According to the teachings of a democritus, the emptiness shares the smallest particles of being - "Atoms" (indivisible). The democritus of such atoms admits countless, thereby rejects the statement that being is one. Atoms, on democritus, separated by emptiness; The emptiness is non-existence and, as such, unrecognizable: rejecting Parmenide's approval that being unrecognizable.
It is also characteristic that the democritus distinguishes the world of atoms - as a true and therefore knowing only the mind - and the world of sensual things representing only external visibility, the essence of which is atoms, their properties and movements. Atoms can not be seen, they can only think.
5. Socrates and Sofists: Anthropological turn in ancient Greek philosophy. Basic principles of the reduced method. Ethics Socrates.
Socrates - an ancient Greek philosopher, the teaching of which marks the turn in philosophy - from the consideration of nature and the world, to the consideration of man. Sentenced to death for "corruption of youth" and "an urgency of the gods". His activity is a turning point of ancient philosophy. With its method of analyzing the concepts (Mayevistic, dialectics) and the identification of virtue and knowledge, he sent the attention of philosophers on the unconditional importance of the human person.
For Socrates, it is characteristic that he, for example, they took money for training), at the same time, in their work and views, they expressed those features of philosophical activities that were specific to the sophists. Socrates does not recognize the problems characteristic of philosophers of those times: reflection on nature, its origin, about the universe, etc. According to Socrates, philosophy should not be engaged in the consideration of nature, but by man, its moral qualities, and the essence of knowledge. Ethics issues are the main thing that philosophy should do, and it was the main subject of abstracts.
"... Socrates explored the moral virtues and the first tried to give their general definitions (because of the reasoning about nature only democritus it concerned this and some way gave the definitions of warm and cold; and the Pythagoreans - before it - they did it for a few, determine what they were reduced to the numbers When pointing, for example, what is a convenient case, or justice, or marital. ... two things can be for justice to attribute Socrates - evidence through guidance and general definitions: both concerns the beginning of knowledge, "wrote Aristotle (" Metaphysics ", XIII , four).
The reduced reduction method to justify its views enjoys the method developed by him, which included in the history of philosophy called the Socratic, namely - dialectic, the art of a dialectic dispute. Dialectics - a method through which ethical concepts are also submitted. For Socrates, philosophy is the consideration of a particular moral phenomenon, in the course of which we come to the definition of what this phenomenon represents, that is, to the definition of its essence.
Sophistic movement (450-350 BC) completed the evolution of disadvantaged thinking and laid the foundations of the next stage of the development of Greek philosophy. Softeers found unsatisfactory diverse teachings of their predecessors and criticized them. The theoretical foundations of sofics were developed by Protagore. Relying on relativism (recognition of relativity, conventions and subjectivity of knowledge) Heraclita, Protagogur taught that things are as they seem to any of us; Everyone is truth; Man is a measure of all things. Based on these provisions, the practical application of sofism to moral and social life was developed. Sofists put forward the thesis on the relativity of the law and argued that everyone has the right to use any means to meet their desires.
The period of the activities of the Sofists who split mythical models and raise the traditional ideas about morality, sometimes as Greek enlightenment. Softeers interested in man and society act as the predecessors of the new paradigm of Greek thinking, in which the center of the study is no longer nature, but a person.
The Socrates method, which he used in his dialogues:
1. Doubt - the most wise one who understands that "I know that I don't know anything."
2. Irony - identification of contradictions in the statements of the interlocutor.
4. Induction - Identification of empirical data, facts confirming the answer
5. Definition - final definition.
Thus, the Socrates method is a mission dialogue. I thought that knowledge is good. Evil comes from ignorance. Knowledge is a source of moral perfection.
PROTAGOR ... Man - Measure of all things
Lev Balashov
The ancient Greek philosopher Protagor put forward the thesis: "Man is a measure of all things that exist that they exist, and non-existent that they do not exist." For example, the same wind blows, but someone frowns at the same time, and someone is not. So can we say that the wind is cold or warm in itself?
