The entire course of events in Russia testified to the approach of a revolutionary crisis.
In the first half of 1914, the number of strikers reached almost one and a half million, surpassing the level of the initial period of the 1905 revolution.
Inseparable connection with the growth of the strike movement was also the strengthening of the "Pravdist" trend in the working environment. The anti-party "August Bloc" collapsed a year and a half after its creation.
The principled struggle of the Bolsheviks for the unity of the workers' movement met with growing support from the national Social Democratic organizations. The Polish Marxists and the Latvian Social Democracy went along with the Bolsheviks on fundamental questions.
The Bolsheviks 'great success was the conquest of the most important legal workers' organizations, primarily the largest trade unions of St. Petersburg, Moscow and other proletarian centers.
By the summer of 1914, the Bolshevik Party was followed by four-fifths of the class-conscious workers in Russia. An indicator of the growth of revolutionary sentiments in the peasantry was the behavior of the Trudoviks in the Duma, who more and more often came out together with the workers' deputies not only against the Rights, but also against the Cadets.
The movement of the masses shook the foundations of the June Third monarchy. Even the landlords and the big bourgeoisie expressed dissatisfaction with tsarism, its inability to take over the situation and prevent a new revolutionary outbreak. “We gave you good finances, give us a good policy” - these words of one of the representatives of finance capital in the Duma reflected the sentiments and demands of the imperialist bourgeoisie.
Having become economically stronger during the years of industrial growth, she increasingly talked about the need to transfer the executive power into new hands.
The landowners, in turn, demanded an end to the connivance of the syndicates and trusts, which, as the right-wingers said, would soon "dictate to the state a solution to the issue of war and peace." Kokovtsov became the target of the attacks of the "united nobility"; in early 1914 he was dismissed.
The disagreements between the landlords and the bourgeoisie had no independent meaning, but nevertheless they were symptoms of an imminent crisis at the top as one i | of the factors of the revolutionary situation in the country. “There is a political crisis of a nationwide scale in Russia,” V. I. Lenin noted back in the middle of 1913, “and, moreover, this is a crisis that concerns precisely the foundations of the state structure, and not at all any of its particulars, concerns the foundation of the building. , and not this or that extension, not this or that floor. "
Meanwhile, the international situation was aggravated. Diplomatic and then military conflicts, primarily in the Balkans, foreshadowed the approach of a pan-European war. Tsarist Russia, weakened by the Russo-Japanese war, lagged behind the main imperialist countries in the arms race. Only in 1910 began the reorganization and partial rearmament of the army.
The shipbuilding program, which provided for the reconstruction of the Baltic Fleet to replace the one that died in the Tsushima battle and a significant strengthening of the Black Sea Fleet, was to be completed only by 1917.
All this forced tsarism for the time being to seek the implementation of its foreign policy plans by diplomatic means. In addition, the leaders of the tsarist policy considered it necessary to achieve at first an internal "pacification" (a premature war, Stolypin argued at a "special meeting" in 1908, could cause a new revolution).
But diplomatic maneuvers were unsuccessful. The aggressiveness of Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Middle East and the Balkans, growing from year to year, impeded the expansion of tsarism and threatened it with the loss of its former positions. At the same time, the Russian imperialist bourgeoisie demanded an active, aggressive policy.
The ideological vestment of these demands was the slogan put forward by the Cadets to create a “Great Russia”. Tsarism was also pushed to new military adventures by its allies, guided by their own calculations.
There were differences in the ruling camp over the direction of Russia's foreign policy. Although the tsarist diplomacy after the Russo-Japanese War and the agreement with England in 1907 was finally drawn into the channel of the Anglo-French coalition, influential right-wing court circles made repeated attempts to get closer to the "kindred" German monarchy.
The aggravation of Russian-English contradictions in Iran, in the Far East strengthened the position of the pro-German course advocates.
But the Russian-German contradictions were stronger, they affected the interests of both big business and landowners - exporters of agricultural products. The preparations that had begun to revise the customs treaty with Germany (which expired in 1917) exposed these contradictions.
In practice, a departure from the Entente was no longer possible - both due to the increased financial and economic dependence of tsarism, and as a result of the far-reaching military-diplomatic rapprochement. Like the imperialists of other countries, the ruling elite of Russia began to seek salvation in the war from the rapidly brewing revolutionary crisis.
In the summer of 1914, the strike battles of the proletariat acquired a special scope and strength.
On May 28, over 30 thousand workers of the Baku oil fields went on strike. The strike, led by the Bolsheviks, was distinguished by its high level of organization and unity of action by workers of different professions and nationalities. At the request of the oil tycoons, Baku was declared martial law. Since the arrests of individual members of the movement did not work, the police and troops began to massively evict workers from the dwellings of the oil companies. The trade union of oilfield workers was dispersed. But all these measures did not break the strikers.
The events in Baku received a response throughout the country. “The victory of the Baku people is our victory,” said the workers. The tsarist government, striving to stop the movement at any cost, decided to go all the way in the use of military force. On July 3, during a rally of workers of the Putilov factory, dedicated to the events in Baku, detachments of horse and foot police who burst into the factory yard opened fire on the unarmed workers.
The reprisals against the Putilovites raised the whole of proletarian Petersburg to its feet. "We must show the gang of oppressors of the people that the working class is ready to repulse them, that it will not allow it to organize bloody pogroms ... Let the cry of protest and indignation sweep throughout St. Petersburg, throughout Russia," wrote the St. Petersburg committee of the Bolshevik party.
The appeal of the Bolsheviks to respond with a three-day strike to the provocation of the authorities was supported by the working masses.
On July 4, 90 thousand workers went on strike in St. Petersburg, on July 7 - 130 thousand, on July 8 - up to 150 thousand. In all districts of the city there were meetings, revolutionary demonstrations with red flags and the singing of the Marseillaise.
Tram traffic has ceased. At the request of the workers, shops and drinking establishments were closed. Clashes with the police became more frequent and fierce. On July 7 and 8, construction of barricades began on the Vyborg and Narva sides.
Russia was on the eve of a general political strike. The workers of Moscow, Riga and Warsaw went on strike as a sign of solidarity with the St. Petersburg proletariat. Following Baku and St. Petersburg, armed clashes between workers and the police began in Lodz.
Two streams of events intertwined: the vanguard battles of the new revolution in Russia and the international crisis that followed the Sarajevo incident and the provocative actions of the German imperialists who decided to start a war. Telegrams from Belgrade, Vienna, Berlin, Paris, London, under sensational headlines, were placed on the pages of St. Petersburg newspapers next to alarming news about the course of strikes.
