For all connoisseurs of Russian history, the name of Peter 1 will forever remain associated with the period of reform in almost all spheres of life in Russian society. And one of the most important in this series was the military reform.
Throughout his reign, Peter the Great fought. All his military campaigns were directed against serious opponents - Sweden and Turkey. And in order to wage endless exhausting, and besides, offensive wars, a well-equipped, combat-ready army is needed. Actually, the need to create such an army was the main reason for the military reforms of Peter the Great. The process of transformation was not instantaneous, each stage took place at its own time and was caused by certain events in the course of hostilities.
It cannot be said that the tsar began reforming the army from scratch. Rather, he continued and expanded the military innovations conceived by his father Alexei Mikhailovich.
So, let's look at the military reforms of Peter 1 briefly point by point:
Reformation of the archery troops
In 1697, the archery regiments, which were the basis of the army, were disbanded, and subsequently completely abolished. They were simply not ready for constant hostilities. In addition, the streltsy riots undermined the tsar's confidence in them. Instead of archers in 1699, three new regiments were formed, which were also staffed by disbanded foreign regiments and recruits.
The introduction of recruitment
In 1699, a new system for recruiting the army was introduced in the country - recruitment. Initially, recruiting was carried out only as needed and regulated by special decrees, which stipulated the number of recruits needed at the moment. Their service was for life. The basis of recruitment sets were the taxable estates of peasants and townspeople. The new system made it possible to create a large standing army in the country, which had a significant advantage over European mercenary troops.
Changing the system of military training
Since 1699, the training of soldiers and officers began to be carried out according to a single combat charter. The emphasis was on continuous military training. In 1700, the first military school for officers was opened, and in 1715, the Naval Academy in St. Petersburg.
Changes in the organizational structure of the army
The army was officially divided into three types of troops: infantry, artillery and cavalry. The entire structure of the new army and navy was reduced to uniformity: brigades, regiments, divisions. The management of the affairs of the army was transferred to the jurisdiction of four orders. Since 1718, the Military Collegium has become the highest military body.
In 1722, the Table of Ranks was created, which clearly structured the system of military ranks.
Rearmament of the army
Peter I began to arm the infantry with flintlock guns with a bayonet of the same caliber and swords. Under him, new models of artillery pieces and ammunition were developed. The newest types of ships were created.
As a result of the military reforms of Peter the Great, rapid economic growth began in Russia. Indeed, in order to provide such an army colossus, new steel and weapons factories, factories for the production of ammunition were needed. As a result, by 1707 the dependence of the state on the import of weapons from Europe was completely eliminated.
The main results of the reform were the creation of a large and well-trained army, which allowed Russia to start an active military rivalry with Europe and emerge victorious from it.
Peter the Great is an ambiguous person in world history. Evaluating the reforms of Peter I briefly, some historians consider him the Great Reformer, who managed to turn the development of Russia in a different direction. Others - almost the Antichrist, who went back against the old order and church foundations, destroying the usual way of life of the Russian people.
Rise to power and background
Pyotr Alekseevich Romanov (1672-1725) was the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from his second marriage. He was proclaimed king together with his half-brother Ivan in 1682. Due to the small age of both, their older sister Sophia actually ruled the country.
In 1689, Sophia was removed from the throne. Power completely passed into the hands of Peter. Although formally Ivan continued to be considered a co-ruler, he was too weak and sick to participate in the affairs of the state.
The state was in a difficult position: the Moscow kingdom was in a state of another war with the Ottoman Empire. In search of allies, Peter 1 went on a trip to Europe in order to conclude political alliances. Getting acquainted with the culture and structure of European countries, he saw with his own eyes how far behind Russia was in development from the Western powers. Peter 1 realized that it was time for change. Returning to his homeland, he resolutely began to "cut a window to Europe".
The reforms of Peter the Great are shown in the table.
Foreign policy and military reform of Peter I
The young tsar planned to pursue a rather aggressive foreign policy. Peter intended to strengthen Russia's influence in the international arena, expand its borders and gain access to the non-freezing seas - the Azov, Black and Caspian. To achieve such ambitious goals, it was necessary to build a combat-ready army.
Peter has been interested in military affairs since childhood. For the young prince, amusing (Peter's) regiments were created - special military formations for studying combat tactics and weapon handling techniques. It was then that Peter developed views on how the Russian army should look like in the future. After coming to power, these views formed the basis of the military reform of Peter 1.
