In a polysemous word, direct and figurative meanings are distinguished. Direct directly denotes objects and phenomena of reality. Direct meaning is also called the main, primary, basic, free, nominative (call). It least depends on the combination of the word with other words in speech, most commonly, in dictionaries it usually comes first: language - 1. ʻOrgan in the oral cavity in the form of muscle growth in humans and animals`: the mucous membrane of the tongue.

The other meanings of the word, figurative, are based on the direct meaning: they are revealed only in context. 2. The language will be brought to Kiev - the `organ of speech that reproduces thought`. 3. The Russian Language Institute named after A. S. Pushkin - `means of communication of people - sound, grammatical structure`. 4. I love Lermontov's language - `style, syllable, manner of expression`. 5. I order to take the language - `captive`. 6. ... And everyone who speaks her language will call me, and the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn ... (P.) - `people, nationality`. One or another participation of a language - an organ in figurative nominations of a language - speech ability, a language that is owned by a nation or its individual representative, determines the relationship of figurative meanings with each other and with direct meaning.

The figurative meaning of the word denotes facts not directly, but through the relation to the corresponding direct meaning.

The direct meaning of the word cannot always be explained, as is the case with the word language, as well as with the words grass, bush, birch and many others. Most often, the direct meaning is primary, that is, the “oldest,” chronologically first for a given word. The primary meaning is called the original, historical meaning. It serves as the basis for the emergence and development of other, figurative, meanings. The primary meaning of the word hand - `collecting` - from the Slavic root of rekti -` to collect`. The figurative meanings of this word: 1) labor activity (experienced hands); 2) blow (raise a hand); 3) help (this is to his advantage); 4) handwriting (did not know his hand); 5) a symbol of power (change hands); 6) condition (under a cheerful hand); 7) marriage (marriage proposal), etc.

Modern Russian literary language / Ed. P. A. Lekant - M., 2009.

Introduction

The richness and variety of the vocabulary of the Russian language is noted not only by experts - scientific linguists, but also by writers and poets. One of the factors in the richness of our language is the polysemy of most words. This allows you to use them not in one specific context, but in several, sometimes completely different.

The meanings of polysemous words can be direct and figurative. Figurative meanings are involved in creating vivid figurative texts. They make the literary language richer and richer.

Purpose of work: to find examples of the use of words with direct and figurative meanings in the text of M. Sholokhov "Quiet Flows the Don".

Tasks of work:

• · Determine which values \u200b\u200bare considered direct and which are figurative;
• · Find examples of words with direct and figurative meanings in M. Sholokhov’s text “Quiet Don”.

The work consists of two chapters. The first chapter provides theoretical information on the problem of direct and figurative meanings of words. The second chapter is a list of examples illustrating the words used in the literal and figurative meanings.

Literal and figurative meaning of words in Russian

Words in Russian have two types of meanings: basic, direct meaning, and non-basic, figurative.

The direct meaning of the word is “the direct connection between the sound complex and the concept, the direct nomination”. Modern Russian literary language / Ed. P. Lekant - M .: Higher. school, 1988. - S. 9-11.

The figurative meaning is secondary; it arises on the basis of associative connections between concepts. The presence of similarity in objects is a prerequisite for the fact that the name of one object begins to be used to name another object; thus, a new, figurative meaning of the word arises.

The use of words in a figurative meaning is a universally recognized technique of expressiveness of speech. The main types of figurative meaning are metaphor and metonymy techniques.

A metaphor is “the transfer of a name from one subject to another on the basis of any similarity of their characteristics” Rozental D.E., Golub IB, Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M .: International relations, 1995. - 560 p.

The similarity of objects receiving the same name can manifest itself in different ways: they can be similar in shape (ring 1 on the hand - ring 2 of smoke); by color (gold medallion - golden curls); by function (fireplace - indoor stove and fireplace - an electric device for heating the room).

The similarity in the arrangement of two objects in relation to something (the tail of an animal - the tail of a comet), in their assessment (clear day - clear style), in the impression they make (black coverlet - black thoughts) also often serves as the basis for naming different words phenomena. Rapprochements are possible on other grounds: green strawberries - green youth (a unifying sign - immaturity); fast run - fast mind (a common sign is intensity); mountains stretch - days stretch (associative connection - extent in time and space).