While the tsar was solemnly receiving the President of the French Republic Poincaré in St. Petersburg, columns of workers took to the streets, proclaiming the Bolshevik slogans: “Down with the tsarist monarchy! Long live the struggle for a democratic republic! Long live socialism! "
The capital looked like a military camp. The city center was cut off from the proletarian outskirts. Mass arrests of Bolshevik workers began. Pravda was closed, and its editorial office was occupied by the police.
The rise of the revolution was interrupted by the world war.
The reasons for the revolutionary crisis at the beginning of the 20th century: the unresolved agrarian problem, the preservation of the absolute monarchy, the preservation of the estate system. The half-heartedness of the reform of 1861, which preserved both peasant and landlord land ownership, communal property, which hindered the capitalist mobilization of land. The problem of "segments". Preservation of the absolute monarchy in the form of autocracy under the conditions of the development of capitalism, strengthening the economic positions of the bourgeoisie with its complete political powerlessness. Preservation of the estate privileges of the nobility and their monopoly on participation in state administration in the event of a decline in economic influence.
The growing political crisis in 1902-1905 The economic crisis, the growth of the labor movement, the consolidation of the liberal and socialist parties (the formation of the RSDLP in 1898-1903, the AKP in 1902, the Union of Liberation, the nucleus of the future Cadet Party in 1904). The influence of failures in the Russian-Japanese war on the development of the social movement. An attempt to combat the growth of the labor movement with the help of legal workers' organizations created under the control of the police ("Zubatovism" and "Gaponovism").
The beginning of the revolution: the strike in St. Petersburg and the role of the Gaponov organization in it, Bloody Sunday, the events of the spring and summer of 1905 (the growth of the strike movement, the creation of Soviets in the Ural factories, the uprising on the battleship Potemkin, the Ivanovo-Voznesensk strike and the first citywide Advice). Attempts by the government to cope with the situation. Draft of the Legislative Duma. The political crisis of the autumn of 1905, the all-Russian strike, the Manifesto of October 17, its main provisions. The introduction of democratic freedoms and a legislative Duma. "Vittovsky" electoral law. Relatively large representation of peasants in the I and II Dumas as a result of the authorities' hopes for traditionalism and monarchism of the peasantry. Formation of legal political parties. December armed uprising of 1905 Events of 1906 - 1907 Convocation and dispersal of the I and II State Dumas. The upsurge of the peasant movement and the struggle of the autocracy against it. resignation of S.Yu. Witte, the appointment of P.A. Stolypin, his actions to combat the revolutionary movement, military field courts, punitive actions of the government. Third June coup, "Stolypin" electoral law. The first Russian revolution as part of a single revolutionary crisis.
Agrarian policy of the government at the beginning of the XX century. "Special meeting on the needs of the agricultural industry" and its recommendations as a basis for the agrarian reform of the early XX century. The main directions of the agrarian reform: the creation of a system of credit cooperatives, the policy of liquidating the peasant community, the organization of resettlement. The role of P.A. Stolypin in the implementation of the reform. The results of the reform implementation, their assessment.
Economic development of Russia in 1908 - 1914 Industrial boom after the crisis, the emergence of new industries, the role of military production, the persistence of problems in agriculture.
Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century. From the "golden" age to the "silver": changes in the value paradigm, the problem of the perception of the revolution by leading cultural figures.
World War I and its impact on the internal situation in Russia. The problem of the military economy, the formation of prerequisites for the socio-economic crisis of 1917
The revolutionary crisis of 1917. Development of the situation in the country from the February coup to the October coup. The coming to power of the Bolsheviks and their first measures. "Triumphal procession of the Soviets", features of the Soviet form of organization of power. Civil war in Russia. Causes of the war. Periodization. The initial period of the war. Consolidation of anti-Bolshevik forces. The role of the external factor in the civil war. A period of active confrontation between reds and whites. Defeat of Kolchak and Denikin. The main groupings during the civil war. "War Communism". The reasons for the victory of the Reds. The final period of the civil war. Defeat of Wrangel. Socio-political crisis of 1921/22 Anti-Bolshevik uprisings. The transition to NEP and its reasons. Wars with Poland and Japan. Restoring control over the outskirts, the formation of the USSR.
Requisites
The crisis of the Russian economy at the beginning of the last century was part of the global crisis that began with a strong increase in the discount and loan interest in the London financial market, which led to a worsening of the financial situation to a greater or lesser extent throughout the world and a slowdown in the inflow of foreign capital into Russia.
Meanwhile, already in the middle of 1899, signs of overproduction began to appear in Russia, and it became obvious that grunding had crossed all borders. The signal of the crisis was the bankruptcy of two largest firms in the summer of 1899 - von Derviz and S.I. Mamontov.
Simultaneously with the financial one, the stock market crisis broke out. The foundations of joint stock companies have assumed exceptional dimensions. In a relatively short period of time, numerous "joint-stock companies were created in a wide variety of sectors of the economy. During the five final nineteenth century years, 1895-1899, j the capital of joint-stock companies doubled. The incorporation was largely speculative."
Commercial credit banks willingly issued loans for securities of completely undignified enterprises, if only they were quoted on stock exchanges, and then, to maintain them at a proper height, some companies issued fictitious dividends against future income, and meanwhile, thanks to such techniques, securities were transferred to to the public at an increased price, which did not in the least correspond to the income actually received from them ...
Securities prices rose almost continuously, with the exception of 1897 and partly in 1898.
Already from the end of 1898, a strong tightness in money began to be felt on the Russian market. The founder's fever of the preceding years led to the emergence of many enterprises that had almost no capital of their own and existed only with the help of credit.
Everyone knows that the most important operation of the majority of St. Petersburg and Moscow banks was the so-called "financing" of commercial and industrial enterprises, supplying them with cash in the form of loans secured by shares and the sale of these shares. The discount operation receded into the background before new, more profitable operations, thanks to which banks took the closest part in greendering.
With extreme ease, banks distribute money through open accounts, against solo promissory notes, against shares of enterprises, caring little about how the enterprise is doing and not trying to influence this process. With no less greed, banks pounce on any participation in consortia (syndicates, as they were called in Russia) for the implementation of industrial values. Huge revenues, often 20-30%, in 1897-1898, plus the revenues of directors and those close to them, were another incentive to look at emissions as a single operation and did not give rise to thoughts about emissions as an integral part of the policy of financing industry. This was also facilitated by the fact that the management of the syndicates largely lay with foreign banks, and Russian banks had only participation, not always even associated with the simultaneous placement of securities on the domestic market.
For their own safety, the banks were forced to resort to loan cutbacks in July 1899. secured by interest-bearing securities.