Military reform had five main directions:
Thanks to these changes, the Russian army was able to become one of the strongest at that time. This was especially evident during the Northern War, where the troops of Peter 1 defeated the exemplary Swedish army.
Administrative-territorial changes
The internal policy of Peter 1 was aimed at creating an absolute monarchy by strengthening the vertical of power based on local self-government, as well as strengthening police supervision to prevent and quickly suppress rebellions.
Administrative reforms can be divided into 2 categories:
- central control;
- local government.
The reason for the transformation of the central government was the desire of Peter to replace the old bureaucratic machine and build a new model of power.
The result of the reform was the creation of:
- Councils of Ministers (Senate)- authority to govern the state during the absence of the king. Senators were appointed personally by Peter 1;
- Synod- was created instead of the abolished post of patriarch to manage church affairs. The church passed into submission to the state;
- Colleges- government bodies, which were clearly divided into departments and replaced the outdated system of orders;
- Secret Office- an organization whose activity was to persecute opponents of the king's policy.
The prerequisite for the reform of local government was the war with Sweden and the need for a more efficient state apparatus.
According to the provincial (regional) reform, the country was divided into provinces, districts and provinces. This structure made it possible to more efficiently collect taxes from taxable estates in each area. A separate military unit was attached to the province, which the inhabitants of the province had to support, provide with food and housing. In case of war, recruits from local residents joined the same military unit and could be instantly transferred to the places of hostilities. The governors were appointed personally by Peter.
The urban reform was rather unsystematic and took place in several stages. The main goal was to collect as many taxes from the population as possible.
In 1699, the Chamber of Burmese was created, which was popularly called the Town Hall. The main functions of the City Hall were the collection of taxes and the maintenance of the army. It was an elected body, holding elections was possible with the payment of double taxes by the city. Naturally, most of the cities did not appreciate the reform.
After the end of the Northern War, the second stage of urban reform began. Cities were divided into categories (depending on the number of households), and the townspeople - into categories (taxable and non-taxable).
During the administrative reforms, Peter also undertook a judicial reform. The purpose of the reform was to separate the branches of government, to create courts independent of the city or provincial administration. Peter himself became the supreme judge. He conducted the proceedings of the most important state affairs. Hearings on political cases were handled by the Secret Office. The Senate and the Boards also had judicial functions (with the exception of the Board of Foreign Affairs). Courts and lower courts were created in the provinces.
Economic transformation
The socio-economic situation in Russia was unenviable. In the context of an aggressive foreign policy, constant warfare, the country needed a lot of resources and money. The reformist mind of Peter was persistently looking for ways to extract new financial sources.
The tax reform was carried out. Its main feature was the introduction of a poll tax - funds were collected from each person, while earlier the tax was levied from the yard. This made it possible to fill the budget, but increased social tension, and the number of peasant uprisings and riots increased.
For the development of backward Russian industry, Peter 1 actively used the help of foreign specialists, invited the best European engineers to the court. But workers were sorely lacking. Therefore, with the growth of production and the opening of new factories, instead of paying a poll, the serf could be assigned to the factory and undertake to work there for a certain amount of time.
Peter encouraged the construction of factories, endowed merchants with a wide range of benefits. And also enterprises were built for public money, and later transferred to private hands. If the chosen owner of the factory could not cope with production and was at a loss, Peter took the enterprise back into state ownership, and the negligent industrialist could be executed.
But clumsy Russian products could not adequately compete with advanced European ones. To support domestic production, Peter began to use a policy of protectionism - high duties were introduced on the import of foreign goods.
Peter actively promoted trade. He understood that for this it was necessary to develop a convenient transport system. New water channels were laid (Ivanovsky, Staroladozhsky, Tveretsky), overland communication routes were built.
Under the reign of Peter 1, a monetary reform was also carried out. The ruble began to equal 100 kopecks, or 200 money. Lighter silver coins were minted. For trading needs, copper round coins were introduced into use. For the needs of the state, 5 mints were established.
Innovations in the field of culture
Peter the Great sought to introduce Russia to European cultural traditions. He perceived the norms of appearance and behavior that had been established in the era of the 18th century in Russian society extremely negatively, considered barbaric and outdated.
