The era of the Enlightenment in European history is brief. Age of enlightenment

Enlightenment, intellectual and spiritual movement of the late 17th - early 19th centuries. in Europe and North America. It was a natural continuation of the humanism of the Renaissance and the rationalism of the beginning of the modern era, which laid the foundations of the educational worldview: the rejection of the religious worldview and the appeal to reason as the only criterion for cognition of man and society. The name stuck after the publication of the article by I. Kant Answer to the question: what is Enlightenment?(1784). The root word “light”, from which the term “enlightenment” (English Enlightenment; French Les Lumières; German Aufklärung; It. Illuminismo) derives, goes back to an ancient religious tradition enshrined in both the Old and New Testaments. This is both the separation of light from darkness by the Creator, and the definition of God himself as Light. Christianization itself implies the illumination of mankind with the light of Christ's teaching. Rethinking this image, the enlighteners put a new understanding into it, talking about enlightening a person with the light of reason

The Enlightenment originated in England at the end of the 17th century. in the writings of its founder D. Locke (1632–1704) and his followers G. Bolingbroke (1678–1751), D. Addison (1672–1719), A. E. Shaftesbury (1671–1713), F. Hutcheson (1694– 1747), the basic concepts of educational teaching were formulated: "common good", "natural man", "natural law", "natural religion", "social contract". In the doctrine of natural law set out in Two treatises on government(1690) D. Locke, substantiated the basic human rights: freedom, equality, inviolability of the person and property, which are natural, eternal and inalienable. People need to voluntarily conclude a social contract, on the basis of which a body (state) is created to ensure the protection of their rights. The concept of the social contract was one of the fundamental in the doctrine of society, developed by the leaders of the early English Enlightenment.

In the 18th century, France became the center of the educational movement. At the first stage of the French Enlightenment, the main figures were C.L. Montesquieu (1689-1755) and Voltaire (F.M. Aruet, 1694-1778). In the writings of Montesquieu, Locke's doctrine of the rule of law was further developed. In the treatise On the spirit of laws(1748) formulated the principle of the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. V Persian letters(1721) Montesquieu outlined the path along which the French enlightenment thought, with its cult of the rational and natural, was to go. However, Voltaire adhered to different political views. He was an ideologue of enlightened absolutism and sought to instill the ideas of the Enlightenment in the monarchs of Europe (service with Frederick II, correspondence with Catherine II). He was distinguished by clearly expressed anti-clerical activity, opposed religious fanaticism and hypocrisy, church dogmatism and the domination of the church over the state and society. The writer's work is diverse in themes and genres: anticlerical works Orleans virgin (1735), Fanaticism, or Prophet Mohammed(1742); philosophical stories Candide, or Optimism (1759), Ingenuous(1767); tragedies Brutus (1731), Tancred (1761); Philosophical letters (1733).

In the second stage of the French Enlightenment, the main role was played by Diderot (1713–1784) and the encyclopedists. Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, 1751–1780 became the first scientific encyclopedia, which outlined the basic concepts in the field of physical and mathematical sciences, natural science, economics, politics, engineering and art. In most cases, the articles were thorough and reflect the latest knowledge. Inspirers and editors Encyclopedias were Diderot and J. D "Alambert (1717-1783), Voltaire, Condillac, Helvetius, Holbach, Montesquieu, Rousseau took an active part in its creation. Articles on specific areas of knowledge were written by professionals - scientists, writers, engineers.

The third period brought forward the figure of J.-J. Rousseau (1712-1778). He became the most prominent popularizer of the ideas of the Enlightenment, who introduced elements of sensitivity and eloquent pathos into the rationalist prose of the Enlighteners. Rousseau offered his own way of the political structure of society. In the treatise On the Social Contract, or Principles of Political Law(1762) he put forward the idea of ​​popular sovereignty. According to it, the government receives power from the hands of the people in the form of an assignment, which it is obliged to carry out in accordance with the will of the people. If it violates this will, then the people can limit, modify or take away the power given to them. One of the means of such a return to power is the violent overthrow of the government. Rousseau's ideas found their further development in the theory and practice of the ideologists of the Great French Revolution.

The period of the late Enlightenment (late 18th - early 19th century) is associated with the countries of Eastern Europe, Russia and Germany. German literature and philosophical thought give a new impetus to the Enlightenment. The German enlighteners were the spiritual successors of the ideas of English and French thinkers, but in their writings they were transformed and took on a deeply national character. The originality of the national culture and language was asserted by J. G. Gerder (1744-1803). His main work Ideas for the philosophy of the history of mankind(1784-1791) was the first solid classical work with which Germany entered the arena of world historical and philosophical science. The philosophical quest of the European Enlightenment was consonant with the work of many German writers. The pinnacle of the German Enlightenment, which gained worldwide fame, was such works as Robbers (1781), Cunning and love (1784), Wallenstein (1799), Mary Stuart(1801) F. Schiller (1759-1805), Emilia Galotti, Nathan the Wise G.E. Lessing (1729-1781) and especially Faust(1808-1832) I.-V. Goethe (1749-1832). In the formation of the ideas of the Enlightenment, the philosophers G.V. Leibniz (1646–1716) and I. Kant (1724–1804) played an important role. The idea of ​​progress, traditional for the Enlightenment, developed in Criticism of pure reason I. Kant (1724-1804), who became the founder of German classical philosophy.

Throughout the entire development of the Enlightenment, the concept of "reason" was at the center of the reasoning of its ideologues. Reason, in the minds of the enlighteners, gives a person an understanding of both the social structure and himself. Both can be changed for the better, can be improved. Thus, the idea of ​​progress was substantiated, which was conceived as the irreversible course of history from the darkness of ignorance to the kingdom of reason. The highest and most productive form of activity of the mind was considered scientific knowledge. It was during this era that sea voyages acquired a systematic and scientific character. Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean (Easter Islands, Tahiti and Hawaii, the east coast of Australia) J. Roggeven (1659-1729), D. Cook (1728-1779), L.A. Bougainville (1729-1811), J. F. La Perouse (1741-1788) laid the foundation for the systematic study and practical development of this region, which stimulated the development of natural sciences. K. Linney (1707-1778) made a great contribution to botany. In work Plant species(1737) he described thousands of species of flora and fauna and gave them double Latin names. J.L. Buffon (1707–1788) introduced the term “biology” into scientific circulation, designating it “the science of life”. S. Lamarck (1744-1829) put forward the first theory of evolution. In mathematics, I. Newton (1642-1727) and G.V. Leibniz (1646-1716) discovered differential and integral calculus almost simultaneously. The development of mathematical analysis was facilitated by L. Lagrange (1736–1813) and L. Euler (1707–1783). The founder of modern chemistry A.L. Lavoisier (1743–1794) compiled the first list of chemical elements. A characteristic feature of the scientific thought of the Enlightenment was that it focused on the practical use of scientific achievements in the interests of industrial and social development.

The task of educating the people, which the enlighteners set themselves, required careful attention to the issues of upbringing and education. Hence - a strong didactic beginning, manifested not only in scientific treatises, but also in literature. As a true pragmatist, who attached great importance to those disciplines that were necessary for the development of industry and trade, D. Locke spoke in his treatise Thoughts on parenting(1693). An upbringing novel can be called The life and amazing adventures of Robinson Crusoe(1719) D. Defoe (1660-1731). It presented a model of behavior of an intelligent individual and from a didactic standpoint showed the importance of knowledge and work in the life of an individual. The works of the founder of the English psychological novel S. Richardson (1689-1761), in whose novels - Pamela, or Rewarded Virtue(1740) and Clarissa Garlow, or The Story of a Young Lady(1748-1750) - the puritanical and educational ideal of personality was embodied. French educators also spoke about the decisive role of upbringing. K.A. Helvetius (1715-1771) in works About the mind(1758) and About a human(1769) proved the influence on the education of the "environment", i.e. living conditions, social structure, customs and mores. Rousseau, unlike other enlighteners, was aware of the limitations of reason. In the treatise About sciences and arts(1750) he questioned the cult of science and the boundless optimism associated with the possibility of progress, believing that with the development of civilization, the impoverishment of culture occurs. Rousseau's calls to return to nature were associated with these beliefs. In the essay Emil, or About education(1762) and in the novel Julia, or New Eloise(1761) he developed the concept of natural education based on the use of the natural abilities of a child, free at birth from vices and bad inclinations, which are later formed in him under the influence of society. According to Rousseau, children should have been brought up in isolation from society, one on one with nature.

The enlightening thought was directed towards the construction of utopian models of both the ideal state as a whole and the ideal personality. Therefore, the 18th century. can be called the "golden age of utopia." The European culture of this time gave rise to a huge number of novels and treatises telling about the transformation of the world according to the laws of reason and justice - Will J. Mellier (1664-1729); Nature's Code, or the True Spirit of Her Laws(1773) Morelli; On the rights and obligations of a citizen(1789) G. Mabley (1709-1785); 2440 year(1770) L.S. Mercier (1740-1814). At the same time, D. Swift's novel (1667-1745) can be viewed as utopia and dystopia Gulliver's travels(1726), which debunks such fundamental ideas of the Enlightenment as the absolutization of scientific knowledge, belief in the law and natural man.