The refusal of a loan was a heavy blow to many enterprises, which were supported only by credit. In August, the first large market participants crash, causing panic on the stock exchange, and at the end of September a general collapse of stock exchange values followed. Most stocks continued to fall fluctuatingly during the last quarter of 1899 and the first half of 1900. Commercial banks, which had previously generously funded the speculation of the Ir, began to curtail their operations and demand the return of their earlier loans.
The tension in the money market became particularly acute at the end of 1899: on August 3, the discount rate of the State Bank was raised to 5.72%, on September 26 - to 6%, and on December 11 - to 7%.
The gold reserves of the State Bank, which in January amounted to 1,008 million rubles, by August fell to 950 million rubles, and by the end of October - to 858 pieces. million rubles Bankruptcies and falling securities prices continued in 1900 and 1901.
The general crisis lasted more than two years, and the financial crisis that accompanied it acquired enormous strength and acuteness. This is evidenced by both Yar's rise in interest rates to a very high level, and Yar: numerous bankruptcy enterprises that covered a wide variety of enterprises, and, finally, a deep drop in the rates of securities of all sectors of the national economy.
At the beginning of the XX century. (1900 - 1903) Russia was already in the grip of an economic crisis that turned into a long depression, which lasted with some fluctuations until 1909. During this period, the government solved financial problems mainly by increasing government debt.
The tension of the reproduction process has reached its limit. But it was precisely in this that the inevitability of collapse lurked. Complaints about the lack of coal and metal, the rapid rise in prices seemed to indicate underproduction. In fact, overproduction was already hidden behind this.
Swollen demand and prices inflated by speculators and monopolists no longer reflected the real relationship between production and market capacity. High prices forced the commissioning of new capacities and the growth of coal production and metal smelting, increasing overproduction. They had a dual influence on demand. On the one hand, they imparted a largely artificial, speculative character to demand. Purchases were made in order to win on the difference in prices and put them in reserve; in order not to pay more later, or to avoid interruptions in the supply of coal and metal. The additional demand created in this way did not mean a real expansion of the market, but only forced and veiled overproduction and inevitably led to a subsequent contraction in sales. On the other hand, high prices for fuel and metal, increased construction costs, the cost of machinery, iron structures, etc., which led to the limitation of the expansion and renewal of fixed capital. Consumption began to shrink.
The main reasons for the economic crisis in Russia, the journal "Bulletin of Finance, Industry and Trade" (No. 47, 1901), published by the Ministry of Finance of Russia, named: years of industrial fever; b) irregularities in the organization and management of enterprises, caused by insufficiently careful correlation with the local conditions of production and marketing, and, in particular, the speculative nature of many newly emerged enterprises; in the inability of enterprises to meet the requirements of the national market and the disregard on the part of industrialists to study the conditions of the consumer market and stimulate popular demand. We add to this and commercial intermediation.
Trade intermediation was very expensive for the Russian industry. Trade profit was higher than production profit. So, for example, the dividends of joint-stock machine-building and mechanical enterprises, according to the reports of 1906-1908, amounted to 2-2.7%, and the dividends of trade enterprises according to the same reports - 6-7.9%. Thus, the formation of syndicates opened up a way for industry to free itself from high intermediary trade costs.
In addition, with the rapid development of the main industries, the explanation of which lies largely in the increased inflow of foreign capital, the growth of consumption was much slower. The huge masses of the population, especially the peasants, as consumers, had little sense of the rapid growth of industry. The fact that during the period under review the country experienced a number of poor harvests further exacerbated the industrial difficulties arising from the noted gap in the field of market and production relations.
The incentive for industrial development for entrepreneurs was the desire to monopolize the market, ruin competitors, relying on more advanced technology and the seizure of sources of raw materials, since the tendency to increase the production apparatus beyond the limits of its use has increased. Here there was a real danger of creating a chronic underutilization of the production apparatus, which was intensified by the policy of monopoly prices, which limited the expansion of the market and reduced the living standards of the broad masses.
This, in particular, led to the acceleration of the obsolescence of old equipment. In the second half of 1899, production began to decline in a number of industries (overproduction began in the metallurgical industry). The pace of development of the crisis in the ferrous metallurgy was restrained by railway construction; nevertheless, the sales of pig iron declined.
Thus, it can be argued that the roots of the crisis are: 1) in the contraction of credit, 2) overproduction of iron, cotton, etc.
The decline in the annual increase in the value of the gross output of Russian industry, which began in 1897, stopped in 1900, and then resumed. In 1902, this growth fell to a minimum (0.1%), but the next year it increased sharply again, exceeding the level of 1898.
The fact that during the crisis years there was no drop in the value of the gross output of Russian industry, S.G. Strumilin explained by the different timing of "the highest point of the crisis in different industries." He quite rightly asserted that "when considering the sectoral dynamics of production", a completely different picture will turn out.
It is easy to notice that the steady growth in 1900-1903. The value of production in industry as a whole was mainly due to a sharp increase in these years in the increase in the value of products in the textile and food industries, with a significant decrease in it in the oil and metalworking industries, as well as stagnation in some other industry groups.
The short-term and shallow drop in the cost of products in three branches of Russian industry - oil refining, distillery and tobacco - that occurred in 1897 was the first sign of an incipient industrial decline. The following year, it covered industries that accounted for about a quarter of the gross output of Russian industry, and in 1899 their share exceeded a third. Among these industries were such large ones as metalworking, flour milling and woolen. However, it was only after the sensational bankruptcies of the summer of 1899 that the change in the economic situation began to be realized by contemporaries.
Meanwhile, by 1901, most of the industries that experienced the crisis in the late 90s had already passed the worst times. They were replaced by other industries, as if picking up the "baton" of the crisis. In 1903, some of these industries began to emerge from the crisis. And again they were replaced by industries that did not yet know the difficulties. The different timing of the crisis in certain sectors of Russian industry, its wave-like nature, which manifested itself in the fact that in some sectors it retreated for a short time and then returned - all this to some extent explains the discrepancy between the general indicators of the dynamics of industrial production in Russia at the end 1890s - early 1900s and the assessments of the then economic situation by contemporaries.
To understand why contemporaries at the end of the 1890s did not notice the crisis phenomena in Russian industry, and in the early 900s, on the contrary, attached such importance to them, which in the light of the general indicators of the dynamics of industrial production looks exaggerated, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the fall in the cost of production in 1901-1903. turned out to be much deeper than in 1898-1900. In total, in all the industries that tested it, it was 2.3% in 1898, 1.9% in 1899, 3.0% in 1900, 19.9% in 1901, and 9.1% in 1902. %, in 1903 - 3.2%. In the largest of these industries, metalworking, the cost of production declined in the years 1899-1900. by only 1.4%, and in 1902 alone - by 8.0%.