Metaphorization of values \u200b\u200boften occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the talk of a stream.

It often happens that the main, initial meaning of a word is metaphorically rethought based on the convergence of objects according to various signs: a gray-haired old man - a gray-haired antiquity - a gray fog; black blanket - black 2 thoughts - black ingratitude - black Saturday - black box (by plane).

Metaphors that expand the polysemantism of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individual author’s metaphors. The former are linguistic in nature, they are frequency, reproducible, anonymous. The language metaphors that served as the source for the word to have a new meaning are mostly ugly, so they are called “dry”, “dead”: the elbow of the pipe, the bow of the boat, the tail of the train. But there can be such transfers of meaning, at which imagery is partially preserved: a flowering girl, steel will. However, the expressiveness of such metaphors is significantly inferior to the expression of individual poetic images.

Dry metaphors that generate new meanings of words are used in any style of speech (scientific: eyeball, word root; official business: point of sale, alarm signal); linguistic figurative metaphors gravitate toward expressive speech, their use in an official business style is excluded; individual copyright metaphors are the property of artistic speech, they are created by the masters of the word.

Metonymy is "the transfer of the name from one subject to another on the basis of their adjacency."

So, metonymic is the transfer of the name of the material to the product from which it is made (gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); place names - to groups of people who are there (audience - Lecture hall listens carefully to the lecturer); the names of the dishes - on its contents (porcelain dish - delicious dish); action names - on its result (engaging in embroidery - beautiful embroidery); the name of the action - to the place of action or those who perform it (crossing the mountains - underground transition); the name of the subject - on its owner (tenor - young tenor); name of the author - on his works (Shakespeare - put Shakespeare) etc.

Like a metaphor, metonymy can be not only linguistic, but also individually-authorial.

Sinekdoha - is "transferring the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa" Rozental D.E., Golub IB, Telenkova MA Modern Russian language. - M .: International relations, 1995. - 560 p .. For example, a pear is a fruit tree and a pear is the fruit of this tree.

The transference of meaning in such, for example, expressions is based on the synecdoch: the feeling of the elbow, the right hand.

word polysemous metaphor expressiveness

Many words in Russian have both direct and figurative meanings. We will talk about what this phenomenon is like, how to define a word in a figurative meaning and how this transfer takes place, in our article.

On the literal and figurative meaning of the word

Ever since the elementary grades of the school, we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, a basic one, directly related to any subject or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " output" it is “an opening in a wall or enclosure through which you can leave an enclosed space” (Another output hiding behind a secret door into the courtyard).

But apart from the direct, there is also the figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings in a single lexical unit are often numerous. So, the same word " output" this is:

1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally, we came up with a decent output from the situation);

2) the amount of production (as a result of output details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);

3) appearance on stage ( Output the protagonist was greeted with a standing ovation);

4) rock outcropping (in this place output limestone made the rocks almost white).

What influences word transfer

Depending on which particular attribute can be associated with the transfer of the name of one subject to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:

1. Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of signs of different objects).
2. Metonymy (based on the adjacency of objects).
3. Sinekdoha (transfer of general significance to its part).

The figurative meaning of the word by the similarity of functions is also considered separately.

Now let's take a closer look at each of these types.

What is a metaphor?

As mentioned above, a transfer of meaning based on the similarity of features is called a metaphor. For example, if the objects are similar in shape (the dome of the building is the dome of the sky) or in color (the golden decoration is the golden sun).

The metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:

• by function ( a heart human - the main organ a heart cities - the main district);
• by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old woman - grumbles kettle on the stove);
• by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
• on other grounds ( greeni am young people - not ripe; deep longing - it is difficult to get out of it; silk the hair is smooth; soft the look is pleasant).

The figurative meaning of a word in the case of a metaphor can also be based on the animation of inanimate objects, and vice versa. For example: a whisper of foliage, gentle warmth, steel nerves, an empty look, etc.