In the artistic culture of the Enlightenment, there was no single style of the era, no single artistic language. Various stylistic forms simultaneously existed in it: later baroque, rococo, classicism, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. The ratio of different types of art changed. Music and literature came to the fore, the role of the theater increased. There was a change in the hierarchy of genres. Historical and mythological painting of the "grand style" of the 17th century gave way to paintings on everyday and moralizing themes (J. B. Chardin (1699-1779), W. Hogarth (1697-1764), J. B. Greuze (1725-1805 In the genre of portrait, there is a transition from splendor to intimacy (T. Gainsborough, 1727-1788, D. Reynolds, 1723-1792) A new genre of bourgeois drama and comedy appears in the theater, in which a new hero, a representative of the third estate, appears on the stage - P.O.Baumarchais (1732-1799) in Barber of Seville(1775) and The Marriage of Figaro(1784), K. Goldoni (1707-1793) in Servant of two masters(1745, 1748) and Innkeeper(1753). In the history of world theater, the names of R.B.Sheridan (1751-1816), G. Fielding (1707-1754), C. Gozzi (1720-1806) stand out.

During the Age of Enlightenment, an unprecedented rise in the art of music took place. After the reform carried out by K.V. Gluck (1714–1787), opera became a synthetic art, combining music, singing and complex dramatic action in one performance. FJ Haydn (1732-1809) raised instrumental music to the highest level of classical art. The pinnacle of the musical culture of the Enlightenment is the work of JS Bach (1685–1750) and WA Mozart (1756–1791). The enlightenment ideal is especially vivid in Mozart's opera magical flute(1791), which is distinguished by the cult of reason, light, the idea of ​​man as the crown of the Universe.

The educational movement, having common basic principles, did not develop in the same way in different countries. The formation of the Enlightenment in each state was associated with its political, social and economic conditions, as well as with national characteristics.

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T.L. Labutina At the Origins of Modern Democracy: The Political Thought of the English Enlightenment... M., 1994
Razumovskaya M.V. From Persian Letters to Encyclopedia: Novel and Science in France in the 18th Century... SPb, 1994
S. S. Averintsev The two births of European rationalism// He's the same. Rhetoric and origins of the European literary tradition; Enlightenment man... M., 1999
E.S. Krivushina French literature of the 17th – 20th centuries. Poetics of the text. Ivanovo, 2002

The impetus for the transition to the Age of Enlightenment in all countries is the rejection of the feudal way of life, the transition to a more democratic system. How is its democracy manifested? Firstly, the culture of the Enlightenment is not intended for any chosen stratum of society, not for its wealthy elite, but for the entire people.

The goal of the Enlightenment is to make the whole people more educated. That is why the significance of the Age of Enlightenment as a whole for the entire cultural process in the world is very great. Thanks to him, the cultural framework has noticeably expanded, which until then covered only a small stratum of society. It is thanks to such a concept as the Enlightenment that the definitions of "cultured" and "educated" could refer to any person seeking to enrich his inner world, even if this person had little means.

Equality is what the Enlightenment brought to life. It was precisely the concept of equality that became the key to further cultural development. The fact that all people are initially equal to each other and have the same rights to their further development as individuals served as the basis for creating the ideals of the Enlightenment. Who was the ideal of this era, which is often called "Age of Reason"? Of course, a person who is distinguished from an animal by the ability to think reasonably. It is he who possesses not only physical, but also spiritual power.

According to many thinkers, the Enlightenment is the main engine of social progress.

For example, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant(1724–1804) wrote that "Enlightenment is a person's exit from the state of his minority ...". And "minority" "is the inability to use one's reason without guidance from someone else." According to I. Kant, in this minority a person “is through his own fault”, solely because of “a lack of determination and courage to use” his own reason on his own.

This desire for independence, the participation of each person in the reorganization of the surrounding world through the capabilities of his mind and led to the fact that the religious perception and thinking of the people have radically changed. One of the extremes of these changes is the emergence of atheist enlighteners who denied religious beliefs and cults and, contrary to these beliefs, put man above all else. As a result, a new form of faith, deism, appeared in the Age of Enlightenment. The deist enlighteners did not deny the existence of God as the world mind, and also that it is he who is the primary cause of the world. That is, according to the deists, God is the creator of the world as a kind of "machine", with which he determined the laws of its motion. Any further intervention of God in the device of this "machine" is rejected by the deists, here the person comes to the fore, who makes his own adjustments.

It is worth noting that the era of the Enlightenment was characterized by optimistic moods associated with the belief that a person can be changed for the better. No wonder there was another definition of the Enlightenment as the "golden age of utopia." This utopia referred primarily to a change in political and social foundations. A harmonious society, living according to reason, with a sense of responsibility for each individual person, is the ideal social structure of the utopian enlighteners. But despite the great desire to get such a society, many utopians, for example Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), little faith in its possibility.

The feudal system gave way to a new bourgeois type of economic relations. But this transition was not very smooth. It was preceded not only by gradual progressive transformations, but by real upheavals that affected various aspects of human life.

The Age of Enlightenment, which began with the last revolution in England (1689), subsequently contained three revolutions at once:

1) industrial in England;

2) political in France;

3) philosophical and aesthetic in Germany.

But the Enlightenment affected not only the social structure of society, but also cultural development.

Leadership has emerged in philosophy rationalism, which replaced metaphysics. That is, it was the mind that began to be revered as the basis of knowledge and behavior of people. Only for reason was the decisive word recognized, both in life and in science, and even in religion.

Although the era of the Enlightenment covered many countries, each of them had its own characteristics associated primarily with national identity.

England is considered the birthplace of the Enlightenment. Even the church here did not go against the Enlightenment, but accepting its values ​​and ideals. The reorganization of society after the revolution and civil wars, the strengthening of the rule of law with its desire for equality made England a kind of standard, to which other states aspired.

The first to formulate the program of the English Enlightenment, which was adhered to in France, the philosopher John Locke(1632–1704). In his work "An Experience of Human Understanding", written in 1689, he identified three basic human rights that refer to "inalienable rights":

1) the human right to life;

2) the human right to freedom;

3) the right to property.

D. Locke saw the result of accepting these three rights in the "legal equality of individuals."

D. Locke attributed great importance to human labor. In his opinion, it is labor that determines what property a person will own.

The idea of ​​equality was also adhered to by another English educator, a philosopher Thomas Hobbes(1588–1679). He believed that all people are equal by nature, and inequality is the cause of many troubles, such as conflicts, wars, etc. And in order to avoid these troubles, T. Hobbes believed, every person needs to get rid of his selfish passions.

But there were thinkers who held the exact opposite opinion. This is how a new direction in philosophy was born, called ethics of pride or reasonable selfishness. His followers were an English thinker and writer Bernard Mandeville(1670–1733), as well as an English philosopher and sociologist Jeremiah Ventham(1748–1832). According to the supporters of the ethics of pride, selfishness is the driving force behind the cultural and moral life of people.

Among the Scottish educators, it is worth highlighting the economist and philosopher Adam Smith(1723–1790). He put forward his innovative idea of ​​civic behavior and social relations, in which he gave a large role to the market. It was thanks to the market, according to A. Smith, that man was able to throw off the shackles of feudalism. The freedom of a person is determined primarily by his role in economic relations.

The names of great thinkers became famous for the era of the Enlightenment in France. First of all - Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Appreciate Diderot and Charles Louis Montesquieu.

One of the supporters of deism in France was a writer and educator Voltaire(1694–1778), whose real name Marie Francois Arouet. Already in his early works, one could trace his indignation at absolutism, he in every possible way ridiculed feudal society with its principles and moral values. Such works as "Philosophical Letters", written in 1733, and "Philosophical Dictionary", written in the period from 1764 to 1769, are devoted to criticism of the feudal-absolutist system. But Voltaire's work covered not only philosophical and political topics. His prose was devoted to a wide variety of topics, written in various genres: from tragedy and comedy to poetry and novels. Voltaire's ideas played an important role in the development of world thought. In particular, in Russia, it is very widespread Voltairianism, which was associated with free thinking, religious skepticism, overthrow of authorities.

Another critic of absolutism was Voltaire's contemporary and compatriot, a jurist and philosopher Charles Louis Montesquieu(1689–1755). His main works - "Persian Letters", written in 1721, and the book "On the Spirit of Laws", written in 1748. In them C. L. Montesquieu discusses the causality of the emergence of one form of statehood, sees a solution to problems associated with legality, in the separation of powers.

The great French writer and philosopher remained irreconcilable with religious ideas, as well as absolutism in power throughout his life. Denis Diderot(1713–1784). He was a materialist, that is, a supporter of the idea that it is matter that is primary, and all thinking and consciousness are only properties of this matter. One of the greatest achievements of D. Diderot is the idea of ​​creating the "Encyclopedia" (1751–1780). He was not only her inspiration, but also the creator and editor. The Encyclopedia consisted of thirty-five volumes.

Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712–1778), a French writer and philosopher who, like other educators, treated the official church with distrust and even indignation. In his works, the main idea of ​​the Enlightenment is traced - the idea of ​​universal equality. This theme is typical for such works of his as "Discourse on the beginning and bases of inequality" (1755), "On the social contract" (1762). In them, he criticizes the absolutism and extreme despotism of power.

In the opinion of J. J. Rousseau, many problems of a person are the result of his spoiled morals. This depravity came from poor parenting and inequality. Therefore, Rousseau saw a way out in the elimination of all inequality, in the correct education of people who could serve for the good of society. That is why one of the most famous works of J.J. Rousseau is his novel "Emile, or about Education", dedicated to pedagogical problems in the education system. The main goal of education, according to Rousseau, is the development of an inner consciousness of goodness in a person and the protection of his moral feelings from the corrupting influence of society.