Permanentness is a feature of the 1900-1903 crisis.
The crisis in Russia began to unfold in the late 90s in the industries producing consumer goods, manifesting itself, judging by the all-Russian data, mainly in a decrease in growth rates. The reduction in the cost of production, which has taken place in a number of industries, has been negligible. In 1901, when the industries of the second division basically came out of the crisis, it entered its new stage, covering mainly the production of means of production. Moreover, its impact on these industries turned out to be much more sensitive and manifested itself, as a rule, in a deep drop in the cost of production. And although, in the overall result, this drop was compensated by the intensified growth in the cost of products of the branches of group “B”, it was it that determined the face of the crisis.
The crisis of 1900-1903, which ended the industrial upsurge of 1893-1899, unevenly affected various industries. On the whole, it was expressed not in a halt in the progressive development of Russian industry, but in a decrease in its growth rates (in 1900-1903 they amounted to 4.7%; 3.8; 0.1 and 6.5%). Although during the years of the crisis more than three thousand industrial enterprises (mainly economically weak, unable to withstand the conditions of heightened competition) were closed, the decrease in the total volume of industrial production was not large. The reduction in the production of means of production was accompanied by an increase in the production of consumer goods. In general, in terms of the value of manufactured products, Russian industry, even during the crisis years, showed an increase of 15.1%, or an average of 3.8% per year.
However, the crisis continued with increasing force in decisive industries and in 1903, hundreds of thousands of workers were affected by total and partial unemployment during the years of the crisis. Started in 1904 the improvement of the economic situation was interrupted by the war.
The crisis in Russia was a typical crisis of general overproduction, an integral part of the global crisis. Explaining the special acuteness of the crisis, one should first of all note poverty and hunger in the countryside. The grain harvest in Russia fell from 3,024 million poods in 1899 to 2,950 million and 2,552 million in the next biennium. The poor harvest in 1901 affected the purchasing power of the countryside and deepened the crisis.
How did the crisis affect the entire industry as a whole? In 1900 - 1903. the inflow of new capital into industry fell especially sharply. In various industries, this decline was uneven. Metallurgical, machine-building and chemical enterprises were in the first place.
Another consequence of the crisis is the massive closure of enterprises both as a result of their bankruptcies and the need to cut production due to lack of orders, etc. The number of insolvent enterprises, both individual and joint-stock, large and small, in 1900-1902. was determined by hundreds, and among the insolvent, starting with the enterprises of Alchevsky, Derviz, Mamontov and others, there were large enterprises with several million rubles of fixed capital. In total, over the years of the crisis 1900-1903. closed up to 3 thousand large and medium-sized enterprises.
In this regard, the crisis had a third important consequence - the concentration of production. The ruin and closure of small enterprises was one of the ways of further concentration of big capital and the transition to monopolies.
The cycle of the 90s ended the period of transition from free competition to monopolization. This determined the following main features of the cycle and the crisis.
1. The uneven development of individual branches of the world industry has become much more acute. The difference in the growth rates of heavy and light industries has sharply increased. The production of the means of production developed incomparably faster than the production of means of consumption, especially the rapidly growing "young" industries (steel smelting, power generation, electrical engineering, etc.).
2. The uneven development of the industrialized countries has become much more acute. In Russia, the USA, Germany, the development of industry as a whole has accelerated somewhat, in England it has clearly slowed down.
3. Acute unevenness of development also affected the timing of the change in the phases of the cycle. The cyclical rise began in Russia 4-5 years, in Germany 3-4 years earlier than in the USA and England. The crisis began in Russia at the end of 1899, in the USA in 1903, and in 1900 the USA experienced a partial, intermediate crisis.
4. The influence of monopolies on the course of the cycle and the crisis was especially pronounced in the USA and Germany.
In Germany and Russia, monopoly price policies accelerated the explosion of the crisis and made it difficult to overcome it. In the phase of the rise, the monopolies widely used capital construction in the United States and Germany as a tool to consolidate their positions and defeat competitors. The policy of the monopolies was different in this respect than before, when the monopolies avoided extensive construction, since the existing production apparatus was used only to a small extent. The forced massive expansion of fixed capital by the monopolies intensified the rise, but at the same time accelerated the explosion of the crisis and increased its depth.
5. The domination of the monopolies has increased the hardships of the crisis for the population.
6. By the number of productive forces doomed to temporary inaction, the crisis of the early XX century. surpassed all previous crises, had no equal in the history of the 19th century.
The economic crisis of 1904-1909 The Russo-Japanese war, which began in the remote outskirts of the state, first of all led to the disorder of the economic life of Siberia. But the economic crisis caused by the war spread throughout the country.
Added to this was the reduction and suspension of loans by Western European banks and trading companies, which were especially eagerly used by Polish industry. For 1904-1906 was sold for the needs of the war of domestic and foreign loans and short-term liabilities of the state treasury in the amount of more than 2.2 billion rubles, which greatly worsened the state of the capital market.
The setbacks of the war, stagnation in industry and the fall in the value of the ruble had an even greater impact on the sharp decline in foreign investment in Russian industry. In addition to the general uncertainty of foreign investors in the political and economic well-being of the country, such an outflow of foreign industrial investment was also facilitated by the fall in dividends (in 1904 - to 5.15%, in 1905 - to 5.44% versus 7.84-7.03% in 1902-1903) The monetary crisis also worsened: the State Bank raised the discount to 5.38% in 1904, and to 5.64% in 1905.
The stock exchange, the banks were in a panic. In October 1905, they virtually ceased their activities, as there were no sellers or buyers. Loads rotted in transit, loans for goods were closed, exports stopped. Foreign exchanges began to intensively throw Russian funds into the market, the foreign financial world stopped loans. Russian banks, not only private commercial, but also state-owned, were in a difficult situation. In commercial banks, deposits were selected, no active operations were performed. The State Bank experienced great balance sheet stress due to the withdrawal of funds from the state treasury, increased requirements for loans against interest-bearing securities and promissory notes, an increase in emission while the gold reserve was reduced.
The war caused disruption of public finances and monetary circulation in particular.In Russia, there was a decrease in the value of gross industrial output produced for the year by 3.3%, which covered 15 industries and was most deeply manifested in the largest branch of Russian industry - cotton: 18.6%.
The harvest was low, and the industry as a whole showed an absolute decline in production (-0.1%), although some of its industries showed an all-time high growth rate. By the end of 1908, all branches of domestic industry and trade were in complete disarray.
