Geographical position of the Novgorod land. Novgorod land in the XII - early XIII centuries

History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century Leonid Milov

§ 2. Novgorod land in the XII-XIII centuries.

Princely power and Novgorod in the 9th-11th centuries. Already during its stay in the Old Russian state, the Novgorod land had important differences from other Old Russian lands. The local elite of the Slovenes, Krivichi and Chudi, who invited in the IX century. Varangian king to become a military leader of the union, was not in the X-XI centuries. neither destroyed nor included in the princely squad. The conditions of the "row" of the 9th century, apparently, were observed to a certain extent by both sides, although the position of the prince, who represented the interests of Kiev here, by the beginning of the 11th century. clearly increased, as evidenced by his move from the Rurik settlement to the very center of the earth - Novgorod.

In the events associated with the struggle of the Novgorod prince Yaroslav for the Kiev table after the death of Vladimir in 1015, the population of Novgorod, led by the "best men", acted as an independent force along with the prince and his retinue. When, having suffered defeat in the fight with his brother Svyatopolk, Yaroslav wanted to flee "overseas", the Novgorodians cut his ships and forced him to continue the fight. Mentioned in the chronicle and "veche" - a meeting of the population of Novgorod, which the prince gathered "on the field" to enlist the support of the Novgorodians in the fight for the Kiev table.

The chronicle testimony of the voluntary self-taxation of the city population for hiring Varangians "overseas" to help Yaroslav speaks of social division among the Novgorodian population: they collected "4 kuns from a husband, and 18 hryvnias from boyars." Since the hryvnia at that time consisted of 25 kunas, the boyar's contribution was more than a hundred times higher than the contribution of an ordinary Novgorod citizen. It is obvious that the local elite - the boyars - had already quite clearly separated from the rest of the population, and the boyars had a lot of money in their hands. These funds were accumulated due to the fact that the boyars, along with the princely squad, played an important role in collecting tribute from the Novgorod land. This is evidenced by the finds by archaeologists on the boyar estates of Novgorod of locks from bags for collecting tribute. Management of the Novgorod land in the XI century. carried out jointly by the top of the local city community and the governor of the Kiev prince, who was sitting in Novgorod - his son and his retinue, but the main role in this belonged to the governor-governor, who relied on the support of a powerful father in Kiev.

The emergence of the Novgorod posadnichestvo. The first important step towards changing these relations in their favor was taken by the Novgorod community in the 80s. XI century, when the deep internal political crisis of the Old Russian state was already clearly indicated. In 1088 the Kiev prince Vsevolod Yaroslavin sent his young grandson Mstislav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, to reign in Novgorod. At this time, next to the young prince, a kind of co-ruler appeared - the "mayor", who was elected by the Novgorodians themselves. Posadniki continued to be elected even when the prince came of age. The Novgorod urban community clearly sought to strengthen its role in the management of the Novgorod land. After the death of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, the Novgorodians ensured that Mstislav remained on the Novgorod table against the wishes of the new Kiev prince Svyatopolk.

The struggle of the Novgorod city community against the princely power. At the end of the second decade XII v. the desire of the Novgorod urban community for greater independence collided with the policy of Monomakh, aimed at restoring the strong positions of the Kiev prince as the head of the Old Russian state. Monomakh, without asking the opinion of the Novgorodians, imprisoned his grandson Vsevolod Mstislavich in Novgorod in 1117, and summoned the disgruntled Novgorod boyars to Kiev and imprisoned them. Formally, the dual power in Novgorod remained, but mayors began to be sent from Kiev. Monomakh's policy was continued by his son Mstislav. He regarded Vsevolod as his governor, who, on the orders of his father, went on campaigns with the Novgorod army.

The situation changed dramatically when, after the death of Mstislav in 1132, the power of the Kiev prince weakened, and Vsevolod Mstislavich was left without external support. Already in 1134, the Novgorodians "drove the prince" Vsevolod out of the city. The prince managed to return to the Novgorodian table only by concluding a "row" - an agreement with the Novgorodians, which determined the conditions on which they allowed the prince to rule the Novgorod land. From that moment on, the weakening of the position of the princely power began due to the expansion of the participation of the city community in the management of the Novgorod land.