The Enlightenment also did not stand still. The difficult situation in which Germany found itself, its fragmentation and economic instability left their characteristic national imprint on the German Enlightenment.

Among the German philosophers and educators, it is worth highlighting Immanuel Kantam of his contemporaries: Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Johann Gottfried Herder.

The main idea of ​​the German philosopher, art theorist and playwright Gotthold Ephraim Lessing(1729–1781) there was a political renewal that he saw in the unity of the human race. The purpose of this update is the final stage in the development of human civilization, "the era of the new, eternal Gospel."

Another German philosopher and educator, critic and esthetician was a supporter of humanistic ideas. Johann Gottfried Herder(1744–1803). He advocated identity in art, national differences and diversity. Some of his most significant works, imbued with the ideas of humanism, were the essay "Another Philosophy of History for the Education of Mankind", as well as "Letters to Encourage Humanity" (1793-1797).

I. Kant owned his own concept of the Enlightenment, according to which the Enlightenment is the liberation of man from moral and intellectual dependence. In this regard, it is worth noting such a work of I. Kant as "Observation of the sense of the beautiful and the sublime." The beautiful and the sublime are the two main categories according to I. Kant. I. Kant observes all the feelings of a person only through the prism of these categories.

And if the beautiful and the sublime, rather, refers to the world of art and creativity, then there were other topics that were touched by I. Kant in his works. He is concerned about many social issues. For example, such issues close to art as the development of a culture created by man, the laws of this development. I. Kant sees the reason for all development in the natural competition of people in the pursuit of their personal freedom, self-realization, achievement of the significance of their personality.

An important concept in the philosophy of I. Kant is the concept of "thing-in-itself". This concept means a thing, considered from the point of view of its qualities that do not depend on a person in any way. It is interesting that in the first edition of his work "Critique of Pure Reason", written in 1781, I. Kant denies any existence of "a thing-in-itself". And already in the second reprint he proves the opposite, that the “thing-in-itself” can be real.

The importance of the philosophy of I. Kant for the subsequent development of philosophical thought is enormous. It was I. Kant who was the founder of German classical philosophy.

The art of the Enlightenment was characterized by its own stylistic and genre features. There are three main directions that are characteristic of European art.

1. Classicism, from the Latin word classicus, which means "exemplary".

2. Romanticism, from the French word romantisme.

It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. In their opinion, such natural areas as gardens and parks are the most favorable places for a person who strives for his own development and improvement.

The parks here are not just places with natural or planted vegetation. They include various cultural buildings such as museums, libraries, theaters, art galleries and temples, etc. From this we can conclude that the art of the Enlightenment reached enormous heights.

Art in France is associated primarily with such a new concept as rococo. It is characterized by asymmetry, playfulness and pretentiousness, luxury and mannerism.

An example of Rococo is the work of a French painter Francois Boucher(1703–1770), such as "Venus Consoling Cupid" (1751), "Breakfast" (1750), "Bathing of Diana" (1742), "Morning" (1745), "Resting Girl" (1752) ), The Toilet of Venus (1751), etc.

The founder of the Rococo style is rightfully considered a French draftsman and painter Antoine Watteau(1684–1721). His works, from everyday scenes to gallant festivities, stand out for their brightness, sophistication, and colorfulness. His most famous paintings: "Society in the Park" (1716-1719), "Dance" (1710-1720), "Mezzetin" (1717-1719), "Lovers on vacation", "Pilgrimage to the island Kieferu "(1717-1718).

But the very first painter-educator was an Englishman William Hogarth(1697–1764). It was he who was the first to introduce secular themes into painting, whereas earlier works of art with religious themes prevailed. For the paintings of W. Hogarth, satire was characteristic, he, with the help of painting, ridiculed the vices of the aristocracy. An example of this is his paintings "The Career of a Prostitute" (1730-1731), "Career of a Mot" (1732-1735), "Marriage Contract", "Elections" (c. 1754), etc.

His compatriot, Enlightenment painter Thomas Gainsborough(1727–1888) was one of the most prominent portrait painters. His portraits ("Self-portrait" (1754 and 1758), "Portrait of a Lady in Blue" (1770), "Girl with Piglets" (1782), "Morning Walk" (1785), etc.) spiritualized, poetic, full of lyricism and spiritual refinement.

In Italy, namely in Venice, in the XVIII century. a new direction of painting was born - lead.

Veduta (from the Italian word veduta) - it is an urban architectural landscape. Representatives of this trend were the Venetian painters and educators Giovanni Canaletto (1697-1768) ("Portello and the Brenta Canal in Padua", "The Mason's Courtyard", "St. John and Paul Square in Venice", "Church of Santa Maria della Salute in Venice" , "Piazza San Marco in Venice"), Francesco Guardi (1712-1793) ("View of the square with the palace", "Capriccio on the embankment of the Venetian lagoon", "Departure of the Doge on" Buchentoro "to the church of San Nicolo on the Lido", "View of the Venetian Lagoon with Malguera Tower").

The literary art of the Enlightenment did not stand still either. This is largely due to the flourishing of theatrical art. It is not without reason that the Age of Enlightenment is called the “golden age of theater”.

In England it is associated with the name of the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816). He became famous for his satirical comedies: "Rivals" (1775), "Trips to Scarborough" (1777), "School of Scandal".

Theatrical art was highly developed in Venice. Here, in a small town, there were seven theaters. Venetian theaters existed largely thanks to the merits of the outstanding playwrights: Carlo Goldoni and Carlo Gozzi.

The most famous works Carlo Goldoni(1707–1793) - The Sly Widow (1748), The Innkeeper (1753), The Servant of Two Masters (1745-1753). Thanks to his wit and sparkling humor, K. Goldoni is widely known throughout the world.

His contemporary Carlo Gozzi(1720–1806) wrote fairy tales (fiabs) for the theater, which were based on folklore: "The Love for Three Oranges" (1761), "The Deer King" (1762), "Turandot" (1762), etc. And if K. Goldoni refused method of commedia dell'arte (improvisation based on the script), then K. Gozzi, on the contrary, continued to widely use this method.

The comedy of morals reached great heights in the work of the French playwright of the Enlightenment Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais (1732–1799). The heroes of his works tried in every possible way to protest and ridicule the existing regime. (The Barber of Seville (1775) and The Marriage of Figaro (1784)).

During the Enlightenment, a "universal genius" appeared in Germany, the founder of German literature, a writer Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749–1832). His works are imbued with antifeudal sentiments, they describe the problems of human relationships, the search for the meaning of life (the play "Egmont" (1788), the tragedy "Faust" (1803-1832), the autobiographical book "Poetry and Truth", etc.) ... I. Goethe was not only a talented writer, but also a brilliant naturalist ("Experience on the metamorphosis of plants" (1790), "The doctrine of color" (1810)).

Musical art can be put on a par with theater and literary art. Operas and other musical works were written on the themes of the works of great writers and playwrights.

The development of musical art is primarily associated with the names of such great composers as I.-S. Bach, G. F. Handel, & Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart, L. W. Beethoven and etc.

The consummate master of polyphony was the German composer, organist and harpsichordist Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750). His works were permeated with deep philosophical meaning, high ethics. He was able to generalize the achievements in the art of music, which had achieved his predecessors. His most famous works are The Well-Tempered Clavier (1722–1744), The Passion According to John (1724), The Passion According to St. Matthew (1727 and 1729), many concerts and cantatas, Mass of minor (1747–1749), etc.

Unlike I.-S. Bach, who did not write a single opera, to the German composer and organist Georg Friedrich Handel (1685–1759) owned more than forty operas. And also works on biblical themes (oratorios "Israel in Egypt" (1739), "Saul" (1739), "Messiah" (1742), "Samson" (1743), "Judas Maccabee" (1747), etc.), organ concerts, sonatas, suites, etc.

The master of classical instrumental genres such as symphonies, quartets, as well as sonata forms was the great Austrian composer Joseph Haydn(1732–1809). It was thanks to him that the classical composition of the orchestra was formed. He owns several oratorios (The Seasons (1801), The Creation of the World (1798)), 104 symphonies, 83 quartets, 52 piano sonatas, 14 masses, etc.

Another Austrian composer, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart(1756–1791), was a child prodigy, thanks to which he became famous in early childhood. He owns over 20 operas, among them the famous Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don Juan (1787), The Magic Flute (1791), more than 50 symphonies, many concerts, piano works (sonatas , fantasies, variations), unfinished Requiem (1791), songs, masses, etc.

The German composer had a difficult fate, which left its mark on all creativity. Ludwig van Beethoven(1770–1827). His genius manifested itself already in childhood and did not leave him even in a terrible trouble for any composer and musician - hearing loss. A philosophical character can be traced in his works. Many of his works were influenced by his republican views of the composer. Beethoven owns nine symphonies, instrumental sonatas (Moonlight, Pathetique), sixteen string quartets, ensembles, the opera Fidelio, overtures (Egmont, Coriolanus), piano concertos and other works.

His famous expression: "Music should strike fire from human hearts." He followed this idea for the rest of his life.

I came to the Russian language, as well as to English ( The enlightenment) and German ( Zeitalter der Aufklärung) from French ( siècle des lumières) and mainly refers to the philosophical trend of the 18th century. At the same time, it is not the name of a certain philosophical school, since the views of the philosophers of the Enlightenment often differed significantly from each other and contradicted each other. Therefore, enlightenment is considered not so much a complex of ideas as a certain direction of philosophical thought. The philosophy of the Enlightenment was based on criticism of the traditional institutions, customs and morals that existed at that time.