In the fall of 1909, an upward trend emerged in the economic conjuncture of the country, and in 1910 the onset of a period of recovery became generally recognized. First of all, and most clearly, the rise was manifested in the capital market. The amount of deposits and balances on current accounts of joint-stock commercial banks since 1910 has shown a sharp, significant and steady rise. The entrepreneurs themselves, represented by the Council of Congresses of Industry and Trade Representatives, emphasized the importance of harvests and government orders.
Government measures to overcome the crisis. Tax policy. At the beginning of the XX century. taxes were the main source of income and showed an upward trend. The most significant in the framework of direct taxation of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the XX century. there was a system of tax collections from trade and industrial enterprises. Revenues from the state trade tax in 1903-1912 grew intensively: from 67.59 million rubles. in 1903 to 132.31 million rubles. in 1912, i.e. the growth was 95.7%. In the structure of tax revenues of the Russian budget, up to 80% were indirect taxes, including excise taxes and duties. A completely special type of indirect taxation was represented by the state wine monopoly, which brought the treasury significant income in 10 years (1904-1914): 805.7 million rubles, or about 80 million rubles. in year.
At the expense of the state budget, the government's ability to mitigate the crisis grew.
Crisis 1900-1903 He pushed the process of monopolization in industry and finance in Russia.
The government and the leading industrial circles considered it necessary to reorganize the weak and poorly organized enterprises, to restore the fixed capital of the enterprises that remained afloat and to strengthen them; to achieve a reduction in the cost of intermediary and trading costs through syndication and monopoly regulation of sales by the industry itself.
In November 1902, in the "Bulletin of Finance, Industry and Trade" in an official article, a clear directive was given: efforts to find a way out of the existing difficulties, they would not have encountered obstacles to their undertakings on the part of the Ministry of Finance ”(No. 47, p. 346).
Subsequently, the pressure of industrial monopolies led to the fact that all government projects to "curb" monopolistic appetites and liquidate the hunger for goods turned out to be practically unfulfilled.
Government measures in the banking sector. For a general acquaintance with the activities of commercial banks, to find out the size of financial difficulties and the degree of their severity in the period 1901-1902. by order of the Ministry of Finance, a number of audits of commercial banks were carried out. Based on the results of these audits, on April 29, 1902, a law was issued containing the following basic provisions:
1) the administration of the bank and its employees cannot use credit in this bank;
2) the government audit of the joint-stock bank is appointed at the request of a part of the shareholders, and this part must have at least 1/10 of the cash votes and own at least 1/20 of the bank's pooled capital, etc.
The assistance of the State Bank was also expressed in the form of financing of private banks and; those industrial enterprises that were associated with long-term loans with private banks.
In order to alleviate the financial crisis and provide support to banks from the end of 1899, the State Bank extended the term of rediscount bills from 3 to 8 months, expanded loans to banks secured by non-guaranteed interest-bearing securities, provided funds to reimburse further accounting for small bills, and organized a syndicate to maintain exchange-traded bills. prices.
Finally, the State Bank itself entered the path of industrial financing.
To ensure the interests of the State Bank, representatives of the Ministry of Finance have been introduced to the boards of commercial banks that owe the state bank since 1901 as members of the board of these banks.
Government measures to attract external loans. Russia at the beginning of the XX century. significantly increased its external debt, but at the same time reduced the cost of borrowing. The average interest on debt fell from 4.35% in 1892 to 3.96 in 1902. The interest on government treasury notes was lowered to three. Through conversion, redemption, exchange for the decade (1892-1902) it was achieved with an increase in annual debt by 125 million rubles, annual savings on interest payments - in the amount of about 13.5 million rubles. and on capital payments - over 18 million rubles.
"The first point of the Russian financial program for the conduct of war", according to the testimony of the Minister of Finance V.N. Kokovtsov, "consisted of external and internal loans. To cover the costs of the war in the Far East, loans were issued for 2,125 million rubles, including about a billion rubles were external borrowings.
Investment policy of the government. If foreign loans constituted a necessary element of the financial policy of the Russian government, without which it was unable to execute the state budget, then the attraction of foreign capital to industry was supposed to help eliminate the backwardness of Russia and increase its competitiveness in the world market.
A decisive role in attracting foreign capital was played by the need to activate the country's balance of payments, which was necessary to maintain the stability of the Russian ruble, which was thoroughly shaken during the Russian-Japanese war and the revolution of 1905-1907. In addition, the servicing of the domestic market by enterprises created at the expense of foreign investors was supposed to reduce the cost of imports and thereby increase the volume of national production. That is, the "import-substituting" effect of investments should have had a positive effect on the entire national economic complex of Russia.
Thus, the government's policy towards foreign capital opened the green light for the development of capitalism in Russia. Foreign investment, giving the ruling class of the empire the means to cover productive costs, made it possible to use the resources of internal accumulation for all kinds of “unproductive expenses, the purpose of which was ultimately to strengthen the economic and political positions of the state (war, the fight against the revolutionary movement, support of the landlords, etc.). NS.)" .
Crises of the early XX century. and the crisis of 2008-2009. for all their differences, they also have some common features.
1. The crisis in Russia is based on a strong dependence on the global economy. Russia is involved in the global economy (as a raw material donor) and depends on all its fluctuations.
2. The deeper the crisis became in developed markets, the greater the outflow of capital from Russia.
3. Increased degradation of the potential of the Russian industry.
4. Shift of economic activity from the production sphere to the sphere of circulation.
5. The closure of many businesses and the rise in unemployment.
6. Extremely vulnerable position of the Russian banking sector.
7. Creation of credit hype. The dubious effectiveness of many investment projects launched in the wake of the boom, but unable to withstand the crisis.
8. Increase in interest rates.
9. Lack of liquidity in banks.
10. Non-payment of loans.
11. Stock market crisis, or the fall of the stock market.
12. Build-up of corporate external debt.
After the industrial boom of the 90s. XIX century. Russia went through a severe economic crisis of 1900-1903, then a period of prolonged depression (1904-1908). In 1909-1913. the country's economy made another sharp leap. Industries producing means of production (group "A") increased their output by 83%, and industries producing consumer goods (group "B") - by 35.3%. In the same years (with the exception of 1911), high harvests were observed in Russia, which gave the country's economic development a solid foundation.
However, the socio-political processes taking place in the country led to the emergence of a revolutionary situation caused by the preservation of the remnants of feudalism (autocracy, landlord tenure, etc.).
Despite some bourgeois reforms, Russia remained an absolute monarchy. The autocracy relied on the local nobility and protected its interests. The unlimited power was manifested in the omnipotence of officials and the police, in the civil and political powerlessness of the masses. Russia was the only large European country that did not know the elements of parliamentarism. All the main strata of the population were dissatisfied with the existing autocratic system. The difficult internal political situation was aggravated by the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905.