The tsar began his transformational activity with the creation of the Cathedral - a depraved entertainment event. The council ridiculed the ceremonies held in the Catholic and Orthodox churches, parodied them, accompanying this with slander and drinking alcohol. It was created in order to reduce the importance of the church and the influence of the clergy on the common people.
While traveling in Europe, Peter became addicted to such a bad habit as smoking. In Russia, according to the decree of 1634, the use of tobacco and its sale were banned. Smokers, according to this decree, had to cut off the nose. Naturally, the tsar became more loyal in this matter, canceled the previous ban, and as a result, soon their own tobacco plantations began to be created on the territory of Russia.
Under Peter 1, the state began to live according to the new, Julian, calendar. Previously, the countdown was from the day of the creation of the world, and the New Year began on September 1. The decree was issued in December, so since then January has become the beginning not only for the new chronology, but also for the year.
Affected by the reforms of Peter and the appearance of subjects. From his youth, he ridiculed baggy, long and uncomfortable court clothes. Therefore, by a new decree for the class nobles, he ordered to wear clothes according to the European type - German or French clothes were cited as an example. People who did not follow the new fashion could simply be grabbed in the middle of the street and "cut off the excess" - reshape their clothes in a new way.
Peter's beards were also in disfavor. He himself did not wear a beard, and did not perceive all the talk that this is a symbol of the honor and dignity of a Russian person. All boyars, merchants and military men were ordered by law to cut their beards. Some disobedient Peter cut them personally. The clergy and residents of the villages were allowed to keep their beards, but at the entrance to the city the bearded men had to pay a tax for it.
A public theater was created to ridicule Russian traditions and customs, and to promote Western culture. The entrance was free, but the theater did not win success with the public and did not last long. Therefore, Peter issued a new decree on entertainment for the nobility - the Assemblies. Thus, the king wanted to introduce his subjects to the life of an average European.
Not only the nobles, but also their wives had to go to the Assembly. Unbridled fun was supposed - conversations, dances, playing cards and chess. Smoking and drinking alcohol was encouraged. Among the nobility, the Assemblies caused a negative reaction and were considered indecent - because of the participation of women in them, and it was not pleasant to have fun under duress.
Public Administration Reform
Creation of the Near Office (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Establishment of 12 collegiums with a specific scope of activity and powers.
The system of state administration has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies became regulated, the collegiums had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory bodies were created.
Regional (provincial) reform
1708-1715 and 1719-1720.
At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberia. They were ruled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also possessed full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces ruled by governors, and those were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. The governors were stripped of their administrative power and were in charge of judicial and military matters.
There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.
Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722
Peter 1 formed new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justic College, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues, except for Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was canceled, the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.
A large number of judicial bodies and persons engaged in judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) brought confusion and confusion to the legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of "knocking out" testimony under torture created grounds for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process was established and the need for the verdict to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration.
Military reforms
The introduction of recruitment, the creation of the navy, the establishment of the Military Collegium, which was in charge of all military affairs. Introduction with the help of the "Table of Ranks" of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.
With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725, and a strong navy. Subdivisions were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by different historians) created a springboard for the further success of Russian weapons.
Church reform
1700-1701; 1721
After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was actually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastery lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic order, which controlled church revenues and the trial of the monastery peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, whose members were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.
The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partly lost its authority in society.
Financial reforms
Almost the entire reign of Peter 1
The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, the monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of the coin. Kopeck Stano Regional Reform
In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermanland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the proceeds to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.
The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the cost of their maintenance.
In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium. Only military and judicial matters remained under the jurisdiction of the governor.
Judicial reform
Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: provinces - hofgerichts or court courts of appeal in large cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. The provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except for the monastic ones, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the magistrate conducted the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement. In other cases, the so-called one-man court acted (cases were decided solely by a zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode
Church reform
One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration he carried out, aimed at eliminating church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily appointed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan as the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Custodian of the Patriarchal Throne or "Exarch". including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again became in charge of the court of the monastic peasants and controlled income from church and monastic land holdings. In 1701, a series of decrees was issued to reform the management of church and monastery possessions and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.
In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, Feofan Prokopovich, an approximate tsar, Little Russian. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, which eliminated the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinated it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from the monastic vaults. Peter did not go for the complete secularization of church and monastery possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of his reign
Reforms of the army and navy
Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new order, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years.