There is no consensus regarding the dating of this worldview era. Some historians attribute its beginning to the end of the 17th century, others - to the middle of the 18th century. In the 17th century, Descartes laid the foundations of rationalism in his work Discourse on Method (1637). The end of the Enlightenment is often associated with the death of Voltaire (1778) (in the same year Jean Jacques Rousseau died) or with the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1800-1815). At the same time, there is an opinion about tying the boundaries of the Enlightenment to two revolutions: the "Glorious Revolution" in England (1688) and the Great French Revolution (1789).

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  In the era of the Enlightenment, there was a rejection of the religious understanding of the world and an appeal to reason as the only criterion for the knowledge of man and society. For the first time in history, the question of the practical use of scientific achievements in the interests of social development was raised.

  Scientists of a new type strove to spread knowledge, popularize his. Knowledge should no longer be the exclusive possession of some initiated and privileged people, but should be available to all and have practical utility. It becomes the subject of public communication, public discussions. Even those who were traditionally excluded from school - women - could now take part in them. There were even special editions designed for them, for example, in 1737 the book "Newtonianism for Ladies" by Francesco Algarotti. Characteristically, David Hume begins his essay on history (1741):

  There is nothing that I would recommend to my readers more seriously than studying history, for this occupation is better than others for their gender and education at the same time - much more instructive than their usual books for entertainment, and more interesting than those serious works that can be found. in their closet.

  Original text (eng.)

  There is nothing which I would recommend more earnestly to my female readers than the study of history, as an occupation, of all others, the best suited both to their sex and education, much more instructive than their ordinary books of amusement, and more entertaining than those serious compositions, which are usually to be found in their closets.

  - "Essay of the study of history" (1741).

  The culmination of this desire to popularize knowledge was the publication of Diderot et al. "Encyclopedias" (1751-1780) in 35 volumes. It was the most successful and significant "project" of the century. This work brought together all the knowledge accumulated by mankind until that time. It clearly explained all aspects of the world, life, society, sciences, crafts and technology, everyday things. And this encyclopedia was not the only one of its kind. It was preceded by others, but only the French one became so famous. So, in England Ephraim Chambers in 1728 published a two-volume Cyclopedia (in Greek, “circular learning”, the words “-pedia” and “pedagogy” are the same roots). In Germany, in 1731-1754, Johan Zedler published the Großes Universal-Lexicon in 68 volumes. It was the largest encyclopedia of the 18th century. It had 284,000 keywords. For comparison: in the French "Encyclopedia" there were 70,000 a lot of unknown authors worked as a lexicon. Secondly: her articles were more controversial, polemical, open to the spirit of the times, partly revolutionary; they were crossed out by censorship, there were persecutions. Third: at that time, the international scientific language was already French, not German.

  Simultaneously with the general encyclopedias, special and for different individual sciences, which then grew into a separate genre of literature.

  The main striving of the era was to find, through the activity of the human mind, the natural principles of human life (natural religion, natural law, the natural order of the economic life of the physiocrats, etc.). From the point of view of such rational and natural principles, all historically formed and actually existing forms and relations (positive religion, positive law, etc.) were criticized.

  Periodization according to G. May

  There are many contradictions in the views of the thinkers of this era. The American historian Henry F. May distinguished four phases in the development of philosophy of this period, each of which to some extent denied the previous one.

  The first was the phase of the moderate or rational Enlightenment, which was associated with the influence of Newton and Locke. It is characterized by a religious compromise and the perception of the universe as an ordered and balanced structure. This phase of the Enlightenment is a natural continuation of the humanism of the XIV-XV centuries as a purely secular cultural trend, characterized, moreover, by individualism and a critical attitude towards traditions. But the era of the Enlightenment was separated from the era of humanism by a period of religious reformation and Catholic reaction, when theological and church principles again prevailed in the life of Western Europe. The Enlightenment is a continuation of the traditions not only of humanism, but also of advanced Protestantism and rationalistic sectarianism of the 16th and 17th centuries, from which it inherited the ideas of political freedom and freedom of conscience. Like humanism and Protestantism, the Enlightenment in different countries acquired a local and national character. The transition from the ideas of the Reformation era to the ideas of the Enlightenment is most conveniently observed in England at the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries, when deism developed, which, to a certain extent, was the completion of the religious evolution of the Reformation era and the beginning of the so-called "natural religion" preached by the Enlighteners of the 18th v. There was a perception of God as the Great Architect who retired from his labors on the seventh day. He gave people two books - the Bible and the book of nature. Thus, along with the caste of priests, a caste of scientists is being promoted.

  The parallelism of spiritual and secular culture in France gradually led to the discrediting of the former for hypocrisy and fanaticism. This phase of the Enlightenment is called skeptical and is associated with the names of Voltaire, Holbach and Hume. For them, the only source of our knowledge is an open mind. In connection with this term, there are others, which are: educators, educational literature, enlightened (or educational) absolutism. The expression "philosophy of the 18th century" is used as a synonym for this phase of the Enlightenment.

  The skeptical was followed by a revolutionary phase, in France associated with the name of Rousseau, and in America with Payne and Jefferson. Typical representatives of the last phase of the Enlightenment, which became widespread in the 19th century, are philosophers such as Thomas Reed and Francis Hutcheson, who returned to moderate views, respect for morality, law and order. This phase is called didactic.

  Religion and morality

  A characteristic enlightening idea is the denial of any divine revelation, especially this has affected Christianity, which is considered the primary source of errors and superstitions. As a result, the choice fell on deism (God exists, but he only created the World, and then does not interfere in anything) as a natural religion, identified with morality. Not taking into account the materialistic and atheistic beliefs of some thinkers of this era, such as Diderot, most of the enlighteners were followers of deism, who, through scientific arguments, tried to prove the existence of God and the creation of the universe by Him.

  During the Age of Enlightenment, the universe was seen as an amazing machine that is an operative cause, not a finite one. But after the creation of the universe, God does not interfere in its further development and world history, and man at the end of the path will not be condemned or rewarded by Him for his deeds. Laicism, the transformation of religion into natural morality, the commandments of which are the same for everyone, becomes a guide for people in their moral behavior. The new concept of tolerance does not exclude the possibility of practicing other religions only in private life, and not in public.

  Dissolution of the Society of Jesus

  The attitude of the Enlightenment to the Christian religion and to its connection with civil power were not the same everywhere. If in England the struggle against absolute monarchy was already partially resolved thanks to the Bill of Rights Act of 1689, which officially put an end to religious persecution and pushed faith to the subjective-individual sphere, then in continental Europe the Enlightenment retained a strong enmity towards the Catholic Church. The states began to take a position of independence of domestic politics from the influence of the papacy, as well as an increasing restriction of the autonomy of the curia in church matters.

  At the beginning of the XIX century. the enlightenment provoked a reaction against itself, which, on the one hand, was a return to the old theological worldview, on the other, an appeal to the study of historical activity, which was in great disdain among the ideologists of the 18th century. Already in the 18th century, attempts were made to define the basic nature of education. Of these attempts, the most remarkable belongs to Kant (Answer to the question: what is the Enlightenment?, 1784). Enlightenment is not the replacement of some dogmatic ideas with other dogmatic ideas, but independent thinking. In this sense, Kant contrasted enlightenment enlightenment and stated that it is simply the freedom to use your own intelligence.

  Contemporary European philosophical and political thought, for example, liberalism, largely takes its foundations from the Enlightenment. Philosophers of our day consider a strict geometric order of thought, reductionism and rationalism as the main virtues of the Enlightenment, opposing them to emotionality and irrationalism. In this respect, liberalism owes its philosophical foundation and critical attitude to intolerance and prejudice to the Enlightenment. Prominent philosophers with similar views include Berlin and Habermas.

  The ideas of the Enlightenment also underlie political freedoms and democracy as the basic values ​​of modern society, as well as the organization of the state as a self-governing republic, religious tolerance, market mechanisms, capitalism, and the scientific method. Since the era of the Enlightenment, thinkers insist on their right to seek the truth, whatever it may be and whatever it may threaten social foundations, without being exposed to threats of being punished "for Truth."