Logic A. M. Anisov comments: "This is a very convenient philosophy, because it allows you to justify anything. Once a person has a measure of all things, he acts as a measure of truth and lies. Hence the thesis of Sofists that each statement can be equal to how to justify, and refute. Some sophists were ready to reach the absurd "[Anisov A. M. Modern logic. M., 2002. S. 19].
This is one conclusion from the thesis of the protagora. However, other assessments of the thesis are also possible, quite positive. In fact, all the information coming from the outside, a person misses through himself, through his body, personality, soul, mind. Naturally, he will be the will of the unill with a sort of meril filter.
The thesis of the protagora and points to this property of a person, that a person in assessing-looking at things can not jump out of himself, from his "skins", to be 100% impartial, objective, that in his thoughts, he always contributes to a particle , its subjectivity (and as an individual, and as a representative of one or another commonality, and as a representative of the entire human race).
Better about this initial, unreasonable subjectivity to know in advance how to deceive yourself and others. The thesis of Protagor protects us from all sorts of prophets, clairvoyants, lzhemudretsov who declare themselves by the guardians of truth-truth.
Unlike Protagora, who developed the doctrine of the relativity of truth and all knowledge on the example, above all, the sensual stage of knowledge, the second famous Sofist Gorgiy (485-378 BC) founded his teaching on the difficulties in which The mind trying to build a consistent worldview at the level of philosophical categories (one and much, being and non-existence, being and thinking). And if Protagora taught that everything is true, then Gorgi claims that everything is false. The main content of the views of Gorgia was outlined in the composition "On non-judicial, or about nature." In the first section of his essay, he proves that there is nothing; In the second, - that if something even exists, it is incomprehensible; In the third - that if it is comprehensible, it is inexpressible and inexplicable for others. It can be said that here we are talking primarily that there is no anything unconditional outside of a person.
The first thesis is nothing - Gorgius proves, based on the teachings on the unity of the existence of eleans and the multiplicity of atomists. Eleata proved that there can be no non-existence. Gorgius also proves that, and being cannot exist, being multiple and united at the same time. The concept of being contradictory and, therefore, it is untenable.
Speaking about the unrecognizability of things, Gorgiy proceeds from the denial of the identity of being and thinking. The existence and thinking do not coincide, therefore, the thought does not contain in itself, and it is impossible to know that it is impossible. On the same basis, it is approved and the inability to express, convey knowledge, for it is transmitted by words. Words, as well as thought do not coincide with the judgment, i.e. Words do not contain things about which we inform through words. In short, the existence does not coincide with the thought, nor with a word and it is impossible to know nor to express - everything is false. Nihilism Gorgiya stems from a one-way approach to flexibility and plasticity of concepts, their internal contradictions, reflective fluidity, variability, inconsistency of this world itself
6. The main part of the philosophy of Plato, which gave the name to a whole direction of philosophy is the doctrine of ideas (Eidos), the existence of two worlds: the world of ideas (Eidos) and the world of things, or forms. Ideas (Eidosa) are the prototypes of things, their origins. Ideas (EIDOS) underlie the entire set of things formed from non-formless matter. Ideas - the source of everything, the matter itself can no longer generate anything.
The world of ideas (Eidos) exists outside of time and space. In this world there is a certain hierarchy, at the top of which is the idea of \u200b\u200bgood, from which all the others are stem. The benefit of identically absolute beauty, but at the same time, the Creator of the Universe began to be the beginning of all. In myth about the cave, the benefit is depicted as the Sun, ideas are symbolized by those creatures and objects that pass before the cave, and the cave itself is the image of the material world with its illusions.
The idea (EIDOS) of any thing or creature is the deepest, intimate and significant in it. In humans, the role of idea performs his immortal soul. The ideas (EIDOS) have the qualities of constancy, unity and purity, and things - variability, multiplicity and distortion.