The era of Peter the Great in the life of the Russian Church is full of historical content. First, both the relation of the church to the state and the church government became clear and took on new forms. Secondly, the internal church life was marked by a struggle of theological views (for example, the familiar dispute about transubstantiation between the Great Russian and Little Russian clergy and other disagreements). Thirdly, the literary activity of the representatives of the church revived. In our presentation, we will touch only on the first of these points, because the second has a special church-historical interest, and the third is considered in the history of literature.
Consider first those measures of Peter I, which established the relationship of church to state and the general order of church government; then we will move on to particular measures regarding ecclesiastical affairs and the clergy.
The relationship of church to state before Peter I in the Muscovite state was not precisely defined, although at the church council of 1666-1667. The Greeks recognized in principle the supremacy of secular power and denied the right of hierarchs to interfere in secular affairs. The Moscow sovereign was considered the supreme patron of the church and took an active part in church affairs. But church authorities were also called upon to participate in state administration and influenced it. Russia did not know the struggle between church and secular authorities, familiar to the West (it did not exist, strictly speaking, even under Nikon). The enormous moral authority of the Moscow patriarchs did not seek to replace the authority of state power, and if a voice of protest was heard from the Russian hierarch (for example, Metropolitan Philip against Ivan IV), then he never left the moral ground.
Peter I did not grow up under the strong influence of theological science and not in such a pious environment as his brothers and sisters grew up. From the very first steps of his conscious life, he made friends with the "heretic Germans" and, although he remained an Orthodox person by conviction, he nevertheless treated many rituals more freely than ordinary Moscow people, and seemed infected with "heresy" in the eyes of the Old Testament zealots of piety. It can be said with confidence that Peter, from his mother and from the conservative patriarch Joachim (d. 1690), more than once met with condemnation for his habits and acquaintance with heretics. Under Patriarch Adrian (1690-1700), a weak and timid man, Peter met with no more sympathy for his innovations, following Joachim and Adrian, he forbade barbering, and Peter thought to make it obligatory. At the first decisive innovations of Peter, all those who protested against them, seeing them as heresy, sought moral support in the authority of the church and were indignant at Adrian, who was cowardly silent, in their opinion, when he should have stood for orthodoxy. Adrian really did not interfere with Peter and was silent, but he did not sympathize with the reforms, and his silence, in essence, was a passive form of opposition. Insignificant in itself, the patriarch became inconvenient for Peter, as the center and unifying principle of all protests, as a natural representative of not only ecclesiastical, but also social conservatism. The patriarch, strong in will and spirit, could have been a powerful opponent of Peter I if he had taken the side of the conservative Moscow worldview, which condemned all public life to immobility.
Realizing this danger, after the death of Adrian, Peter was in no hurry to elect a new patriarch, and appointed Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky, a learned Little Russian, as the "locum tenens of the patriarchal throne." The management of the patriarchal economy passed into the hands of specially appointed secular persons. There is no need to assume, as some do, that immediately after the death of Hadrian, Peter decided to abolish the patriarchate. It would be more correct to think that Peter simply did not know what to do with the election of a patriarch. Peter treated the Great Russian clergy with some distrust, because he was convinced many times how strongly they did not sympathize with the reforms. Even the best representatives of the ancient Russian hierarchy, who were able to understand the whole nationality of Peter I's foreign policy and helped him as much as they could (Mitrofan of Voronezh, Tikhon of Kazan, Job of Novgorod), were also against Peter's cultural innovations. To choose a patriarch from among the Great Russians for Peter meant the risk of creating a formidable opponent for himself. The Little Russian clergy behaved differently: they themselves were influenced by Western culture and science and sympathized with the innovations of Peter I. But it was impossible to appoint a Little Russian patriarch because during the time of Patriarch Joachim, the Little Russian theologians were compromised in the eyes of Moscow society, as people with Latin delusions; for this they were even persecuted. The elevation of a Little Russian to the patriarchal throne would therefore lead to a general temptation. In such circumstances, Peter I decided to remain without a patriarch.