  Curious facts

  According to the American historian Stephen Starr, in the Middle Ages, the center of the Enlightenment was located in Central Asia on the territory of modern Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and also partially Afghanistan, Pakistan and China.

  see also

  The most important representatives

  • Thomas Abbt (1738-1766), Germany, philosopher and mathematician.
  • Marquis de Sade (1740 - 1814), France, philosopher, founder of the doctrine of absolute freedom - libertinism.
  • Jean le Ron d'Alembert (1717-1783), France, mathematician and physician, one of the editors of the French Encyclopedia
  • Balthasar Becker (1634-1698), Holland, key figure in the early Enlightenment. In his book De Philosophia Cartesiana(1668) divided theology and philosophy and argued that Nature cannot be understood from Scripture as well as theological truth can be deduced from the laws of Nature.
  • Pierre Baile (1647-1706), France, literary critic. One of the first to advocate religious tolerance.
  • Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794), Italy. Became widely known thanks to the composition About crimes and punishments (1764).
  • Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827), Germany, composer.
  • George Berkeley (1685-1753), England, philosopher and church leader.
  • Justus Henning Boemer (1674-1749), Germany, lawyer and church reformer.
  • James Boswell (1740-1795), Scotland, writer.
  • Leclair de Buffon (1707-1788), France, naturalist, author L'Histoire Naturelle.
  • Edmund Burke (1729-1797), Ireland, politician and philosopher, one of the early founders of pragmatism.
  • James Burnet (1714-1799), Scotland, lawyer and philosopher, one of the founders of linguistics.
  • Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794), France, mathematician and philosopher.
  • Ekaterina Dashkova (1743-1810), Russia, writer, president of the Russian Academy
  • Denis Diderot (1713-1784), France, writer and philosopher, founder Encyclopedias.
  • French encyclopedists
  • Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), USA, scientist and philosopher, one of the founding fathers of the United States and authors of the Declaration of Independence.
  • Bernard Le Beauvier de Fontenelle (1657-1757), France, scientist and writer-popularizer of science.
  • Victor D'Yupay (1746-1818), France, writer and philosopher, author of the term communism.
  • Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), England, historian, author Stories of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
  • Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), Germany, poet, philosopher and naturalist.
  • Olympia de Gouge (1748-1793), France, writer and politician, author of the Declaration of the Rights of Women and Citizens (1791), which laid the foundations of feminism.
  • Joseph Haydn (1732-1809), Germany, composer.
  • Claude Adrian Helvetius (1715-1771), France, philosopher and writer.
  • Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803), Germany, philosopher, theologian and linguist.
  • Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), England, philosopher, author Leviathan, the book that laid the foundations of political philosophy.
  • Paul Henri Holbach (1723-1789), France, an encyclopedic philosopher, was one of the first to declare himself an atheist.
  • Robert Hooke (1635-1703), England, experimental naturalist.
  • David Hume (1711-1776), Scotland, philosopher, economist.
  • Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), USA, philosopher and politician, one of the founding fathers of the United States and authors of the Declaration of Independence, defender of the "right to revolution."
  • Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (1744-1811), Spain, lawyer and politician.
  • Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), Germany, philosopher and naturalist.
  • Hugo Kollontai (1750-1812), Poland, theologian and philosopher, one of the authors of the Polish constitution of 1791
  • Ignacy Krasicki (1735-1801), Poland, poet and church leader.
  • Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), France, naturalist, one of the founders of modern chemistry and authors of the Lomonosov-Lavoisier law.
  • Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716), Germany, mathematician, philosopher and lawyer.
  • Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781), Germany, playwright, critic and philosopher, founder of the German theater.
  • Karl Linnaeus (1707-1778), Sweden, botanist and zoologist.
  • John Locke (1632-1704), England, philosopher and politician.

  At the end of the 17th century, the Age of Enlightenment began, which covered the entire subsequent 18th century. Freethinking and rationalism became the key features of this time. The culture of the Enlightenment was formed, which gave the world

  Philosophy

  The entire culture of the Enlightenment was based on new philosophical ideas formulated by the thinkers of that time. The main rulers of thoughts were John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Goethe, Kant and some others. It was they who determined the spiritual image of the 18th century (which is also called the Age of Reason).

  The Enlightenment adepts believed in several key ideas. One of them is that all people are by nature equal, each person has his own interests and needs. To satisfy them, it is necessary to create a hostel comfortable for everyone. Personality does not appear on its own - it is formed over time due to the fact that people have physical and spiritual strength, as well as intelligence. Equality should primarily consist in the equality of all before the law.

  The culture of the Age of Enlightenment is a culture of knowledge accessible to all. Leading thinkers believed that social upheaval could be ended only by spreading education. This is rationalism - the recognition of reason as the basis of behavior and knowledge of people.

  During the Enlightenment, the debate about religion continued. The separation of society from the inert and conservative church (primarily Catholic) was growing. Among educated believers, the idea of ​​God as a kind of absolute mechanics who brought order into the originally existing world has spread. Thanks to numerous scientific discoveries, the point of view has spread that humanity can reveal all the secrets of the universe, and riddles and miracles are in the past.

  Directions of art

  In addition to philosophy, there was also the artistic culture of the Enlightenment. At this time, the art of the Old World included two main directions. The first was classicism. He was embodied in literature, music, fine arts. This direction meant following ancient Roman and Greek principles. Such art was distinguished by symmetry, rationality, purposefulness and strict conformity to form.

  Within the framework of romanticism, the artistic culture of the Enlightenment responded to other requests: emotionality, imagination, creative improvisation of the artist. It often happened that in one work these two opposite approaches were combined. For example, the form could correspond to classicism, and the content to romanticism.

  Experimental styles also emerged. Sentimentalism has become an important phenomenon. He did not have his own stylistic form, however, it was with the help of him that the ideas of human kindness and purity, which are given to people from nature, were reflected at that time. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment, like the European one, had its own bright works that belonged to the flow of sentimentalism. Such was the story of Nikolai Karamzin "Poor Liza".

  Cult of nature

  It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. The thinkers of the eighteenth century were looking for in her an example of that beautiful and good, to which humanity should strive. The embodiment of a better world was the parks and gardens that were actively appearing in Europe at that time. They were created as a perfect environment for perfect people. Their composition included art galleries, libraries, museums, temples, theaters.

  The Enlighteners believed that the new "natural man" should return to his natural state - that is, nature. According to this idea, Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment (or rather, architecture) presented Peterhof to contemporaries. The famous architects Leblon, Zemtsov, Usov, Quarenghi worked on its construction. Thanks to their efforts, a unique ensemble appeared on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, which included a unique park, magnificent palaces and fountains.

  

  Painting

  In painting, the artistic culture of Europe during the Enlightenment developed in the direction of greater secularism. The religious principle was losing ground even in those countries where before it felt confident enough: Austria, Italy, Germany. Landscape painting was replaced by a landscape of mood, and an intimate portrait replaced the ceremonial portrait.

  In the first half of the 18th century, the French culture of the Enlightenment gave birth to the Rococo style. This kind of art was based on asymmetry, it was mocking, playful and pretentious. The favorite characters of the artists of this trend were bacchantes, nymphs, Venus, Diana and other figures of ancient mythology, and the main subjects were love.

  A striking example of French Rococo is the work of François Boucher, who was also called “the first artist of the king”. He painted theatrical scenery, illustrations for books, paintings for wealthy houses and palaces. His most famous canvases are: The Toilet of Venus, The Triumph of Venus, etc.

  Antoine Watteau, on the other hand, turned more to modern life. Under his influence, the style of the largest English portrait painter, Thomas Gainsborough, developed. His images were distinguished by spirituality, spiritual refinement and poetry.

  The main Italian painter of the 18th century was Giovanni Tiepolo. This master of engravings and frescoes is considered by art critics to be the last great representative of the Venetian school. In the capital of the famous commercial republic, veduta also emerged - an everyday urban landscape. The most famous creators in this genre are Francesco Guardi and Antonio Canaletto. These cultural figures of the Age of Enlightenment left behind a huge number of impressive paintings.

  

  Theatre

  The 18th century is the golden age of theater. During the Age of Enlightenment, this art form reached the peak of its popularity and prevalence. In England, the greatest playwright was Richard Sheridan. His most famous works, "A Trip to Scarborough," "School of Scandal," and "Rivals" ridiculed the immorality of the bourgeoisie.

  The most dynamic theatrical culture of Europe during the Enlightenment developed in Venice, where 7 theaters operated at once. The traditional annual city carnival attracted guests from all over the Old World. The author of the famous "Tavern" Carlo Goldoni worked in Venice. This playwright, who wrote a total of 267 works, was respected and appreciated by Voltaire.

  The most famous comedy of the 18th century was The Marriage of Figaro, written by the great Frenchman Beaumarchais. In this play, they found the embodiment of the mood of the society, which had a negative attitude towards the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons. A few years after the publication and the first performances of the comedy in France, there was a revolution that overthrew the old regime.

  The European culture of the Enlightenment was not homogeneous. In some countries, their own national characteristics arose in art. For example, German playwrights (Schiller, Goethe, Lessing) wrote their most outstanding works in the genre of tragedy. At the same time, the Theater of the Enlightenment in Germany appeared several decades later than in France or England.

  Johann Goethe was not only a remarkable poet and playwright. It is not for nothing that he is called a "universal genius" - an art connoisseur and theorist, scientist, novelist and specialist in many other fields. His key works are the tragedy Faust and the play Egmont. Another outstanding figure of the German Enlightenment, not only wrote "Treachery and Love" and "Robbers", but also left behind scientific and historical works.

  

  Fiction

  The novel became the main literary genre of the 18th century. It was thanks to the new books that the triumph of bourgeois culture began, replacing the old feudal old ideology. The works of not only fiction writers, but also sociologists, philosophers, and economists were actively published.

  The novel, as a genre, grew out of educational journalism. With his help, the thinkers of the 18th century found a new form for expressing their social and philosophical ideas. Jonathan Swift, who wrote Gulliver's Journey, has put in his work many allusions to the vices of contemporary society. He also wrote The Tale of the Butterfly. In this pamphlet, Swift ridiculed the then church order and strife.

  The development of culture during the Enlightenment can be traced to the emergence of new literary genres. At this time, an epistolary novel (a novel in letters) arose. Such was, for example, Johann Goethe's sentimental work "The Suffering of Young Werther", in which the main character committed suicide, and "Persian Letters" by Montesquieu. Documentary novels appeared in the genre of travel notes or travel descriptions (Travels in France and Italy by Tobias Smollett).

  In literature, the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia followed the precepts of classicism. In the 18th century, poets Alexander Sumarokov, Vasily Trediakovsky, Antioch Kantemir worked. The first shoots of sentimentalism appeared (the already mentioned Karamzin with "Poor Liza" and "Natalia, the boyar's daughter"). The culture of the Enlightenment in Russia created all the preconditions for Russian literature, led by Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, to survive its golden age already at the beginning of the new 19th century.