A man's soul is represented by Plato in a chariot with a rider and two horses, white and black. The right symbolizes a reasonable start in man, and horses: white - noble, higher qualities of the soul, black - passion, desire and instinctive start. When a person is in a different world, he (the right) is able to contemplate eternal truths with the gods. When a person is born in the world of material, the knowledge of these truths remains in his soul as a memory. Therefore, according to Plato's philosophy, the only way for a person is to know - it is to remember, find in the things of the sensual world of "reflections" of ideas. When a person manages to see the traces of ideas - through beauty, love or fair matters - then, according to Plato, the wings of the soul, once lost it, again begin to grow.
From here - the importance of the teachings of Plato about beauty, about the need to look for it in nature, people, art or well-arranged laws, because when the soul gradually dates back to the contemplation of the beauty of physical beauty to the beauty of sciences and arts, further - to the beauty of morals and customs, is The best way to soul climb on the "Golden Stair" to the world of ideas.
plato's knowledge about knowledge is inseparable from his teaching about being, from his psychology, cosmology and mythology. The doctrine of knowledge turns into a myth. According to Plato, our soul is immortal. Before she settled on the ground and accepted the bodily shell, the soul as if he contemplated the truly significant being and kept knowledge about him. A person will know if anyone will know, but only answering the questions, that is, the knowledge will handle in itself, therefore, will remember. Therefore, the essence of the cognition process, according to Platon, is to remember the soul of those ideas that she had ever contemplated.
Plato wrote that "And since in nature, everything is relatively familiar with each other, and the soul everyone has known, nothing prevents someone who remembered something - people call it knowledge - he himself and everything else, if only he is tireless in search " Therefore, the nature of the soul should be akin to the nature of "ideas". "The soul is similar to the Divine, and the body with mortals, we read by Plato," ... Divine, immortal, breathtaking, uniform, indeed-", constant and unchanged in itself. The highest degree of our soul. " According to J. Real: "The soul must have a similar nature with the Absolute, otherwise ... Everything is always staying outside the ability of the soul to perception."
True value gives only thinking. Thinking is independent of sensual perceptions, an absolutely independent process of remember. Sensual perception generates only the opinion about things. In this regard, the process of cognition is determined by Plato as a dialectic, that is, the art of the authorities are speaking, the art of questions and answer them, awakening memories. In other words, this is a reasonable comprehension of truly births of being or ideas is "the most advanced knowledge." Plato's dialectic is the path or movement of thought through inexistan to true. Call the soul to reflection maybe such an impression or such a thought that contradictions conclude. "What affects the sensations at the same time with its opposite, I defined as prompting," said Plato, "and that this way does not affect, then the thought does not wake up." The first half of the problem of dialectical, in Platonic sense, the study is to determine the definite, precisely fixed definition of the "species". It is necessary, according to Plato himself, "covering everything in a common look, to arreed to a single idea that everywhere separately, in order to, giving everyone to make a clear object of teaching." The second half of the same task is to "divide on species on the natural components, while trying not to split any of them."