On May 28, 1136, Vsevolod Mstislavich, a number of actions which aroused the discontent of the Novgorodians, was imprisoned on the verdict of the veche and two months later expelled from the city. One of the Chernigov princes, Svyatoslav Olgovich, was invited to the Novgorod table, but a year later he was also expelled. Later, successfully maneuvering between hostile principalities and unions of principalities, the Novgorodians achieved that in the second half of the XII century. all ancient Russian princes recognized their right to invite a prince to the Novgorod table of their own free will (the so-called liberty in princes). The supreme authority in the Novgorod land was the meeting of the city's inhabitants - the veche, which decided which prince to invite to the Novgorod table and under what conditions he would rule the Novgorod land. Without the consent of the veche, the prince could not make important political decisions. The external expression of changes in relations between the princely power and Novgorod was the established no later than the middle of the 12th century. the practice of convening a veche at the "Yaroslav's Court" - the territory of the prince's residence in the city, and the permanent residence of the prince again became the Rurik settlement.

Limitations on the power of the prince in Novgorod. Throughout the XII century. the prince in Novgorod lost a number of prerogatives, which in other ancient Russian lands were closely associated with the institution of princely power. Originally founded at the end of the 10th century. The Novgorod episcopal see was closely connected with the princely power and was supported by receipts from the princely treasury. The prince was the patron of the department. Back in 1137, Prince Svyatoslav Olgovich independently endowed her with a tithe from tribute from graveyards along the Dvina and Pinega, but from 1156 bishops began to be elected at the veche, and the "polats at St. Sophia" became the place where the Novgorod treasury was kept. The bishop elected at the veche became the highest ecclesiastical authority for the residents of Novgorod. Later, the veche stubbornly refused to allow the metropolitan to carry out church court during his visit to the city. If the mayor was elected by the Novgorodians (the practice of such elections was restored already in the early 30s of the 12th century), then the head of the city militia, the tysyatsky, was appointed by the prince from among his husbands. But since the 80s. XII century and the tysyatsky began to be elected at the veche.

In the same years, from the hands of the prince to the hands of Novgorod, the merchant court and the income from the duties levied on weighing honey and wax and measuring fabrics - the most important items of medieval trade, passed.

Why did the Novgorod boyars manage to achieve success where the "senior" squad of Rostov was defeated? One of the reasons for the success was that the Novgorod boyars were able to achieve unity of action with other important centers of the Novgorod land. So, in the veche, which in 1136 made the decision to expel Vsevolod Mstislavich, the inhabitants of two other main centers of the earth, Pskov and Ladoga, participated along with the Novgorodians. At the same veche, a decision was made to send mayors to these cities. When later, trying to use the contradictions between different centers of the Novgorod land, Vsevolod Mstislavich settled in Pskov, the Novgorodians did not force the events, not wanting to shed blood for "their brothers", and reached an agreement with their suburbs.

In the XII-XIII centuries. The Novgorod land had the features of a kind of federal structure based on an agreement between the Novgorod boyars and the local elite of the two main centers of the land. It is known what place Pskov occupied in such a device. When this or that prince sat down at the table in Novgorod, he received the right, by agreement with the Pskovites, to put one of his family members on the table in Pskov.

Secondly, it mattered that wide circles of the population of Novgorod in the outbreak of the conflict supported not the prince, but their local boyars. In the events associated with the expulsion of Vsevolod Mstislavich, for the first time in the political struggle, "merchants" appeared as a special group of the Novgorod population. When Vsevolod, seated in Pskov, tried to gather an army in order to regain the Novgorod table, his supporters among the boyars were levied with indemnity and the collected funds "a merchant dasha to turn to war". The support provided by ordinary Novgorodians to their boyars in the struggle against the princely power was not accidental. The reasons for their behavior are explained in the peculiarities of the socio-political organization of the Novgorod land.