The following order of church administration was temporarily established: at the head of the church administration were Locum Tenens Stefan Yavorsky and a special institution, the Monastery Order, with secular persons at the head; the council of hierarchs was recognized as the supreme authority in matters of religion; Peter himself, like the former sovereigns, was the patron of the church and took an active part in its management. This participation of Peter led to the fact that in the church life an important role began to play the bishops of the Little Russians, who had been persecuted before. Despite protests both in Russia and in the Orthodox East, Peter constantly nominated Little Russian learned monks to the episcopal chairs. The Great Russian clergy, poorly educated and hostile to the reform, could not be an assistant to Peter I, while the Little Russians, who had a broader mental outlook and grew up in a country where Orthodoxy was forced into an active struggle against Catholicism, brought up in themselves a better understanding of the tasks of the clergy and the habit of broad activities. In their dioceses, they did not sit idly by, but converted foreigners to Orthodoxy, acted against the schism, started schools, took care of the life and morality of the clergy, and found time for literary activity. It is clear that they were more in line with the wishes of the reformer, and Peter I valued them more than those clergy from the Great Russians, whose narrow views often got in his way. One can cite a long series of names of Little Russian bishops who occupied prominent places in the Russian hierarchy. But the most remarkable of them are: Stefan Yavorsky, mentioned above, St. Dmitry, Metropolitan of Rostov and, finally, under Peter, Bishop of Pskov, later Archbishop of Novgorod. He was a very capable, lively and energetic person, inclined to practical activity much more than to abstract science, but he was very educated and studied theological science not only at the Kiev Academy, but also in the Catholic colleges of Lvov, Krakow and even Rome. The scholastic theology of Catholic schools did not affect Theophan's living mind; on the contrary, it planted in him a dislike for scholasticism and Catholicism. Not getting satisfaction in Orthodox theological science, then poorly and little developed, Theophanes turned from Catholic doctrines to the study of Protestant theology and, being carried away by it, learned some Protestant views, although he was an Orthodox monk. This inclination towards the Protestant worldview, on the one hand, was reflected in Theophan's theological treatises, and on the other hand, helped him get closer to Peter I in his views on reform. The king, brought up in Protestant culture, and the monk, who completed his education in Protestant theology, understood each other perfectly. Acquainted with Feofan for the first time in Kiev in 1706, Peter summoned him to Petersburg in 1716, made him his right hand in church administration and defended him from all attacks from other clergy, who noticed the Protestant spirit in Peter's favorite. Theophanes, in his famous sermons, was an interpreter and apologist for Peter's reforms, and in his practical activities he was a sincere and capable assistant to him.
It was Feofan who developed and, perhaps, even the very idea of that new plan of church administration, on which Peter I stopped. For more than twenty years (1700-1721) a temporary disorder continued, in which the Russian church was governed without a patriarch. Finally, on February 14, 1721, the "Holy Governing Synod" was opened. This spiritual college forever replaced the patriarchal authority. She was given the Spiritual Regulations, compiled by Feofan and edited by Peter I himself, as her guide. The regulations frankly pointed out the imperfection of the patriarch's sole administration and the political inconveniences resulting from the exaggeration of the authority of the patriarchal authorities in state affairs. The collegial form of church government was recommended as the best in all respects. According to the regulations, the composition of the Synod is defined as follows: the president, two vice-presidents, four advisers and four assessors (they included representatives of the black and white clergy). Note that the composition of the Synod was similar to that of the secular boards. The persons who were at the Synod were the same as at the colleges; the representative of the person of the sovereign in the Synod was the Chief Procurator, under the Synod there was also a whole department of fiscals, or inquisitors. The external organization of the Synod was, in a word, taken from the general type of organization of the collegium.
Speaking about the position of the Synod in the state, one should strictly distinguish between its role in the sphere of the church and its role in the general system of state administration. The significance of the Synod in church life is clearly defined by the Spiritual Regulations, according to which the Synod has "the power and authority of the patriarch." All spheres of jurisdiction and all the fullness of the ecclesiastical authority of the patriarch are inherent in the Synod. The diocese of the patriarch, which was under his personal control, was also transferred to him. This diocese was administered by the Synod through a special collegium called a dicastery or consistory. (According to the model of this consistory, consistories were gradually organized in the dioceses of all bishops). Thus, in church affairs, the Synod completely replaced the patriarch.