Outstanding among thinkers' sophists was protigor (481 - 411 BC). It owns more than a dozen essays. If Socrates did not record his thoughts at all, leaning only for a living word, then Protagor, also masterfully spent the word, sought to systematize and state his experience of knowledge. He was a student of Democrit - a philosopher-atomist. Arriving in Athens, he got close to the pericles, became one of his like-minded people, a lot discussed with him on the issues of law. He began his essay "about the gods" as follows: "I can't know about the gods if they don't have them, because too much hinders such knowledge - and the question of Duman, and the human life is short." For that, he was accused of wormlessly, his books were publicly burned, and the Protagon himself was expelled from the city. He belongs to the thought, still causing objections and disputes of philosophers: "A person is a measure of all things that exist as existing and non-existent as non-existent." Back in antiquity, starting from Plato, in this thoughts saw subjectivism and relativism, doubts about the objective truth. Whatever the disputes around this thoughts of the protagora, it remains one of the deepest in the history of spiritual culture, it is expressed by a simple fact of ordinary human life, neglect of which in the history of culture often led to tragedies. The fact that a person considers existing ones, it really exists for him, but what he considers non-existent, then for him does not exist. People brought many victims in the name of what existed only in their consciousness, and neglected often really existing values, but only because they did not realize them as existing ones. A person looks at the world not by eyes, data by nature, but the "eyes" of his consciousness, his culture, Protagora was interested in primarily a person in his attitude to the truth: a person is a measure of all things. The truth of man in his self-determination is that he must make his choice by himself, to determine the measure of his behavior. But Protagora is told at all: a man. This means that each of the people not only has the right to self-determination, but also must recognize the same right in other people. The thought of Protagora became the first in the history of European culture to the proclamation of humanism. Recall the principle of Jene Confucius: what you do not want yourself, do not do others. Only at first glance the thought of the protagodore and the principle of Confucius seem different. In fact, we are talking about very close - about the attitude towards personality. In fact, what do we most wish for yourself? No one wishes for sickness, poverty, deformities, etc. But if the misfortune happens, then a person finds a way out or somehow reconciles, adapts. But he cannot put together so that someone doubted his right to be sideways. If we do not want someone to doubt this on our right, we should not doubt the ability of others to be a person. This is stated in Zhen. But the thought of the protagora about Tom Lee: a man - a measure, he determines himself, and human attitude towards him means the pretty of all recognition of this right. Finally, the thought of Protagora, which was his philosophical credo, became not only the wording of humanly understanding truth, not only the initial understanding of humanism in European culture, but also the principle, according to which this culture should be organized. Miloraly say more: Protigorev found an exact and concise expression for the general cultural ideal.I know the world. Tsukanov philosophy Andrei Lvovich
"Man is a measure of all things"
Many familiar with the word "Sophism" - pronounced, as a rule, with a shade of neglect in a voice and denoting pseudomudrous, pseudo-diet statement. This word dates back to the name of the traditions of Sofists existing in the ancient Greece, or teachers of wisdom. They created schools where they were taught by the boys in various sciences and arts, the main of which they won art to formulate and defend their opinion on one or another important philosophical issues. Sofists loved to argue literally about everything - about the structure of the world, about being, about man and society, about mathematics, music, poetry and many other things. Often, these arguments seemed to be paradoxical, contradictory, but the sophists had little bothered - most importantly, they considered the reasoning, proving this or that opinion, was logically slim. And whether it matches the truth or not - it does not matter, for the sophists believed that there is no and there can be no common or objective truth.
Sofists occupied the philosophical position of doubt against the fact that the first naturophilosophical falev systems, Parmenides, Heraklit, Democritus, etc. were approved by the first natural philosophical systems, and others. Sofists believed that if we adopt a point of view of one or another naturophilosophy, then it would have to admit that human knowledge is simply impossible. After all, knowledge is the process of promoting or developing consciousness. If, for example, take the position of Parmenide on the impossibility of movement, then no process, including cognitive, is impossible. If, on the contrary, take the position of Hercelit that "everything flows, everything changes," it turns out that knowledge is simply nothing to rely on. Indeed, if I really knew something about the subject, then the next point in time and this item has changed, and I, who knows it, also changed - thus, the knowledge gained is inexpan, it seems to hang in the air.
One of the most famous sophists, Gorgiy (approx. 483-373 BC), EmPedocla student, first formulated three principle of relativity of human knowledge:nothing exists; If something exists, it cannot be known; And if you can learn it, you can not know this knowledge and explain to the other. Interestingly, Gorgiy attached great importance to the main one from the methods of transmission of information - speech. "Speech," he said, "he is a powerful lord who performs divine affairs the smallest and the most famous body, for it is capable of being removed, and to take sorrow, and cause care, and increase sympathy."