  Music

  It was during the Age of Enlightenment that the modern musical language took shape. Johann Bach is considered its founder. This great composer wrote works in all genres (the exception was opera). Bach is still considered the consummate master of polyphony today. Another German composer Georg Handel has written more than 40 operas, as well as numerous sonatas and suites. He, like Bach, drew inspiration from biblical subjects (the titles of the works are typical: "Israel in Egypt", "Saul", "Messiah").

  Another important musical phenomenon of that time was the Viennese school. The works of its representatives continue to be performed by academic orchestras today, thanks to which modern people can touch the heritage that the culture of the Enlightenment left behind. The 18th century is associated with the names of such geniuses as Wolfgang Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig van Beethoven. It was these Viennese composers who reinterpreted the previous musical forms and genres.

  Haydn is considered the father of classical symphony (he wrote over a hundred). Many of these works were based on folk dances and songs. The pinnacle of Haydn's work is the cycle of London Symphonies, written by him during his trips to England. The culture of the Enlightenment and any other period in human history rarely produced such prolific masters. In addition to symphonies, Haydn owns 83 quartets, 13 masses, 20 operas and 52 clavier sonatas.

  Mozart didn't just write music. He unrivaled played the harpsichord and violin, having mastered these instruments in his earliest childhood. His operas and concerts are distinguished by a wide variety of moods (from poetic lyrics to fun). The main works of Mozart are considered to be three of his symphonies, written in the same year 1788 (numbers 39, 40, 41).

  Another great classic, Beethoven, was fond of heroic plots, which was reflected in the overtures "Egmont", "Coriolanus" and the opera "Fidelio". As a performer, he amazed his contemporaries by playing the piano. For this instrument, Beethoven wrote 32 sonatas. The composer created most of his works in Vienna. He also owns 10 sonatas for violin and piano (the most famous is the "Kreutzer" sonata).

  Beethoven suffered a severe hearing loss caused by him. The composer was inclined to commit suicide and, in despair, wrote his legendary Moonlight Sonata. However, even a terrible illness did not break the will of the artist. Having overcome his own apathy, Beethoven wrote many more symphonic works.

  

  English Enlightenment

  England was home to the European Enlightenment. In this country, earlier than others, back in the 17th century, a bourgeois revolution took place, which gave impetus to cultural development. England has become a clear example of social progress. The philosopher John Locke was one of the earliest and foremost theorists of the liberal idea. Influenced by his writings, the most important political document of the era of the Enlightenment was written - the American Declaration of Independence. Locke believed that human knowledge is determined by sensory perception and experience, which refuted the previously popular philosophy of Descartes.

  Another important 18th century British thinker was David Hume. This philosopher, economist, historian, diplomat and publicist renewed the science of morality. His contemporary Adam Smith became the founder of modern economic theory. The culture of the Enlightenment, in short, anticipated many modern concepts and ideas. Smith's work was just like that. He was the first to equate the importance of the market with the importance of the state.

  

  Thinkers of France

  French philosophers of the 18th century worked in opposition to the social and political system that existed at that time. Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu - they all protested against the domestic order. Criticism could take a variety of forms: atheism, idealization of the past (the republican traditions of antiquity were praised), etc.

  The 35-volume "Encyclopedia" became a unique phenomenon of the culture of the Enlightenment. It was composed by the main thinkers of the Age of Reason. The inspirer and editor-in-chief of this epoch-making edition was Julien La Mettrie, Claude Helvetius and other prominent intellectuals of the 18th century who contributed to individual volumes.

  Montesquieu sharply criticized the arbitrariness and despotism of the authorities. Today he is rightly considered the founder of bourgeois liberalism. Voltaire became an example of outstanding wit and talent. He was the author of satirical poems, philosophical novels, political treatises. Twice the thinker ended up in prison, and even more times he had to go into hiding. It was Voltaire who created the fashion for free-thinking and skepticism.

  

  German Enlightenment

  German culture in the 18th century existed in the conditions of the country's political fragmentation. Leading minds advocated the rejection of feudal remnants and national unity. Unlike French philosophers, German thinkers were wary of church-related issues.

  Like the Russian culture of the Enlightenment, Prussian culture was formed with the direct participation of the autocratic monarch (in Russia it was Catherine II, in Prussia - Frederick the Great). The head of state strongly supported the advanced ideals of his time, although he did not give up his unlimited power. Such a system was called "enlightened absolutism".

  The main Enlightener of Germany in the 18th century was Immanuel Kant. In 1781 he published his fundamental work Critique of Pure Reason. The philosopher developed a new theory of knowledge, studied the capabilities of human intelligence. It was he who substantiated the methods of struggle and legal forms of changing the social and state system, excluding gross violence. Kant made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of the rule of law.

  Enlightenment in Europe called the ideological trend among the educated part of the population of Europe in the second half of the XVII - XVIII centuries. The main ideas of the Enlightenment were:

  The idea of ​​humanism, the natural right of every person to recognize the value of his personality, to happiness. Personality is valuable regardless of its origin, nationality, race.

  Condemnation of social inequality of people, exploitation of man by man. Antifeudal sentiments.

  The idea of ​​restructuring society on the basis of reason and science. Reason for the enlighteners is an active instrument of transformation, and not a passive repository of ideally correct knowledge given by God, as the classicists considered it.

  Criticism of the church, religious prohibitions and prejudices, a critical revision of generally accepted spiritual and intellectual values.

  Condemnation of political tyranny.

  - The idea of ​​enlightened absolutism- the rulers of countries should take care of the development of science and education among the population ("the union of kings and philosophy")

  Enlightenment in literature made an invaluable contribution to the development of such a genre as the novel. The genres of the European philosophical novel and drama were founded precisely by the enlighteners. At the center of literary works written by educators is the image of an intellectual hero, often a figure of art or science, who seeks to reform the world or fights for a worthy place in life. The works of educators are filled with propaganda for reading books and education. Heroes express the author's ideas for a better structure of society. The authors often cite voluminous discussions of their characters, their correspondence about the problems of economics, aesthetics, religion and church, politics, pedagogy, etc.

  Outstanding representatives of the Enlightenment in literature: Voltaire, Charles Louis de Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Oliver Goldsmith, Mikhail Lomonosov, Grigory2 Skovoroda.

  TO cultural values ​​of the Enlightenment the rapid distribution of newspapers, the beginning of the publication of magazines and encyclopedias, and the emergence of community clubs, where debates on important public issues took place. These are academies, scientific societies, Masonic lodges, circles, secular and art salons and cafes.

  THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT Enlightenment, intellectual and spiritual movement of the late 17th - early 19th centuries. in Europe and North America. It was a natural continuation of the humanism of the Renaissance and the rationalism of the beginning of the modern era, which laid the foundations of the educational worldview: the rejection of the religious worldview and the appeal to reason as the only criterion for cognition of man and society. The name stuck after the publication of the article by I. Kant The answer to the question: what is the Enlightenment?(1784). The root word “light”, from which the term “enlightenment” (English Enlightenment; French Les Lumières; German Aufklärung; It. Illuminismo) derives, goes back to an ancient religious tradition, enshrined in both the Old and New Testaments. This is both the separation of light from darkness by the Creator, and the definition of God himself as Light. Christianization itself implies the illumination of mankind with the light of Christ's teaching. Rethinking this image, the enlighteners put a new understanding into it, talking about enlightening a person with the light of reason

  The Enlightenment originated in England at the end of the 17th century. in the writings of its founder D. Locke (1632–1704) and his followers G. Bolingbroke (1678–1751), D. Addison (1672–1719), A.E. Shaftesbury (1671–1713), F. Hutcheson (1694– 1747), the basic concepts of educational teaching were formulated: "common good", "natural man", "natural law", "natural religion", "social contract". In the doctrine of natural law set out in Two treatises on government(1690) D. Locke, substantiated the basic human rights: freedom, equality, inviolability of the person and property, which are natural, eternal and inalienable. People need to voluntarily conclude a social contract, on the basis of which a body (state) is created to ensure the protection of their rights. The concept of the social contract was one of the fundamental in the doctrine of society, developed by the leaders of the early English Enlightenment.

  In the 18th century, France became the center of the educational movement. At the first stage of the French Enlightenment, the main figures were C.L. Montesquieu (1689-1755) and Voltaire (F.M. Aruet, 1694-1778). In the writings of Montesquieu, Locke's doctrine of the rule of law was further developed. In the treatise On the spirit of laws(1748) formulated the principle of the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. V Persian letters(1721) Montesquieu outlined the path along which the French enlightenment thought, with its cult of the rational and natural, was to go. However, Voltaire adhered to different political views. He was an ideologue of enlightened absolutism and sought to instill the ideas of the Enlightenment in the monarchs of Europe (service with Frederick II, correspondence with Catherine II). He was distinguished by clearly expressed anti-clerical activity, opposed religious fanaticism and hypocrisy, church dogmatism and the domination of the church over the state and society. The writer's work is diverse in themes and genres: anticlerical works Orleans virgin (1735), Fanaticism, or Prophet Mohammed(1742); philosophical stories Candide, or Optimism (1759), Ingenuous(1767); tragedies Brutus (1731), Tancred (1761); Philosophical letters (1733).