There are also frequent metaphorical rethinking based on the convergence of objects on seemingly different signs: gray mouse - gray fog - gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife - sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners (dangerous events) in life.

Metonymy

Another tropic using figurative words, - it is metonymy. It is possible subject to the adjacency of concepts. For example, transferring the name of the premises ( the class) to the group of children in it ( the class rose to meet the teacher) is a metonymy. The same thing happens when you transfer the name of an action to its result (deal with baking bread - fresh bakery products) or properties on their owner (have bass - a talented aria sang bass).

According to the same principles, the author’s name is transferred to his works ( Gogol - in the theater Gogol; Bach - listen Bach) or container name for the contents ( plate - he is already two plates ate). Adjacency (proximity) is also tracked when transferring the name of the material to the product made from it ( silk - it in silk walked) or tools per person working with him ( scythe - seen here scythe walked).

Metonymy is an important way of the word-formation process

With the help of metonymy, any word in a figurative meaning takes on more and more semantic loads. So, for example, the word " node " even in antiquity it turned out by transferring the meaning of “a rectangular piece of matter into which some objects are tied” (take with you knot) And today, in the dictionaries, other meanings that appeared through metonymy have been added to it:

• the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect;
• part of the mechanism, consisting of tightly interacting parts;
• important place where anything is concentrated.

Thus, as you see, the new figurative meaning of words that arose with the help of metonymy serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also allows you to save speech effort, as it makes it possible to replace the whole descriptive structure with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov"Instead of" Chekhov in the early period of his work "or" lecture hall"Instead of" people sitting indoors and listening to lecturers. "

One of the varieties of metonymy in linguistics is considered a synecdoch.

What is a synecdox

Words in a figurative meaning, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new semantic load due to some similarity or closeness of concepts. And a synecdoch is a way of pointing to an object by mentioning its characteristic detail or distinguishing feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is a transfer of the general meaning of the word to its part.

Here are some of the most common types of this trail.

How and when is the synecdocha taken

Sinekdoha always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand what words are used in a figurative meaning, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine by the sentence out of context the sentence in question: “ Beard let smoke out of the clay pipe. ” But from the previous story everything becomes clear: "A man with a thick beard sat next to the view of a seasoned sailor."

Thus, the synecdoch can be called an anaphoric path, oriented to the subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in literary texts to give them grotesque or humorous coloring.

The figurative meaning of a word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions

Some linguists also separately consider the transfer of meaning under which the condition for the existence of the same functions for phenomena is fulfilled. For example, a janitor is a person who brings cleanliness in the yard, and a janitor in a car is a window cleaner.

Also, a new meaning appeared in the word "counter", used in the meaning of "a person who counts something." Now the counter is also a device.

Depending on which words in a figurative meaning arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original meaning may disappear altogether with time.

How sometimes the transfer process affects the basic meaning of the word

As already mentioned, with the development of figurative meanings, a word can expand its semantic load. For example, the noun " the basis"Meant only:" a longitudinal thread running along the fabric web. " But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “the main part, the essence of something”, as well as “the part of the word without ending”.

Yes, the emerging figurative meaning of ambiguous words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that at the same time, some of the meanings of the word become outdated and are no longer in use. For example, the word " nature»There are several meanings:

1. Nature ( Nature attracts me with its purity).
2. Human temperament (passionate nature).
3. Natural conditions, decor (figure from nature).
4. Replacing money with goods or products (pay in kind).

But the first of the listed meanings, with which, by the way, this word was borrowed from the French language, is already outdated, in the dictionaries it is indicated by the mark "outdated." The rest, developed through the transfer based on it, are nowadays actively functioning.

How words are used in a figurative meaning: examples

Words in a figurative meaning are often used as an expressive means of fiction, the media, as well as in advertising. In the latter case, the technique of intentional collision in the subtext of different meanings of one word is very popular. So, about mineral water, an advertisement says: “A source of vivacity.” The same trick is visible in the slogan for shoe cream: "Brilliant protection."

The authors of works of art, to give them brightness and imagery, use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, the Bloc “silence blooms” or Yesenin - which has become very popular over time, “birch Rus”.