Another famous Sofist, Protagor (approx. 481-411 BC), considering the problem of knowledge, believed that it is exclusively a personal matter of every person. There is no common, objective knowledge of the world, each person knows something, and itself determines the truth of his knowledge. Protagora belongs to the famous phrase: "Man is a measure of all things," Talking not about the fact that a person rules over the world, but that he has no other criterion for the truth of his knowledge about the world, except for himself.
Softeers became famous for expressed many very controversial thoughts. What can only say one phrase of Sofist Frasimakh that "justice is nothing but the benefit of the strongest." Nevertheless, Sophisticatics played a very important role in the development of philosophy - first, she set the question of the relativity of philosophical knowledge, and, secondly, prepared an understanding that a person is a center of philosophy, and this has created the soil to appear the teachings of such great philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
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The first paid eloquence teacher in Athens is considered PROTAGOR. (Prutagóras) from the city of Abdara (480 - about 410). This provincial, as they said, "Husband Radastic, captivating, eloquent," arrived to conquer Athens, to find the use of his talent of a witty thinker and speaker to achieve recognition in a rich city.
In his youth, he studied at the famous Democritus (considered the founder of materialism), he was familiar with the wisdom of Egyptian magicians, from which he took over, perhaps some of the leaders of the crowd and learned the benefit of atheism as an ideal weapon to demoralize the people.
Protagor openly announced for the first time that there are no truths as such and therefore everything that seems to be such. This teaching was formulated in his "no obduction speeches" so: " Man is a measure of all things existing that they exist and do not exist that they do not exist " four . In other words, there is subjective truth: how many people, so much in their own correct opinions. "Who seems to be, so it is." Unified, common to all truth, according to Protagor, no (such a doctrine is called "relativism", For which any knowledge is relatively). The practical conclusion from this philosophy: anyone's right, but he must be able to prove his point of view.
A logical error that is contained in the teaching of the prostagor is that it replaces the concepts: the truth (objective) on the sensation (subjective). But truth is not a feeling. So his behalf itself is a sophism.
How to choose from a variety of subjective opinions? Protagoras answered this that the main selection criterion is the benefit, how much of this or that judgment is more useful in each given case.
According to the teachings of the protagoda, there are two mutually exclusive and at the same time, there are two interchangeable phenomenon and at the same time. For example: "The sea water is purest and at the same time dirty. Purest for fish, dirty for man."Pupils generally received a fairly wide education of this erudite, which even respected Socrates, although the essence of his philosophousism did not accept, rejecting the principle of anthropocentrism and subjectivism. Why is a man of measure of all things, he asked, - and not a pig or a cikesopal, or something else is ridiculous? And further Socrates says that in the midst of its protagoras no higher than the overseas 5.
Greece of that epoch also experienced the time of the disassembled democratic rampant, which in the end and led Athena to the full moral, economic, political and eventually military collapse (defeat in the Peloponnescent War 431-404); And Protagor put the philosophical substantiation of freedom of opinions. In practice, it looked not quite beautiful, especially in his followers, the so-called junior Sofistswho saw in the teachings of their spiritual father an excellent justification for their shameless behavior in the dispute.
Protagigar took huge money for the lessons - 30 min (13 kg) of silver, which was a whole state in rich Athens. Obviously, the student's father did not bother, providing his mother's career.
Protagigar made a huge contribution to the theory and practice of learning to oratory. He introduced training disputes, forced to write speech "pros and cons" (pro. et. contra) . Pupils were obliged to justify and then refute the same thesis (the highest skill of the Sofist).
Protagor was the author of many books. They did not reach us for the reason that the patience of the healthy part of the Athenian society ended, when Sofist raised the Greek gods, stating in the composition of the Gods, that "it's impossible to know about the gods that they are not what they are like; And the reason for this: the ambiguity of [the question] and the brevity of human life "6. It was regarded as an attempt to plant young minds: the broken rider was sent to the exile on the first cracked ship, and the books burned in protest against the destruction of traditional Ostones of the Athenian society. According to the legend, his ship immediately fell into a terrible storm and all died on it.