  In the second stage of the French Enlightenment, the main role was played by Diderot (1713–1784) and the encyclopedists. Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, 1751–1780 became the first scientific encyclopedia, which outlined the basic concepts in the field of physical and mathematical sciences, natural science, economics, politics, engineering and art. In most cases, the articles were thorough and reflect the latest knowledge. Inspirers and editors Encyclopedias were Diderot and J. D "Alambert (1717-1783), Voltaire, Condillac, Helvetius, Holbach, Montesquieu, Rousseau took an active part in its creation. Articles on specific areas of knowledge were written by professionals - scientists, writers, engineers.

  The third period brought forward the figure of J.-J. Rousseau (1712-1778). He became the most prominent popularizer of the ideas of the Enlightenment, who introduced elements of sensitivity and eloquent pathos into the rationalist prose of the Enlighteners. Rousseau offered his own way of the political structure of society. In the treatise On the Social Contract, or Principles of Political Law(1762) he put forward the idea of ​​popular sovereignty. According to it, the government receives power from the hands of the people in the form of an assignment, which it is obliged to carry out in accordance with the will of the people. If it violates this will, then the people can limit, modify or take away the power given to them. One of the means of such a return to power is the violent overthrow of the government. Rousseau's ideas found their further development in the theory and practice of the ideologists of the Great French Revolution.

  The period of the late Enlightenment (late 18th - early 19th century) is associated with the countries of Eastern Europe, Russia and Germany. German literature and philosophical thought give a new impetus to the Enlightenment. The German enlighteners were the spiritual successors of the ideas of English and French thinkers, but in their writings they were transformed and took on a deeply national character. The originality of the national culture and language was asserted by J. G. Gerder (1744-1803). His main work Ideas for the philosophy of the history of mankind(1784-1791) was the first solid classical work with which Germany entered the arena of world historical and philosophical science. The philosophical quest of the European Enlightenment was consonant with the work of many German writers. The pinnacle of the German Enlightenment, which gained worldwide fame, was such works as Robbers (1781), Cunning and love (1784), Wallenstein (1799), Mary Stuart(1801) F. Schiller (1759-1805), Emilia Galotti, Nathan the Wise G.E. Lessing (1729-1781) and especially Faust(1808-1832) I.-V. Goethe (1749-1832). In the formation of the ideas of the Enlightenment, the philosophers G.V. Leibniz (1646–1716) and I. Kant (1724–1804) played an important role. The idea of ​​progress, traditional for the Enlightenment, developed in Criticism of pure reason I. Kant (1724-1804), who became the founder of German classical philosophy.

  Throughout the entire development of the Enlightenment, the concept of "reason" was at the center of the reasoning of its ideologues. Reason, in the minds of the enlighteners, gives a person an understanding of both the social structure and himself. Both can be changed for the better, can be improved. Thus, the idea of ​​progress was substantiated, which was conceived as the irreversible course of history from the darkness of ignorance to the kingdom of reason. The highest and most productive form of activity of the mind was considered scientific knowledge. It was during this era that sea voyages acquired a systematic and scientific character. Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean (Easter Islands, Tahiti and Hawaii, the east coast of Australia) J. Roggeven (1659-1729), D. Cook (1728-1779), L.A. Bougainville (1729-1811), J. F. La Perouse (1741-1788) laid the foundation for the systematic study and practical development of this region, which stimulated the development of natural sciences. K. Linney (1707-1778) made a great contribution to botany. In work Plant species(1737) he described thousands of species of flora and fauna and gave them double Latin names. J.L. Buffon (1707–1788) introduced the term “biology” into scientific circulation, designating it “the science of life”. S. Lamarck (1744-1829) put forward the first theory of evolution. In mathematics, I. Newton (1642–1727) and G.V. Leibniz (1646–1716) discovered differential and integral calculus almost simultaneously. The development of mathematical analysis was facilitated by L. Lagrange (1736–1813) and L. Euler (1707–1783). The founder of modern chemistry A.L. Lavoisier (1743–1794) compiled the first list of chemical elements. A characteristic feature of the scientific thought of the Enlightenment was that it focused on the practical use of scientific achievements in the interests of industrial and social development.

  The task of educating the people, which the enlighteners set themselves, required careful attention to the issues of upbringing and education. Hence - a strong didactic beginning, manifested not only in scientific treatises, but also in literature. As a true pragmatist, who attached great importance to those disciplines that were necessary for the development of industry and trade, D. Locke spoke in his treatise Thoughts on parenting(1693). An upbringing novel can be called The life and amazing adventures of Robinson Crusoe(1719) D. Defoe (1660-1731). It presented a model of behavior of an intelligent individual and from a didactic standpoint showed the importance of knowledge and work in the life of an individual. The works of the founder of the English psychological novel S. Richardson (1689-1761), in whose novels - Pamela, or Rewarded Virtue(1740) and Clarissa Garlow, or The Story of a Young Lady(1748-1750) - the puritanical and educational ideal of personality was embodied. French educators also spoke about the decisive role of upbringing. K.A. Helvetius (1715-1771) in works About the mind(1758) and About a human(1769) proved the influence on the education of the "environment", i.e. living conditions, social structure, customs and mores. Rousseau, unlike other enlighteners, was aware of the limitations of reason. In the treatise About sciences and arts(1750) he questioned the cult of science and the boundless optimism associated with the possibility of progress, believing that with the development of civilization, the impoverishment of culture occurs. Rousseau's calls to return to nature were associated with these beliefs. In the essay Emil, or About education(1762) and in the novel Julia, or New Eloise(1761) he developed the concept of natural education based on the use of the natural abilities of a child, free at birth from vices and bad inclinations, which are later formed in him under the influence of society. According to Rousseau, children should have been brought up in isolation from society, one on one with nature.

  The enlightening thought was directed towards the construction of utopian models of both the ideal state as a whole and the ideal personality. Therefore, the 18th century. can be called the "golden age of utopia." The European culture of this time gave rise to a huge number of novels and treatises telling about the transformation of the world according to the laws of reason and justice - Will J. Mellier (1664-1729); Nature's Code, or the True Spirit of Her Laws(1773) Morelli; On the rights and obligations of a citizen(1789) G. Mabley (1709-1785); 2440 year(1770) L.S. Mercier (1740-1814). At the same time, D. Swift's novel (1667-1745) can be viewed as utopia and dystopia Gulliver's travels(1726), which debunks such fundamental ideas of the Enlightenment as the absolutization of scientific knowledge, belief in the law and natural man.

  In the artistic culture of the Enlightenment, there was no single style of the era, no single artistic language. Various stylistic forms simultaneously existed in it: later baroque, rococo, classicism, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. The ratio of different types of art changed. Music and literature came to the fore, the role of the theater increased. There was a change in the hierarchy of genres. Historical and mythological painting of the "grand style" of the 17th century gave way to paintings on everyday and moralizing themes (J. B. Chardin (1699-1779), W. Hogarth (1697-1764), J. B. Greuze (1725-1805 In the genre of portrait, there is a transition from splendor to intimacy (T. Gainsborough, 1727-1788, D. Reynolds, 1723-1792) A new genre of bourgeois drama and comedy appears in the theater, in which a new hero, a representative of the third estate, appears on the stage - P.O.Baumarchais (1732-1799) in Barber of Seville(1775) and The Marriage of Figaro(1784), K. Goldoni (1707-1793) in Servant of two masters(1745, 1748) and Innkeeper(1753). In the history of world theater, the names of R.B.Sheridan (1751-1816), G. Fielding (1707-1754), C. Gozzi (1720-1806) stand out.

  During the Age of Enlightenment, an unprecedented rise in the art of music took place. After the reform carried out by K.V. Gluck (1714–1787), opera became a synthetic art, combining music, singing and complex dramatic action in one performance. FJ Haydn (1732-1809) raised instrumental music to the highest level of classical art. The pinnacle of the musical culture of the Enlightenment is the work of JS Bach (1685–1750) and WA Mozart (1756–1791). The enlightenment ideal is especially vivid in Mozart's opera magical flute(1791), which is distinguished by the cult of reason, light, the idea of ​​man as the crown of the Universe.

  The educational movement, having common basic principles, did not develop in the same way in different countries. The formation of the Enlightenment in each state was associated with its political, social and economic conditions, as well as with national characteristics.

  English Enlightenment. The period of formation of the educational ideology falls on the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. It was the result and consequence of the English bourgeois revolution of the mid-17th century, which is the fundamental difference between the insular Enlightenment and the continental one. Having survived the bloody turmoil of civil war and religious intolerance, the British strove for stability, and not for a radical change in the existing system. Hence the moderation, restraint and skepticism that characterized the English Enlightenment. The national peculiarity of England was the strong influence of Puritanism on all spheres of public life, therefore, the belief in the limitless possibilities of reason, common for educational thought, was combined among English thinkers with deep religiosity.

  French Enlightenment distinguished by the most radical views on all issues of a political and social nature. French thinkers created doctrines that deny private property (Rousseau, Mably, Morelli), defending atheistic views (Diderot, Helvetius, P.A. Holbach). It was France, which for a century became the center of educational thought, that contributed to the rapid spread of advanced ideas in Europe - from Spain to Russia and North America. These ideas inspired the ideologues of the Great French Revolution, which radically changed the social and political structure of France.

  American enlightenment. The movement of American enlighteners is closely connected with the struggle of the British colonies in North America for independence (1775-1783), which culminated in the creation of the United States of America. T. Payne (1737–1809), T. Jefferson (1743–1826) and B. Franklin (1706–1790) were involved in the development of socio-political programs that prepared the theoretical basis for building an independent state. Their theoretical programs formed the basis of the main legislative acts of the new state: the Declaration of Independence of 1776 and the Constitution of 1787.