Social and political organization of the Novgorod land. Despite the existence in the land of a peculiar political system, when the supreme organ of state power was the veche, and not the prince, in terms of the general type of relations between the upper and lower classes of society, the Novgorod state was no different from other ancient Russian principalities. And in it the city-fortress (in this case - Novgorod) dominated the rural district subordinate to it, and here the social elite living in the city lived by collecting tribute and feeding at the expense of the rural population. It is no coincidence that the issue of the distribution of feeds is given such a significant place in the agreements that Novgorod concluded with the princes. The earliest surviving texts of such treaties date back to the 60th GT. XIII century, but the form underlying them was formed at a much earlier time. The agreement stipulated that the prince had to distribute the volosts for feeding not to his warriors, but to the Novgorodian husbands, to make such distributions only together with the mayor; he should not have deprived her husband of the parish without fault. Feeding in the volosts subordinate to Novgorod here clearly acts as one of the main sources of income for Novgorod husbands, and the mayor, as a representative of Novgorod, had to ensure that the feeding went to Novgorodians.

Like other ancient Russian lands, the Novgorod land was covered with a network of graveyards - places for collecting tribute, where tributaries traveled from Novgorod. In 1169, on the Northern Dvina, in the disputed territories, it came to a real battle between the Novgorod and Rostov tributaries. The victorious Novgorodians "took all the tribute, and another for the Suzhdal smerdehs."

In addition, the territories of the subordinate Finno-Ugric tribes (territories of modern Estonia, Finland, the Urals) adjoined the Novgorod state in the northeast and west, where the Novgorod army was also regularly sent to collect tribute. The Novgorod order differed from the order in other ancient Russian lands in that instead of the princely squad, the Novgorod urban community acted as the dominant social group, sharing part of its income with the urban communities of Pskov and Ladoga. Of course, the Novgorod boyars played the leading role in the collection of tribute, appropriating a significant part of the collected funds, but the entire city community took part in the organization of armed detachments sent from Novgorod to collect the tribute and in the distribution of the collected funds as the collective sovereign of the Novgorod land. That is why the entire Novgorod city community was interested in the transfer of power in the land from the hands of the prince to the hands of the upper layer of the community - the Novgorod boyars.

Although in a truncated form, the institution of princely power in Novgorod has nevertheless been preserved. The prince and the retinue accompanying him were allocated certain land for feeding. During the war, the prince led the Novgorod army, together with the mayor, he acted as the supreme judge and participated in the distribution of volosts to feed Novgorod men.

The preservation of princely power in Novgorod was due to two reasons. First, by offering the Novgorodian table to a prince associated with one of the ancient Russian lands, Novgorod secured its support in the struggle against another land, the rulers of which threatened Novgorod. This policy made it possible for Novgorod to maintain its independence, using the rivalry between neighboring political centers.

Secondly, the internal structure of the Novgorod urban community was quite complex. Novgorod was divided into territorial associations - "ends", which were headed by boyar clans. The clans fought among themselves for power and influence, involving in this struggle the population of the ends associated with them. The internal political life of Novgorod in the 12th – 13th centuries was overflowing with such conflicts. In these conditions, in order to preserve the unity of the urban community, Novgorodians need the existence of some kind of arbiter who could regulate controversial issues in relations between the ends. At the same time (this arbiter should not have become so strong as to rise above the community and subjugate it to his power. The posadnik, as a representative of Novgorodians, made sure that the prince did not increase his power to the detriment of Novgorod, and the prince's participation was a certain guarantee that the posadnik would not turn state power into an instrument for protecting the interests of the boyar clan to which he belonged.