As an epitaph, Aristotle said: "People rightly hurt the profession of the protagoda: it represents a lie and not truly plausible, but seemingly such that cannot be found in any art, except for rhetoric and sofics." "Sophisticatics," Aristotle concludes, "there is an apparent wisdom, and not genuine, and Sophist is a person who knows how to receive money from apparent and not genuine wisdom."
A very characteristic figure of the second largest Sofist - Gorgia(483-375). Like the Protagor, he was not a native Athenian, but arrived in 427 BC From Leontin (on Sicily Island) as a diplomatic envoy. He had a task to convince Athens to help his native city, which at that time fought with the syrakuses. With his speech, he conquered the People's Assembly: The Athenian fleet was sent to the revenue and the siege was removed, and Morgius coated the well-deserved glory of an outstanding diplomat and speaker. After some time, he returns to Athens and, after Protagagor, becomes a successful eloquence teacher.
Gorgiy was a student of the famous Empedocle (490-430) - a doctor, philosopher, magician, head of the democrats party (according to Aristotle, and the creator of rhetoric).
If Protagur proved that every judgment is truly, then, according to Gorgia, every judgment is wrong. He argued about this way: "Nothing from the existing exists. If anything exists, it is unrecognizable. If he is learned, then indescribable"(from the treatise "On Nature, or Non-existent"). Such philosophy was named agnosticism (The doctrine of the unknowability of the world).
Those who started to think about this plausible statement could not not see the hidden ridicule over the listener. After all, if any statement is false, it applies to this statement, therefore, this is a judgment (that any statement is false) there is a lie.
Gorgius contemptively referred to words - both his own and strangers. After herself, he left the famous polemical admission - trunk Gorgia. Its essence is that serious objections of the opponent should be met by a joke, mockingly, and all the humorial words to disassemble with everything possible seriousness.
Gorgia, the eloquence was simultaneously a demonstration of the freedom of thinking, from which, as is known, to file to cynicism and complete amoralism. According to Gorgia, the speaker should not be similar to ordinary people. People Gorgiy despised and taught such a relation to his fellow citizens of Athenian boys. "The art of convincing people a lot above all the arts, as it makes everyone with their slaves by goodwill, and not for coercion."
One of the two speeches written by him - "praise Elena" - perfectly passes both the features of the style and the views of the author on the rhetoric. In it, he appeals to the popular story about the abduction of the beauty of the beauty of Elena - the wife of Tsar Menel, because of what the Trojan War began (described in Iliad).
It was believed that Elena was to blame that he changed his spouse. This point of view of Gorgii takes to challenge in his speech, which was composed of them as some training speech, designed to demonstrate the spectrian talent of the author. In shape it is closest to the lawsuit's judicial speech.
Gorgiy consistently lists everything, as it seems to him, possible reasons why Elena could be in the hands of the kidnapper (the militant of the gods, violent abduction, the action of persuasion or a love passion). Considering each of them, he concludes that Elena could not have a weak woman to provide any resistance to any of four factors 7.
It is especially interesting how Gorgiy speaks here about strength that has a verbal impact. He directly equates the power of belief to gross violence, from which there is practically no protection: "The conviction ..., although it does not have the type of violence, coercion, but the same has the same. After all, we are talking to the soul, ... forces me to submit to the said, sympathize with the made. I convinced the same guilty, as forced ... ".
"Word- Morgiy emphasizes, "The greatest lord: the view is small and invisible, and things are wonderful."
He calls two means of magic: mental misconceptions and false ideas. It further indicates the dual power of the spell: pumps (musical or emotional component), which can and "joy to bring and sadness to take away", and word (rational component of speech), which "charms, convinces and reborn."
"And how many, how many and how many matters were convinced and will always convince, in a false using speech art!", - Speech says Gorgia "Praise Elena".