The bourgeois democratic revolution of 1905-1907 The beginning of the revolution was "Bloody Sunday" - January 9, 1905, when a peaceful procession of 140 thousand workers of St. Petersburg to the Winter Palace was shot to submit a petition to the tsar about their needs. All over the country, "Bloody Sunday" caused a general outburst of outrage.
By its nature, the revolution of 1905-1907. in Russia it was bourgeois-democratic, since it set the tasks of a bourgeois-democratic transformation of the country: the overthrow of the autocracy, the establishment of a democratic republic, the elimination of the estate system and landlordism. In other words, its task was the revolutionary liquidation of the feudal-serf survivals that remained in the country.
In the course of the revolution, three main stages were defined:
January 9 - September 1905: political strikes and demonstrations in a number of cities; the appearance of the country's first Soviet of Workers' Deputies in Ivanovo-Voznesensk; uprising on the battleship Potemkin.
October - December 1905: October All-Russian political strike; the Tsar's Manifesto on October 17; the creation of the legislative State Duma, the defeat of the December armed uprising in Moscow.
January 1906 - June 3, 1907: the decline of the revolution, the dispersal of the 1st and 2nd State Duma; end of the revolution.
The dissolution of the State Duma on June 3, 1905 meant the final defeat and the end of the revolution. A wave of arrests, searches, and administrative deportations swept across the country. One of the organizers of the suppression of the revolution was P.A. Stolypin (1862-1911) - Chairman of the Council of Ministers and Minister of Internal Affairs. In order to avoid a new revolution, Stolypin proposed a program of reforms, in which the leading place was occupied by the agrarian reform, creating an additional social support for tsarism in the countryside in the person of rich peasants (kulaks). The agrarian reform did not give the desired results, and its author P.A. Stolypin was killed in 1911 by the SR Bagrov.
Russia's participation in the First World War. The beginning of the XX century. characterized by an exacerbation between the leading European countries, the intensification of their struggle for spheres of influence. The main contradictions were the reasons for the First World War: Anglo-German rivalry for leadership in Europe and in sea communications; Franco-German controversy over Alsace-Lorraine; Russia's rivalry with Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans.
At the beginning of the XX century. two opposing blocs of states finally took shape: the Entente (led by Russia, England, France) and the Quadruple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria). The countries of both blocs began to intensively prepare for war.
The events in the Balkans in the summer of 1914, when the heir to the Austrian throne, Erz-Duke Franz Ferdinand, was killed in Sarajevo by Serbian nationalists on June 15 (28). 13 (28) July 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia announced a general mobilization. Germany on July 19 (August 1) 1914 declared war on Russia, and two days later - on France. Belgium, Bulgaria, Italy, Japan, Turkey and other countries entered the war.
Russia entered the war unprepared: only by 1917 was it planned to complete the country's military program.
Russia's military operations unfolded in East Prussia against Germany and on the Southwestern Front against Austria-Hungary. In December 1914, Russian troops defeated the Turkish army in the Caucasus. However, in the spring and summer of 1915, due to large losses at the fronts, inconsistency in the actions of the Russian command, and most importantly, an acute shortage of weapons and ammunition, the course of military operations was unsuccessful for the Russian troops. German troops occupied Galicia, Poland, Lithuania, part of the Baltic States and Belarus.
In 1916, only the offensive of the Russian army on the Southwestern Front under the command of General A.A. Brusilov (1853-1926). But the "Brusilov breakthrough", during which the Russian army reached the Carpathians, was not supported by other fronts. Not having received resources and ammunition, Brusilov in Galicia went on the defensive, success was not developed.
Along with the setbacks at the front, the crisis in the country's economy was growing. The war required colossal costs. Budget expenditures in 1916 exceeded revenues by 76%. Taxes were sharply increased. The government launched a massive issue of money without gold backing, which led to a fall in the value of the ruble, a disruption of the entire financial system in the state, and an extraordinary rise in the cost of living.
The collapse of the economy and food difficulties forced the tsarist government in 1916 to introduce compulsory grain appropriation. Food supplies in Petrograd accounted for only half of his needs. Due to the lack of fuel in Petrograd, already in December 1916, the work of about 80 enterprises was stopped.
Failures at the fronts, the deterioration of the internal situation gave rise to disappointment and discontent with the government's policy. The growth of the revolutionary movement in the country led to the winter of 1916-1917. to the emergence of a new revolutionary situation.
February Revolution of 1917 By the end of 1916, a deep economic, political and social crisis ripened in Russia, which in February 1917 resulted in a revolution.
On February 18, a strike began at the Putilov factory; On February 25, the strike became general; On February 26, an armed uprising began; On February 27, a significant part of the army went over to the side of the revolution.
At the same time, the revolutionary workers elected the Petrograd Soviet, which was headed by the Menshevik N.S. Chkheidze (1864-1926) and Socialist-Revolutionary A.F. Kerensky (1881-1970). In the State Duma, a Provisional Committee was created, headed by M.V. Rodzianko (1859-1924). This committee, in agreement with the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, formed a Provisional Government headed by Prince G.E. Lvov (1861-1925). It included the leader of the cadet party P.N. Guchkov (1862-1936) (Minister of War and Naval), Socialist-Revolutionary A.F. Kerensky (Minister of Justice) and others. Most of the ministerial posts were occupied by representatives of the Cadet Party. Emperor Nicholas II (1868-1918) abdicated the throne under pressure from the revolutionary masses on March 2 (15), 1917.
A characteristic feature of the February Revolution was the formation of a dual power. On the one hand, the Provisional Bourgeois Government operated, and on the other, the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (in July 1917, the Soviets ceded their power to the Provisional Government).
The February Revolution, victorious in Petrograd, quickly spread throughout the country.
Peaceful development of the revolution in conditions of dual power. After the February Revolution, the main political parties operated in Russia: the Cadets, Octobrists, Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. The policy of the Provisional Government was determined by the Cadets. They were supported by the Octobrists, Mensheviks and Right Socialist-Revolutionaries. The Bolsheviks at their VII (April 1917) conference approved the course for the preparation of the socialist revolution.
In order to stabilize the situation and alleviate the food crisis, the interim government introduced a rationing system, increased purchase prices, and increased imports of meat, fish and other products. The grain appropriation system, introduced back in 1916, was supplemented with a meat one, and armed military detachments were sent to the village to forcibly confiscate grain and meat from peasants.
The provisional government in the spring and summer of 1917 experienced three political crises: April, June and July. During these crises, mass demonstrations took place under the slogans: "All power to the Soviets!", "Down with ten capitalist ministers!", "Down with the war!" These slogans were put forward by the Bolshevik Party.