But in the sphere of public administration, the Synod did not fully inherit the patriarchal authority. We have various opinions about the significance of the Synod in the general composition of the administration under Peter. Some believe that "the Synod was in everything compared with the Senate and, along with it, was directly subordinate to the sovereign" (such an opinion is held, for example, by P. Znamensky in his "Guide to Russian Church History"). Others think that under Peter, in practice, the state significance of the Synod became lower than that of the Senate. Although the Synod strives to become independent of the Senate, the latter, considering the Synod as an ordinary collegium for spiritual affairs, considered it subordinate to itself. Such a view of the Senate was justified by the general idea of the reformer, which was the basis of the church reform: with the establishment of the Synod, the church became dependent not on the person of the sovereign, as before, but on the state, its management was introduced into the general administrative order and the Senate, which managed the affairs of the church until the establishment of the Synod , could consider himself higher than the Theological College, as the supreme administrative body in the state (such a view was expressed in one of the articles by Professor Vladimirsky-Budanov). It is difficult to decide which opinion is fairer. One thing is clear, that the political significance of the Synod never rose as high as the authority of the patriarchs (on the beginning of the Synod, see P. V. Verkhovsky "The Establishment of the Spiritual College and the Spiritual Regulations", two volumes. 1916; also G. S. Runkevich " Establishment and initial structure of the Holy Synod, 1900).
Thus, by establishing the Synod, Peter I got out of the difficulty in which he had stood for many years. His church-administrative reform preserved authoritative power in the Russian church, but deprived this power of the political influence with which the patriarchs could act. The question of the relationship between church and state was decided in favor of the latter, and the eastern hierarchs recognized the replacement of the patriarch by the Synod as completely legitimate. But these same Eastern Greek hierarchs under Tsar Alexei had already resolved in principle the same question and in the same direction. Therefore, Peter's church transformations, being a sharp novelty in their form, were built on the old principle bequeathed to Peter by Moscow Russia. And here, as in other reforms of Peter I, we meet with the continuity of historical traditions.
As for private events for church and faith in the era of Peter I, we can only briefly mention the most important of them, namely: the church court and land ownership, the black and white clergy, the attitude towards non-believers and schism.
Church jurisdiction was very limited under Peter: a lot of cases from church courts moved to secular courts (even a trial of crimes against faith and the church could not be carried out without the participation of secular authorities). For the trial of church people, according to the claims of secular persons, the Monastic order with secular courts was restored in 1701 (closed in 1677). In such a limitation of the judicial function of the clergy, one can see a close connection with the measures of the Code of 1649, in which the same trend affected.
The same close connection with ancient Russia can be seen in the measures of Peter I regarding real estate church property. The land estates of the clergy under Peter were first subjected to strict control of state power, and subsequently were removed from the economic management of the clergy. Their management was transferred to the Monastic order; they turned, as it were, into state property, part of the income from which went to the maintenance of monasteries and lords. This is how Peter tried to resolve the age-old question of the land holdings of the clergy in Russia. At the turn of the XV and XVI centuries. the right of monasteries to own estates was denied by a part of monasticism itself (Nil of Sora); by the end of the 16th century. the government drew attention to the rapid alienation of land from the hands of service people into the hands of the clergy and sought to, if not completely stop, then limit this alienation. In the 17th century Zemstvo petitions insistently pointed out the harm of such alienation for the state and the noble class; the state was losing lands and duties from them; nobles became landless. In 1649, a law finally appeared in the Code, which forbade the clergy from further acquisition of land. But the Code has not yet decided to return to the state those lands owned by the clergy.
Concerned about raising morality and well-being among the clergy, Peter paid special attention to the life of the white clergy, poor and poorly educated, "indistinguishable from arable peasants," in the words of a contemporary. Alongside his decrees, Peter tried to cleanse the milieu of the clergy by forcibly diverting its superfluous members to other estates and occupations and persecuting its bad elements (the wandering clergy). At the same time, Peter tried to better provide the parish clergy by reducing their number and increasing the area of parishes. He thought to raise the morality of the clergy by education and strict control. However, all these measures did not give great results.