Listening to such sophistic arguments, the Greeks were put in a difficult situation and could not more relate to the words otherwise, except for the lying tool.
The time that Greece was experiencing in the second half of the 5th century to our era was the time of an extraordinary moral decline. Of course, the sophists were not the main perpetrators of the plant of an ancient society: they only formulated and expressed the general direction of the minds of democracy.
Despite the dubiousness of his philosophy, the older sophists made a positive contribution to the culture. First of all, of course, as the creators of rhetoric as a science of competent, beautiful speech. Gorgiy has developed many rhetorical prose techniques using poetic expressiveness to increase its force. Known "Gorgian Figures":
antithesis - members of the proposals facing the opposite respect ("Great Man on Small Causes", "fell hurts, got up great", etc.)
the equality of the phrase (similar in shape, exactly the corresponding to each other in volume as part of parallel offers, differently - isocholy),
crowing endings (the same sound of the final phrases, so that they constituted rhymes in speech).
A few words about other senior sophists.
Hippiusit is known for two dialogues of Plato - "Hippius Great" and "Hippius Little". It is depicted almost caricature: in disputes with Socrates, it is praised that the teaching managed to earn big money. Hippius believed that the laws of society contradict the natural laws of nature. The purpose of life has seen in achieving self-satisfaction - Avtarkia.
Prodictfrom Keos - a contemporary and a student of Protagor is considered the founder of synonyms. In the dialogue of Plato "Fedr", he puts himself in merit that only one he found in what the art of speeches is: they should not be long, no short, but in moderation. In other matters, it is a rather typical Sophist: he had a nickname " Suguriza, "and in character was a slave of money and was devoted to pleasure.
Antifon - Opponent Socrates, anharous pragmatist. Happiness believed in Nege and Luxury. He could convince anyone and whatever, for which he got a nickname.
Younger Sofists developed to the logical end of the teaching of the protagodore and Gorgia. They are just just liars and deceivers who for the sake of benefits trap truth and teach the same young people.
We highlight what is inherent to all sophists.
First -provincial Origin: Almost all of them arrived in Athens to earnings.
Second -corestolubie . For Athenian, it was an unthinkable affair to sell his knowledge, that is, becoming a slave from his student.
Third. What was uncomfortable or shame for a root inhabitant, no difficulty presented for Sofists. Their teaching at the base had a considerable share of simple shamelessness. From here them amoralism which they explained as a manifestation of pluralism of views.
(His teachings on the relativity of knowledge) are certain ontological ideas about the world. He is materialist. According to Send Empirik, Protagor thought that "the main causes of all phenomenon are in matter." But the main property of matter, according to Protagor, is not its objectivity and not the presence of some regular start in matter, but its variability, fluidity. In this, Protagor relied, apparently, to the chute, who was extremely unilaterally interpreted by a heraklite dialectic, emphasizing only relativism in it. If Heraclit argued that in the same river you can not enter twice, because there are all new waters on the incoming one that it is impossible to touch the same material entity twice, then the paint claimed that in the same river can not be logged in and once . Protagurus distributed this principle of the absolute variability of matter and on a learning subject: not only the world is constantly changing, but also perceiving his animated body. Sex Empirik continues: "This man says that the Matter is flowing, and during it, there are continuous additions on the place of loss, and perceptions are mixed and change, depending on the age and the rest of the body. As a subject, the object is continuously changing. In this thesis, the first ontological substantiation of the Sophistor's relathamatism.
The second justification is in the thesis that nothing exists in itself, and everything exists and arises only in relation to another. This shade of relativism Protagor Plato expressed this way: "Nothing is in itself, but everything always arises in connection with something."
The third substantiation of relativism is in the thesis, according to which everything changes not as hit, and so that all existing in the world constantly comes to the opposite. Therefore, every thing contains opposites in itself.
Of all these ontological principles of relativism, Protagor made a brave gosteological conclusion. If everything changes and goes to the opposite of themselves, then two opposite opinions are possible about each thing. Diogen Laercia Reports that Protagor "First said that every thing there are two opinions opposite to each other."