The July crisis of the Provisional Government began on July 4, 1917, when a 500,000-strong demonstration took place in Petrograd under Bolshevik slogans. During the demonstration, spontaneous skirmishes took place, as a result of which more than 400 people were killed or wounded. Petrograd was declared martial law, the Pravda newspaper was closed, and an order was given to arrest V.I. Lenin and a number of other Bolsheviks. The second coalition government was formed (the first was formed on May 6 (18), 1917 as a result of the April crisis), headed by A.F. Kerensky, endowed with extraordinary powers. This meant the end of the dual power.
In late July and early August 1917, the VI Congress of the Bolshevik Party was held semi-legally in Petrograd. Due to the fact that the dual power was ended and the Soviets were powerless, the Bolsheviks temporarily removed the slogan "All power to the Soviets!" The congress proclaimed a course towards the armed seizure of power.
On September 1, 1917, Russia was proclaimed a republic, power passed to the Directory of five people under the leadership of A.F. Kerensky. At the end of September, the third coalition government was formed, headed by A.F. Kerensky.
The socio-economic and political crisis in the country continued to grow. Many industrial enterprises were closed, unemployment grew, military spending and taxes increased, inflation raged, there was a lack of food, the poorest segments of the population were faced with the threat of hunger. In the countryside there were massive peasant uprisings, unauthorized seizure of landlord lands.
October armed uprising. The Bolshevik Party, putting forward topical slogans, achieved an increase in its influence among the masses. Its ranks grew rapidly: if in February 1917 it numbered 24 thousand, in April - 80 thousand, in August - 240 thousand, then in October about 400 thousand people. In September 1917, the process of the Bolshevization of the Soviets took place; The Petrograd Soviet was headed by the Bolshevik L.D. Trotsky (1879-1940), and the Moscow Soviet - the Bolshevik V.P. Nogin (1878-1924).
In the current conditions V.I. Lenin (1870-1924) believed that the time was ripe for the preparation and conduct of an armed uprising. This issue was discussed at the meetings of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) on October 10 and 16, 1917. The Petrograd Soviet created the Military Revolutionary Committee, which turned into the headquarters for preparing the uprising. The armed uprising began on October 24, 1917. Revolutionary-minded soldiers and sailors, Red Guards workers on October 24 and 25 seize the telegraph office, bridges, train stations, a telephone exchange, and the building of the main headquarters. In the Winter Palace, the Provisional Government was arrested (except for Kerensky, who had previously left for reinforcements). The uprising from Smolny was led by V.I. Lenin.
On the evening of October 25 (November 7), 1917, the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies opened. The congress heard and accepted what was written by V.I. Lenin's address "Workers, Soldiers and Peasants", which announced the transfer of power to the Second Congress of Soviets, and in the localities - to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies. On the evening of October 26 (November 8), 1917, the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land were adopted. The congress formed the first Soviet government - the Council of People's Commissars consisting of: Chairman V.I. Lenin; Commissars: for foreign affairs L.D. Trotsky, on the affairs of nationalities I.V. Stalin (1879-1953) and others. LB was elected Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Kamenev (1883-1936), and after his resignation Ya.M. Sverdlov (1885-1919).
On November 3, 1917, Soviet power was established in Moscow and the "triumphal march" of Soviet power began throughout the country.
One of the main reasons for the rapid spread of the Bolshevik Soviets throughout the country was that the October Revolution was carried out under the banner of not so much socialist as general democratic tasks.
Question 29. The socio-economic crisis in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century.
By the beginning of the XX century. Russia was an agrarian-industrial country, in terms of the absolute size of industrial production, it entered the five largest industrial powers in the world.
The largest branches of the factory industry at that time were food and textile - they accounted for more than half of the total value of industrial products. Thanks to the incentive measures of the tsarist government (protective customs duties, the provision of large orders and subsidies to factories), such branches of heavy industry as mechanical engineering, which provided the Russian railways with rolling stock, and marginal metallurgy, which produced rails for them, gradually took root.
The powerful industrial upsurge that began in 1893 continued until the end of the 90s and played an important role in the formation of the sectoral structure of Russian industry. The products of the entire large industry as a whole for the years 1893-1900 almost doubled, and heavy industries - even 3 times. The nature of this rise was largely determined by railway construction, carried out on state investments - by 1892 the length of the railway network was 31 thousand km, in 1893-1902. was built 27 thousand km. Railroad construction created a steady demand for metal, coal, timber and other materials and was one of the reasons for the industrial boom.
The development of individual industrial areas was uneven. The mining and mining industry in the south of Russia grew exceptionally fast. For the years 1890-1899. the share of the south in the total extraction of iron ore increased from 21.6 to 57.2%, in pig iron smelting from 24.3 to 51.8%, in iron and steel production from 17.8 to 44%. The industry of the Urals presented a different picture: its share in metallurgical production decreased from 67% in the 70s to 28% in 1900.
An important feature of Russian industry was the high concentration of production. The use of organizational forms and technologies of large-scale capitalist production developed in the West, foreign investment, government orders and subsidies - all this contributed to the emergence and growth of large enterprises. The high level of concentration of production was one of the reasons that began in the 80-90s of the XIX century. the process of monopolization, when marketing associations arose that operated under the guise of entrepreneurial unions (the Union of Rail Manufacturers, the Union of Manufacturers of Rail Fasteners, the Wagon Union, etc.). In the second half of the 1990s, Russian banks began to merge with industry, which manifested itself in the emergence of "spheres of interest" for the largest industrial banks. By 1900, the St. Petersburg International Bank was interested in more than 20, and the St. Petersburg Accounting and Loan Bank - in almost 30 enterprises. The rapid rates of industrial growth of the 90s became possible in many respects thanks to the economic policy of the Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte. In 1894 the wine monopoly was introduced, which significantly increased the state income. An important measure of his financial policy was the monetary reform of 1897: thanks to the funds collected as a result of higher taxes, increased production and purchase of gold, and the conclusion of foreign loans, it became possible to put gold coins into circulation instead of paper bills, which helped to attract foreign capital to Russia and strengthen monetary country system. Then a reform of commercial and industrial taxation was carried out, and from 1898 the trade tax began to be levied.