Peter I treated monasticism not only with less care, but even with some enmity. It proceeded from the conviction of Peter that the monks were one of the causes of popular dissatisfaction with the reform and stood in opposition. A man with a practical orientation, Peter poorly understood the meaning of contemporary monasticism and thought that the majority became monks "from taxes and from laziness in order to eat bread for nothing." Not working, the monks, according to Peter, "eat up other people's works" and in inaction breed heresies and superstitions and do not do their job: excite the people against innovations. With such a view of Peter I, it is understandable his desire to reduce the number of monasteries and monks, to strictly supervise them and limit their rights and benefits. The monasteries were deprived of their lands, their income, and the number of monks was limited by the states; not only vagrancy, but also the transition from one monastery to another was prohibited, the personality of each monk was placed under the strict control of the abbots: writing in cells was prohibited, communication between monks and laity was difficult. At the end of his reign, Peter I expressed his views on the social significance of monasteries in the "Announcement of Monasticism" (1724). According to this view, monasteries should have a charitable purpose (the poor, sick, disabled and wounded were placed in monasteries), and in addition, monasteries should have served to prepare people for higher spiritual positions and to shelter people who are inclined to a pious contemplative life. . With all his activities regarding monasteries, Peter I strove to bring them into line with the indicated goals.
In the era of Peter I, the attitude of the government and the church towards the Gentiles became softer than it was in the 17th century. Western Europeans were treated with tolerance, but even under Peter the Protestants were favored more than the Catholics. Peter's attitude towards the latter was conditioned not only by religious motives, but also by political ones: Peter I responded to the oppression of the Orthodox in Poland by threatening to persecute the Catholics. But in 1721, the Synod issued an important decree on the admission of marriages between Orthodox and non-Orthodox - and with Protestants and Catholics alike.
Political motives were partly guided by Peter in relation to the Russian schism. While he saw the schism as an exclusively religious sect, he treated it rather mildly, without touching the beliefs of the schismatics (although from 1714 he ordered them to take a double taxable salary). But when he saw that the religious conservatism of the schismatics leads to civil conservatism and that the schismatics are sharp opponents of his civic activities, then Peter changed his attitude towards the schism. In the second half of the reign of Peter I, repressions went along with religious tolerance: schismatics were persecuted as civil opponents of the ruling church; at the end of the reign, religious tolerance seemed to have diminished, and the civil rights of all schismatics, without exception, involved and not involved in political affairs, were restricted. In 1722, the schismatics were even given a certain attire, in the features of which there was, as it were, a mockery of the schism.
Peter I remained in the history of our country as a cardinal reformer who abruptly turned the course of life in Russia. In this role, only Vladimir Lenin or Alexander II can compare with him. For 36 years of independent rule of the autocrat, the state not only changed its status from a kingdom to an Empire. All spheres of the life of the country have changed. The reforms affected everyone - from the homeless to the nobleman from St. Petersburg under construction.
The Church was not left out. Possessing infinite authority among the population, this organization was distinguished by its conservatism and inability to change and interfered with the growing power of Peter. Inertia and adherence to the traditions of the priests did not prevent the emperor from making changes in religious circles. First of all, it is, of course, an Orthodox synod. However, it would be erroneous to say that this is where the changes ended.
The State of the Church on the Eve of the Reforms
The highest church body under Peter 1 at the beginning of his reign was the patriarchate, which still had great power and independence. The crown bearer, of course, did not like this, and on the one hand he wanted to subordinate all the higher clergy directly to himself, and on the other, he was disgusted by the prospect of the appearance of his own Pope in Moscow. The guardian of the throne of St. Paul did not at all recognize anyone's authority over himself. In addition, Nikon, for example, strove under Alexei Mikhailovich.
The young tsar's first step in relations with the Orthodox clergy was a ban on the construction of new monasteries in Siberia. The decree is dated 1699. Immediately after this, the Northern War with Sweden began, which constantly distracted Peter from clarifying his relationship with Orthodoxy.
Creation of the title of locum tenens
When Patriarch Adrian died in 1700, the tsar appointed a locum tenens of the patriarchal throne. They became the Metropolitan of Ryazan. Adrian's successor was allowed to deal only with "works of faith." That is to engage in heresy and worship. All other powers of the patriarch were divided between orders. This concerned, first of all, economic activity on the lands of the Church. The war with Sweden promised to be long, the state needed resources, and the tsar was not going to leave extra funds to the “priests”. As it turned out later, it was a prudent move. Soon the parish bells began to be sent to be melted down for new cannons. The highest church body under Peter 1 did not resist.
The locum tenens had no independent power. On all important issues, he had to consult with the rest of the bishops, and send all reports directly to the sovereign. At the time of the reform were frozen.