  German Enlightenment. The development of the German Enlightenment was influenced by the political fragmentation of Germany and its economic backwardness, which determined the predominant interest of German enlighteners not in socio-political problems, but in questions of philosophy, morality, aesthetics and education. A peculiar version of the European Enlightenment was the literary movement "Storm and Onslaught" , to which Herder, Goethe and Schiller belonged. Unlike their predecessors, they had a negative attitude towards the cult of reason, preferring the sensual principle in man. A feature of the German Enlightenment was also the flourishing of philosophical and aesthetic thought (G. Lessing Laocoon, or on the boundaries of painting and poetry, 1766; I. Winkelman Ancient art history,1764).

  Enlightenment is considered the stage in the development of European culture in the late 17th - early 19th centuries. Rationalism, intelligence, science - these three concepts began to come to the fore. Belief in man becomes the basis of the ideology of the Enlightenment. The eighteenth century is a time of great hopes of man for himself and his capabilities, a time of faith in the human mind and the high purpose of man. The enlighteners were convinced that a healthy fantasy, imagination, feeling must be formed. Books began to appear in which writers wanted to put as much information as possible about the world around people, to give them an idea of ​​other countries and continents. Of course, one cannot but recall such famous people as Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau. A whole variety of genres from a scientific encyclopedia to a parenting novel appears during this period. Voltaire said in this connection: "All genres are beautiful, except the boring one."

  Voltaire(1694-1778)

  Voltaire's creative heritage is enormous: fifty volumes, six hundred pages each. It was about him that Victor Hugo said that "this is not a man, this is an EPOCH." Voltaire still has the fame of an outstanding scientist, philosopher and poet. What can be found in Voltaire's Philosophical Letters? The principles of philosophy, which are still relevant now: tolerance, the right to freely express their own thoughts. What about religion? This was also a hot topic. It turns out that the enlighteners, in particular Voltaire, did not reject the existence of God, but rejected the influence of God on the fate of man. It is known that the Russian Empress Catherine the Great was in correspondence with Voltaire. After the death of the philosopher, she wanted to buy his library along with their correspondence - but the letters were bought and subsequently published by Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais, author of The Marriage of Figaro.

  By the way, Voltaire's working day lasted from 18 to 20 hours. At night, he often got up, woke up the secretary and dictated to him, or he wrote himself. He also drank up to 50 cups of coffee a day.

  Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712 - 1778)

  Rousseau was not a supporter of radical measures, but his ideas were inspired by the fighters for the ideals of the Great French Revolution.

  Also, like Voltaire, he is a French philosopher, one of the most influential thinkers of the 18th century, the ideological predecessor of the French Revolution. In his first works, Rousseau expressed the provisions of his worldview. The foundations of civil life, the division of labor, property, the state and laws are only the source of inequality, misery and depravity of people. Proceeding from the idea that man is naturally endowed with a penchant for good, Rousseau believed that the main task of pedagogy is the development of good inclinations embedded in man by nature. From this point of view, Rousseau rebelled against all violent methods in education, and especially against cluttering the child's mind with unnecessary knowledge. Rousseau's ideas influenced the leaders of the French Revolution, they are recorded in the American Constitution, his pedagogical theories still make themselves felt indirectly in almost every school around the world, and his influence on literature has survived to this day. Rousseau developed his political ideas in a number of works, culminating in the 1762 treatise On the Social Contract. "Man was born to be free, and yet he is everywhere in chains." These words, with which the first chapter of the treatise begins, went around the world.

  By the way, Jean-Jacques Rousseau was the author of the musical dictionary and wrote the comic opera "The Village Wizard", which became the ancestor of French opera-vaudeville and held out on the French opera stage for over 60 years. As a result of his conflict with the church and government (early 1760s, after the publication of the book "Emile, or On Education"), Rousseau's inherent suspicion took on extremely painful forms. He saw conspiracies everywhere. It was his "Social Contract" that inspired the fighters for the ideals of the Great French Revolution; Rousseau himself, paradoxically, has never been a supporter of such radical measures.

  Denis Diderot(1713-1784)

  Diderot traveled around Russia with pleasure and lived in St. Petersburg.

  The French philosopher and educator is a foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Founder and editor of the "Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts". In the philosophical works of Denis Diderot, being a supporter of the enlightened monarchy, he spoke out with irreconcilable criticism of absolutism, the Christian religion and the church, defended (relying on sensationalism) materialistic ideas. Diderot's literary works were written mainly in the traditions of the realistic everyday novel of the Enlightenment. If the bourgeoisie sought to destroy the class barriers between itself and the privileged nobility, then Diderot destroyed the class barriers in literary genres. From now on, the tragedy became more humanized. All estates could be represented in a dramatic work. At the same time, the rationalistic construction of characters gave way to a real depiction of living people. Like Voltaire, he did not trust the masses, who, in his opinion, were incapable of sound judgment in "moral and political matters." Diderot maintained friendly relations with Dmitry Golitsyn. As an art critic, he wrote annual reviews of art exhibitions - "Salons". And from 1773 to 1774, Diderot, at the invitation of Catherine II, traveled to Russia and lived in St. Petersburg.

  Montesquieu (1689-1755)

  Montesquieu developed the doctrine of the separation of powers.

  Full name is Charles-Louis de Second, Baron La Brad and de Montesquieu. French writer, jurist and philosopher, author of the novel "Persian Letters", articles from the "Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts", work "On the Spirit of Laws", a supporter of a naturalistic approach to the study of society. Developed the doctrine of the separation of powers. Montesquieu led a simple solitary life, and with full spiritual strength and deep seriousness concentrated on the task of the observer, thinking and seeking the norm. The post of President of the Bordeaux Parliament, inherited by Montesquieu in 1716, soon began to weigh him down. In 1726 he left this position, but, as the owner of the castle of La Bred, he faithfully retained the corporate convictions of the parliamentary aristocracy.

  He was a type of French aristocrat who was already rare at that time, who did not allow himself to be caught by the temptations of the court, and became a scientist in the spirit of noble independence. Montesquieu's great travels across Europe in 1728-1731 had the character of serious research trips. Montesquieu actively attended literary salons and clubs, was familiar with many writers, scientists, diplomats. Among his interlocutors, for example, can be attributed to the French researcher of controversial issues of international law Gabriel Mably.

  
  

  1 See; Markov G.E. The history of economy and material culture in primitive and early class society. Moscow: Moscow State University, 1979.S. 1920.

  1 Chelle culture - about 600-400 thousand years ago, it was named so from finds near the city of Chelle (France). It is characterized by extremely primitive stone tools, hand axes. Facilities: hunting and gathering. The physical type of a person is Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Atlanthropus, Heidelberg man, etc.

  2 Exogamy is the prohibition of marriages within the same collective.

  1 Rig Veda - a collection of religious hymns of ideological and cosmological content, took shape in the 10th century. BC.

  1 See: History of the national economy: Dictionary-reference book / Ed. A.N. Markova.
  - M.: VZFEI, 1995. - S. 19.

  1 The Hittite kingdom arose in the 17th century BC. in Asia Minor; during its heyday (XIV-XIII centuries BC) it also included some areas of the Eastern Mediterranean and Northern Mesopotamia. In the XII century. BC. under the onslaught of the peoples of the sea, the Hittite state ceased to exist.

  1 Founded in the 16th century. BC. the Hurri tribes who came from the Iranian highlands; occupied a significant part of Northern Mesopotamia, in the XIV century. BC. was subdued by the Hittites.

  1 On the territory of the Eastern Mediterranean in the III-II millennium BC. city-states appear, the largest of which were Ebla and Ugarit in Syria, Hazor in Palestine, Byblos and Sidon in Phenicia. In the XII century. BC. on the territory of Palestine, an Israeli state begins to form.

  2 This state arose in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. in the valley of the Kerhe and Karun rivers (southwest of modern Iran): the history of Elam is closely related to the history of Mesopotamia. XII century BC. was the heyday of the state, in the VI century. BC. it became part of the Achaemenid state.

  1 Existed at the end of the 4th-1st centuries. BC, covered part of the Middle East, Iran and Afghanistan.

  1 Greek archaio - ancient.

  1 Cities united in a Union (from German hanza - union).

  1 Spanish adventurer conquerors.

  1 The Independents (English - literally. Independent) - a political party that expressed the interests of the radical wing of the bourgeoisie and the newly bourgeoisized new nobility, were in power in 1649-1660.

  1 Levellers (English - literal equalizers) - a radical political party.

  2 Diggers (English - literal diggers) - the extreme left wing of the revolutionary democracy, stood out from the levellers movement.

  1 In the XV-XVII centuries. French kings waged a long struggle with the Habsburgs: the Italian wars of 1494-1559, the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. In 1667, France launched the Devolutionary War against Spain, using hereditary, so-called devolutionary law as a pretext. According to the Treaty of Ankhen, concluded in 1668, France retained 11 cities it had captured, but returned Frant-Conte to Spain.

  1 Anabaptists demanded a second baptism (at a conscious age), denied the church hierarchy, opposed wealth, for community of property.

  1 Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 7. - P. 342.

  1 Ansei treaties - unequal treaties concluded by the USA, Russia, England and France with Japan in 1854-1858, which put an end to the external isolation of Japan.

  1 Marx K. Engels F. Soch. T.4. - S. 524.