In 1900, the world economic crisis broke out, which spread to Russia, but here its effect was incomparably stronger than in any other country. In 1902, the crisis reached its greatest depth, and later, until 1909, the industry was in a state of stagnation, although formally the crisis lasted only until 1903. The crisis began in light industry, but with the greatest force it hit the branches of heavy industry - metallurgical and mechanical engineering. If, in general, industrial production in Russia during the crisis of 1900-1903. decreased by 5%, and the consumption of cotton is quite insignificant - by 0.6%, then pig iron smelting decreased by 15%, rail rental - by 32%, the production of steam locomotives and carriages - by 25-37%. During these three years, more than 3 thousand enterprises were closed, which employed 112 thousand workers. The death of many small and medium-sized enterprises stimulated the emergence of monopolistic associations in the early 900s - from the simplest cartels to fully established syndicates. In the early 900s, an organizational form of commercial legalization of marketing monopolies - syndicates - was found. They acted under the guise of a specially established trading company, to which its founders - members of the association transferred the right to sell monopolized products. In the early 900s, monopolies were established in all major branches of Russian industry. In the early years of the XX century. monopolies arose mainly in the most concentrated branches of heavy industry. But the concentration in their hands of the most important sources of raw materials and fuel had a profound effect on the entire structure of industry. Certain branches of industry producing consumer goods were also included in the process of monopolization.
Crisis 1900-1903 was a turning point in the beginning process of merging banks and industry. The government provided support to large banks that suffered significant losses during the crisis, relying on which they took an active part in the "financial reorganization" of faltering enterprises. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, despite the rapid pace of industrial production, the overall appearance of the country was largely determined by agriculture, which provided almost half of the national income and covered 78% of the total population (according to the 1897 census). The main producer of grain during this period was the peasant economy, which provided 88% of the gross grain harvest and about 50% of the marketable one, and the prosperous peasantry, which accounted for "/ in all households, gave 38% of the gross harvest and 34% of the marketable grain. However, the capitalization of the peasant economy proceeded slowly. This was due to the survivals of serfdom (landlord ownership, peasant commune, redemption payments, class incompleteness of the peasantry.) The main obstacle was peasant land shortages. tithes per landlord farm, then 10.5 million ruined peasant farms had 75 million dessiatines, or an average of 7 dessiatines per farm. amounted to 2.6 tithes. The main feature of the development of agriculture in Porefo During the same period, there was the growth of commercial entrepreneurial agriculture and the associated specialization of individual economic regions of the country. At the beginning of the XX century. the steppe provinces of the south and the Volga region were finally defined as areas of grain production for sale, mainly for export. The northern, Baltic and central provinces became an area for cattle breeding and dairy farming. The northwestern provinces specialized in the production of flax, and the cultivation of sugar beets was concentrated in the Ukraine and in the Central Black Earth Zone. Among the largest world powers, only the United States and Russia had the opportunity to conduct extensive agriculture and animal husbandry due to the availability of free land. Due to the increase in sowing, the main increase in the annual harvest of grain took place. A significant part of the peasantry was reduced to a beggarly state through labor labor, bonded rent, and unbearable taxes. This was evidenced by the growth in the arrears of government fees. By the average salary, arrears were in 1896-1900. 119% (in 1871 this ratio was 22%). In 1891-1892. the peasantry of the European part of Russia experienced a terrible famine. But even in relatively prosperous years, a significant part of the peasants were malnourished. The situation in the impoverished, hungry Russian village became more and more explosive. The peculiarity of the historical development of Russia was the huge, ever-widening gap between the rapidly developing industry and agriculture, the development of which was hampered by the remnants of serfdom.
REVOLUTION 1905 - 1907: REASONS, STAGES, SIGNIFICANCE.
At the beginning of the twentieth century. social and political contradictions in Russia sharply escalated, which led to the first revolution in its history of 1905-1907. The reasons for the revolution: the indecision of the agrarian-peasant, workers' and national issues, the autocratic system, complete political powerlessness and the absence of democratic freedoms, the deterioration of the material situation of the working people due to the economic crisis of 1900-1903. and a shameful defeat for tsarism in the Russian-Japanese war of 1904-1905.
The tasks of the revolution are the overthrow of the autocracy and the establishment of a democratic system, the elimination of class inequality, the abolition of landlord ownership and the allotment of land to the peasants, the introduction of an 8-hour working day, and the achievement of equality for the peoples of Russia.
The revolution was attended by workers and peasants, soldiers and sailors, the intelligentsia. Therefore, in terms of the goals and composition of the participants, it was national and had a bourgeois-democratic character.
There are several stages in the history of the revolution.
The reason for the revolution was Bloody Sunday. On January 9, 1905, workers were shot in St. Petersburg, who were going to the tsar with a petition containing a request for an improvement in their financial situation and political demands. 1,200 people were killed and about 5,000 were wounded. In response, the workers took up arms.
The first stage (January 9 - the end of September 1905) - the beginning and development of the revolution along the ascending line. The main events of this stage were: the spring-summer demonstration of workers in Moscow, Odessa, Warsaw, Baku (about 800 thousand people); the creation in Ivanovo-Voznesensk of a new body of workers' power - the Council of authorized deputies; the uprising of sailors on the battleship "Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky"; mass movement of peasants.
The second stage (October - December 1905) - the highest upsurge of the revolution. Main events: the general All-Russian October political strike (more than 2 million participants) and as a result the publication of the Manifesto on October 17 "On the improvement of state order", in which the tsar promised to introduce some political freedoms and convene the State Duma; December strikes and uprisings in Moscow, Kharkov, Chita and other cities.
The government suppressed all armed uprisings. The bourgeois-liberal strata, frightened by the scope of the movement, withdrew from the revolution and began to create their own political parties: the Constitutional Democratic Party (the Cadets) and the October 17 Union (Octobrists).
The third stage (January 1906 - June 3, 1907) - the decline and retreat of the revolution. Main events: political strikes of workers; a new scale of the peasant movement; uprisings of sailors in Kronstadt and Sveaborg.
The center of gravity in the social movement has shifted to polling stations and the State Duma.
The First State Duma, which was trying to radically solve the agrarian question, was dissolved 72 days after its opening by the tsar, who accused it of "inciting unrest."
The Second State Duma lasted 102 days. It was dissolved in June 1907. The pretext for the dissolution was the accusation of the deputies of the Social Democratic faction of preparing a coup d'etat.
Revolution 1905 - 1907 was defeated for a number of reasons - the army did not completely go over to the side of the revolution; there was no unity in the party of the working class; there was no alliance between the working class and the peasantry; the revolutionary forces were not sufficiently experienced, organized and conscious.
Despite the defeat, the revolution of 1905 - 1907. was of great importance. The supreme power was forced to change the political system of Russia. The creation of the State Duma testified to the beginning of the development of parliamentarism. The socio-political situation of Russian citizens has changed:
democratic freedoms were introduced, trade unions and legal political parties were allowed;
the material situation of the workers improved: wages increased and a 10-hour working day was introduced;
the peasants achieved the abolition of redemption payments.
The internal political situation in Russia has temporarily stabilized.