There are also words in which the transfer of meaning has become “dry”, “erased”. As a rule, we use these words not to convey attitudes to something, but to name an action or an object (go to the goal, the bow of the boat, the back of the chair, etc.). In lexicology, they are called nominative metaphors, and in dictionaries, by the way, they are not designated as figurative meanings.

False words in figurative meaning

In order for the words in the literal and figurative meaning to always appear in the text in their places and to be justified, the rules for their use must be observed.

It should be remembered that the use of a metaphor requires similarities in the characteristics of the naming object and in the meaning of the word applied to it. Meanwhile, this is not always observed, and the image used as a metaphor sometimes does not cause the necessary associations and remains unclear. For example, a journalist, speaking of a ski race, calls it "ski bullfighting" or, reporting on inanimate objects, designates their number as a duet, trio or quartet.

Such a pursuit of “prettiness” leads to the opposite result, forcing the reader to be perplexed and sometimes laugh, as in the case when it was said about Tolstoy’s portrait: “Tolstoy hung in the office by the window.”

Examples of words and phrases with figurative meanings:

As we see, the figurative meaning of a word is acquired when used together with certain words (for which such quality is not characteristic in the literal sense). For example, nerves cannot be literally made of iron, so this is a figurative meaning, but iron ore just consists of iron (the phrase has a direct meaning).

Any word in Russian has initially one or more direct meanings. That is, the word Key can mean how we close the lock on the front door and can mean water breaking from the ground. In both cases, this is the direct meaning of a multi-valued word. But almost every word in the Russian language can be given a figurative meaning. For example, in the expression key to all doorsnot a word keynot a word the door not used in its direct meaning. Here the key is the possibility of solving the problem, and the door is this very problem. The figurative meaning of words is partly used by poets, for example, in Pushkin’s famous poem, a word is a figurative meaning:

Or here is the famous youth at Bryusov, who had a burning gaze, of course, burning in a figurative sense.

The direct meaning of the word is strictly related to a certain thing, sign, action, quality, etc. A word may have a figurative meaning at points of contact, similarity with another object in form, function, color, purpose, etc.

Examples of cross-meaning words:

table (furniture) - address table, table 9 (diet);

black color - back door (utility), black thoughts (joyless);

bright room - bright mind, bright head;

dirty rag - dirty thoughts;

cold wind - cold heart;

golden cross - golden hands, golden heart;

heavy burden - heavy look;

heart valve - cardiac reception;

gray mouse - gray man.

A large number of words and figures of speech in the Russian language can be used both in the literal and figurative (figurative) sense.

The direct meaning usually completely coincides with the original meaning, the narrator means exactly what he says.

We use words in a figurative meaning in order to give imagery to our speech, to especially emphasize some quality or action.

The following examples will help feel the differencequot ;:

The language is in constant development, those words that a few decades ago were used only in the literal meaning, can begin to be used in the figurative - birdhouse - starling house, birdhouse - traffic police post, zebra - animal, zebra - pedestrian crossing.

Direct is the primary meaning of a word, figurative is secondary. I will give examples:

Gold earrings - direct meaning.

My husband gold hands - figurative meaning.

Rain worm - direct.

Book worm - figurative.

Silver the ring is straight.

Silver century - figurative.

Burning in the sky star - direct.

Star the screen is portable.

Icy sculpture is direct.

Icy a smile is figurative.

Sugar buns - direct.

Mouth sugar - figurative.

Woolen blanket - direct.

Winter has covered everything around with snow blanket - figurative.

Mink fur coat - direct.

Herring under fur coat - figurative.

Marble the stove is straight.

Marble cupcake - figurative.

The black the suit is direct.

Leave on the black day - figurative.

Sweet tea - sweet kitty, sweet music.

Crying in pain - the prison is crying (for anyone).

Soft plasticine - soft light, soft heart.

Sunny day - sunny soul, sunny smile.

Plastic bag - a social package (about vacations, sick leave).

Wolverine Hide is a corrupt hide.

Garden flowers are the flowers of life (about children).

