and Mont-Khmer Languages \u200b\u200bin Southeast Asia) includes 150 languages, which speak 60 million people, including Vietnamese.
The family of Miao-Yao languages \u200b\u200bconsists of 4 languages, which speak 7 million people living in the south of China and Southeast Asia.
In the dwise family of 60 languages \u200b\u200band 50 million media, this includes Thai language (Siamese).
These three linguistic families are sometimes united with an Austronezian family (below) in a hypertension called Austric ( austric). On the other hand, some linguists consider Family Miao-Yao and Dais-related Chinese languages.
Austronesian family
This family includes 1000 different languages, which speak 250 million people. On Malay and Indonesian (in essence it is the same language) they say approx. 140 million among other languages \u200b\u200bof this family can be noted: Madagascarsky in Africa, Tagaloga in the Philippines, Natives of Aboriginal O.Formoses (Taiwan) - now almost displaced by Chinese - and many languages \u200b\u200bof the Pacific Ocean, from Hawaiian in the north of the Pacific to Maori in New Zealand.
Indian-Pacific and Australian Families
The Indian-Tikhokean family includes approx. 700 languages, most of them are distributed on the island of New Guinea, the number of speakers in these languages \u200b\u200bis about 3 million. Many linguists do not believe that all these languages \u200b\u200bare related to each other. In fact, some of them were not even studied! On the other hand, some believe that this family can also include Tasmansky language - now extinct.
It is possible that this family also includes 170 languages \u200b\u200bof Australian aborigines. Unfortunately, there are only 30,000 carriers of these languages \u200b\u200btoday.
Eskimo-Aleutian family
The Eskimo-Aleutian family of languages \u200b\u200bconsists of 9 languages \u200b\u200bon which OK. 85,000 people. Language Inite plays a key role in administration in Greenland (Kalallit Nunaat) and Canadian territory Nunavut.
Family of languages \u200b\u200bon-day
This family includes 34 languages \u200b\u200bwith the number of carriers approx. 200,000 people. The most famous examples: Tlingit, Heyda, Navajo and Apache.
Amerinda Family (North America)
Although many linguists do not recognize the idea of \u200b\u200buniting all the north (except Languages \u200b\u200bon Den and Eskimo-Aleuta) and South American Indian languages \u200b\u200bin one family, they are often united for convenience. The Amerinda family includes almost 600 languages, which speak more than 20 million people. In North America, the most famous languages \u200b\u200bare: Ojibva, Cree, Dakota (or SIU), Cherokee and Iroquois, Hopi and Naiathl (or Aztec), as well as Languages \u200b\u200bMaya.
Amerindia Family (South America)
The Language Map of South America includes some of the North American Substitters and others. The most famous languages: Kechua (Indian language Inca), Guarani and Caribbean. Anda's councils of languages \u200b\u200b(which includes Kechua) there are almost 9 million media!