Having come to be convinced of the possibility of two opposite opinions about the thing or process, Protigor did the conclusion that "all true."
This statement of the protagora was criticized by a democritus, Plato and Aristotle. Democritis and Plato said that the statement "every fruit of imagination is true" drawn against himself. After all, "if every fruit of imagination is true, in this case, the opinion that not every imagination is true, since it is made by imagination, it will be truly, and thus the situation that every imagination is truly true." Aristotle in Rtorika wrote: "[ProTagora's business] There is a lie and Nisanda, but seemingly likely, and [he has no place] in any art, except in rhetoric and eristic." Protagor teaches "to make the weaker speech strongest."
However, these objections would not be confused. Seneca reports that Protagor and himself claimed that it was equally said to "for" and "against" not only about anything, but also about anything about any things you can speak "for" and "against". That is, Protigorem allowed: the thesis that there are two opposite opinions about the same thing, which is not more true than the opposite thesis - that there can be two opposite opinions about the same thing.
Democritus and Protagor. Artist Salvator Rosa, 1663-1664
"Man is a measure of all things"
From these considerations and follows the famous thesis of the protagodore, which is contained in his "no obduction speeches." At the Sex of empirica, we read: "At the beginning of their" no obduction speeches ", he [Protagor] proclaimed:" A person is a measure of all things that exist that they exist, non-existent that they do not exist. " Plato passed the same words of Protagora: "The essence of things for each person is special, - according to Protagora, claiming that the" measure of all things is - a man, "and, therefore, what things are that things are that they will be for me, and what You, those they will be for you. " In another work, Plato, again leading the words of Protagora: "The measure of all things is the person existing that they exist, and non-existent that they do not exist," explains: Protagor "says that it seems to me, Such is, it is for me, and what is it like you, in turn, for you ... Isn't it sometimes sometimes that the same wind blows, and someone frowned at the same time, someone is not? And someone is not too, and someone is strong? " One person the wind "seems," continues Plato, cold, and there is no other. But "seem" means "felt". The question arises: can we say that the wind is cold in itself or only cold relative to someone?
Plato concludes that Protagogue is right in its approval of the subjectivity of sensations, but it is not right in approving that they are all true. In fact, there is no truth in sensations, the subjectivity of sensations says that the feeling is not knowledge.
The question of the criteria of truth from the prostagora
Does the prostagor have any criterion of truth? What still allows man to express certain judgments about the world? Here the position of the protagora is not clear. Sex Empirik claims that Protagor did not have any criterion: "It means that it is impossible to take anything outside [subjective] state, then it is necessary to trust everything that is perceived according to the appropriate state. In this regard, some and came to the conclusion that Protagor rejects the criterion, because this last wants to be a connoisseur of the existing in itself and the distinguished truth and lies, and the above-mentioned husband did not leave anything in itself or lies. " However, there are other information that Protagor believed: no one has a false opinion, but one opinion may be if not truly, then better (Platon 167 V). Opinions of the sage better opinions of ordinary people. Here, Protagor goes to the position of a democritus, which did the measure of all things not anything, and the wiser, proclaimed that the sage is a measure of all things.
But the main thing is still not in this. The main criterion, according to Protagor, is the benefit. Here it is already moving from gnoseological relativism to the ethical.
Protagor about the relativity of morality
Of course, the criterion of benefits is limited, because it acts only in the case when we define what is good and what is bad. Just like there is no objective heat and cold, so there is no objective good and evil. Of course, they can say that good is what is good to your Fatherland, and it is bad that he is bad, but the state consists of individuals and what is useful to one of them, harmful to another. Good and evil relative. In determining what is good, and what is bad, it is necessary to proceed from its benefit and the benefits of both personal and in the best case state. So, Protagogur justified the activities of the Sofists, who sought not to truth, but to victory over their opponents in dispute or litigation.