At the same time, the importance of the monastic order increased. In particular, he was instructed to take control of the ancient Russian tradition - begging. Fools and beggars were caught and taken to the order. Those who gave alms were also punished, regardless of rank and position in society. As a rule, such a person received a fine.
Creation of the Synod
Finally, in 1721, the Holy Governing Synod was created. At its core, it became an analogue of the Senate of the Russian Empire, which was responsible for the executive power, being the highest body of the state, directly subordinate to the emperor.
The synod in Russia meant positions such as president and vice president. Although they were soon canceled, such a step perfectly shows the habit of Peter I to use the practice of the Table of Ranks, that is, to create new ranks that have nothing to do with the past. Stefan Yarovsky became the first president. He had no prestige or power. The position of Vice President served as an oversight function. In other words, it was an auditor who informed the tsar about everything that happened in the department.
Other positions
The post of chief prosecutor also appeared, which regulated the relationship of the new structure with society, and also had the right to vote and lobbied for the interests of the crown.
As in secular ministries, the Synod has its own spiritual fiscals. In their sphere of influence was all spiritual activity on the territory of the country. They monitored the implementation of religious norms, etc.
As noted above, the Synod was created as an analogue of the Senate, which means that it was in constant contact with it. The link between the two organizations was a special agent who delivered reports and was responsible for the relationship.
What was the Synod responsible for?
The responsibility of the Synod included both the affairs of the clergy and matters related to the laity. In particular, the highest church body under Peter 1 was supposed to monitor the performance of Christian rites and eradicate superstition. Here it is worth mentioning education. The synod under Peter 1 was the last authority responsible for textbooks in all kinds of educational institutions.
Secular clergy
According to Peter, the white clergy was to become an instrument of the state, which would influence the masses and monitor their spiritual state. In other words, the same clear and regulated estate was created, like the nobility and merchants, with their own goals and functions.
The Russian clergy throughout its previous history was distinguished by its accessibility to the population. It was not a caste of priests. On the contrary, almost everyone could enter there. For this reason, there was an overabundance of priests in the country, many of whom ceased to serve in the parish, and became vagabonds. Such ministers of the Church were called "sacral". The lack of regulation of this environment, of course, became something out of the ordinary during the time of Peter 1.
A strict charter was also introduced, according to which the priest in the service had only to praise the new reforms of the king. The synod under Peter 1 issued a decree obliging the confessor to inform the authorities if a person confessed in confession to a state crime or blasphemy against the crown. Disobedient were punishable by death.
church education
Numerous audits were carried out, checking the education of the clergy. Their result was a mass deprivation of dignity and a reduction in class. The highest church body under Peter 1 introduced and systematized new norms for obtaining the priesthood. In addition, now each parish could only have a certain number of deacons and no more. In parallel with this, the procedure for leaving one's dignity was simplified.
Speaking of church education in the first quarter of the 18th century, one should note the active opening of seminaries in the 1920s. New educational institutions appeared in Nizhny Novgorod, Kharkov, Tver, Kazan, Kolomna, Pskov and other cities of the new empire. The program included 8 classes. Boys with primary education were accepted there.
Black clergy
The black clergy also became the object of the reforms. In short, the changes in the life of the monasteries boiled down to three goals. First, their number has steadily decreased. Secondly, access to ordination was hampered. Thirdly, the remaining monasteries were to receive a practical purpose.
The reason for this attitude was the personal hostility of the monarch to the monks. This was largely due to childhood experiences in which they remained rebels. In addition, the way of life of a schemnik was far from the emperor. He preferred practical activity to fasting and prayer. Therefore, it is not surprising that he built ships, worked as a carpenter, and did not like monasteries.
Wanting these institutions to bring some benefit to the state, Peter ordered them to be converted into infirmaries, factories, factories, schools, etc. But the life of the monks became much more complicated. In particular, they were forbidden to leave the walls of their native monastery. Absences were severely punished.
The results of the church reform and its further fate
Peter I was a convinced statesman and, according to this conviction, made the clergy a cog in the general system. Considering himself the sole bearer of power in the country, he deprived the patriarchate of any power, and over time completely destroyed this structure.
Already after the death of the monarch, many excesses of the reforms were canceled, however, in general terms, the system continued to exist until the revolution of 1917 and the Bolsheviks came to power. Those, by the way, actively used the image of Peter I in their anti-church propaganda, praising his desire to subordinate Orthodoxy to the state.