Green fruits are the green generation.

Woodpecker (bird) - woodpecker (scammer).

Poison with pills - poison with moral violence.

The direct meaning of a word is when a word is used in the sense in which it was originally. For example: sweet porridge.

The figurative meaning of a word is when the word is not used in the literal sense, for example, a sweet deception.

In Russian, words can have both direct and figurative meanings. Under direct meaning understand the words calling the object of reality or its property. Moreover, the meaning of such words does not depend on the context, we immediately imagine what they call. For example:

Based on the direct meaning of the word, additional lexical meanings may arise, which are called portable. The figurative meaning is based on the similarity of objects or phenomena in appearance, properties, or actions performed.

Compare: stone house and stone face. In the phrase stone housequot ;, adjective stone is used in the literal meaning (solid, motionless, strong), and in the phrase “ stone face”; the same adjective is used in the figurative meaning (insensitive, unfriendly, severe).

Here are some examples of direct and figurative meanings of words:

On the basis of the figurative meaning, many stylistic figures or literary paths are built (metonymy, personification, metaphor, synecdoch, allegory, epithet, hyperbole).

There are a lot of words with direct and figurative meanings in Russian. And as a rule, all these meanings are reflected in dictionaries. From time to time it is very useful to look there.

Examples of words and phrases with figurative meaning:

• step on a rake, figuratively - get a negative experience.
• point your ears - become very attentive,
• to reel fishing rods - to leave, and not necessarily from fishing,
• a stone heart is an insensitive person
• sour mine - displeased facial expression.
• work hard - work hard
• sharp language - the ability to formulate accurate, accurate and even caustic information.

Here, I remembered.

But in fact, the fact that words can have not only a direct meaning, but also a figurative one, is very interesting.

If we talk about the direct meaning, then in the text we mean precisely the lexical meaning of a particular word. But the figurative meaning means the transfer of the meaning of the lexical original in the consequence with the comparison

Here are some examples:

A word can have both direct and figurative lexical meaning. Ambiguous words have a figurative meaning.

The direct meaning of the word - This is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the designated object, phenomenon, action, sign, immediately causes an idea about them and to the least extent depends on the context. Words most often appear in the direct sense.

Figurative meaning of the word - this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of direct.

Toy, and well. 1. A thing that serves to play. Kids toys. 2. trans. One who blindly acts of another’s will is an obedient instrument of another’s will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone’s hands.

The essence of the transfer of meaning is that the value passes to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. Thus the polysemy of the word is formed.

Depending on the basis of which attribute the value transfer occurs, distinguish three main types of value transition:

• metaphor,
• metonymy,
• synecdoche.

The direct meaning of the word

The words of our speech call objects, their signs and actions. Unambiguous words are directly related to the object of reality, they directly call the object, its sign or process of action. it direct meaning the words.

In a stream of speech, such words immediately evoke an idea of \u200b\u200bwhat they call. Their meaning does not depend on the context, for example:

Over the forest, over the field, over the villages stretched a blue sky.

The sky beckons future astronauts.

White shaggy clouds float lazily across the sky.

Most of the words of the Russian language are literal, for example:

daughter, home, grass, polite, huge.

The direct meaning of the word - This is its main lexical meaning.

Figurative meaning of the word

A word can have several lexical meanings that arise from a direct meaning. This new additional lexical meaning is called portable. It appears on the basis of the similarity of objects in appearance, by sign or performed action (function), for example:

in the phrase "Stone building" word "stone" names the material from which the building is composed, and indicates the immediate sign of the subject “Strong, solid, motionless”.

In the phrase "stone face" adjective "Stone" means " harsh, insensible " or "Unfriendly" face. In this example, the word "Stone" possesses a secondary figurative value formed on the basis of the direct value.

The essence of the transfer of meaning is that it transfers to another object, another phenomenon or process according to common points of contact in the meaning. Then one word is used as the name of several objects at once. So there is the ambiguity of words. Ambiguous words have a figurative meaning, for example:

• the blue sea - the sea of \u200b\u200bwheat - the sea to the people;
• light burden - light hand - light industry.