First half of the 12th century - the time to which the first evidence of the emergence of large feudal land tenure in the Novgorod land belongs. As already mentioned, near the Fine Arts, Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich, the son of Monomakh, transferred the Buitsa volost in Derevskaya Pyatina to the oldest Yuryev monastery in Novgorod. The monastic brethren received a large part of the income that had previously entered the prince's treasury (tribute and half of the polyudye), as well as administrative and judicial power over the peasants, for whom the abbot of the monastery became a real "sovereign". Then, in the 30s, Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich granted this monastery the Lyakhovichi graveyard on the Lovati River in Derevskaya Pyatina. In the XV century. in these volosts there were hundreds of peasant households. Although Yuryev was the oldest monastery in Novgorod, under the collective patronage of the city, his awards were no exception. At the same time, the Novgorod Panteleimonov Monastery received from Novgorod the village of Vitoslavitsy with the smerds who lived there. Smerds were exempted from tributes and duties in favor of the prince and "from Gorodtsk attempts" and should have been "drawn to Saint Panteleimon in the monastery."

However, there is no reason to attribute to the same time the formation of the large land holdings of the Novgorod boyars, well known from later sources. Among the birch bark letters of the XIV-XV centuries. common are letters about land disputes, petitions of peasants to landowners, but among the birch bark letters of the XI-XII centuries. there are no texts with such content.

Gradually, the Novgorod boyars began to have land holdings. In 1209, when the property of the mayor Dmitry Miroshkinich and his relatives was confiscated by the decision of the veche, and their property was distributed among the Novgorodians, "the village was sold out and the servants." In 1230 the Novgorodians also plundered the villages of the mayor Semyon Borisovich and two other boyars. In one of the birch bark letters of the first half of the XIII century. we read a complaint about the sale of a village with "servants", cattle and bread without the knowledge of the addressee.

By the end of the XIII - the beginning of the XIV century. the growth of land tenure of the Novgorod boyars led to serious changes both in the social structure of Novgorod society and in the nature of its state institutions.

The position of merchants and artisans in Novgorod. Relations between the upper and lower classes of Novgorod society were not limited to their common interest in collecting and distributing tribute from the territories subordinate to the Novgorod state. In collecting tribute, a simple Novgorodian participated as a member of his own end, obeying the leadership of the boyar clan who stood at the head of the end (in 1169, to collect tribute to the Northern Dvina, they sent "100 men from the end"). However, ordinary residents of Novgorod, traders and artisans, had their own special interests, which did not coincide with the interests of the boyars, like manufacturers who sold their products at the Novgorod market. Novgorod in the XII-XIII centuries. was already a major center of craft and trade. On the territory of the city, archaeologists have found products of dozens of handicraft specialties. The development of handicrafts and trade was facilitated by the favorable geographical position of the city on the trade routes connecting the east and west of Europe. Novgorod merchants brought furs and wax to the west from the Russian lands and the Urals. In the middle of the Baltic Sea, on the island of Gotland, there was a Novgorod merchant's yard. Already in the first half of the XII century. on their trips, Novgorod merchants traveled to Denmark. To protect their interests, Novgorod merchants and artisans used the "hundredth organization" created by the princely government to manage the urban population and organize the city militia. The division into hundreds did not coincide with the division of the city into ends.

When in the 80s. XII v. The prince ceded to Novgorod the commercial court and the collection of duties on the sale of a number of important goods, then the head of the centennial organization, an elected tysyatsky, stood at the head of the commercial court. If the mayor was elected from among the Novgorod boyars, then the thousand in the XII-XIII centuries. from among the boyars were not selected. The posadnik and the Novgorod boyars were forbidden to "intervene" in the commercial court and "any business of the trade." Probably, tysyatsky was during this period the head of the trade and craft population of Novgorod and defended its interests. In the hands of the sotsky, control over the measures and weights at the city market was transferred. The Sotskys even received the right to "build the house of St. Sophia" together with the Novgorod bishop. Thus, the Novgorod boyars, interested in supporting wide circles of the urban population in the management of the Novgorod state, were forced to agree to grant them a certain autonomy in the sphere of trade and craft activities.

According to the second half of the 13th century, the tysyatsky of Novgorod ruled the commercial court together with the merchant elders. Novgorod sources XII-XIII centuries. two associations of Novgorod merchants are known. The first of these was the association of wax traders - one of the main items of Novgorod's export trade, which was called "Ivan's merchants" by the name of its patronal church - the Church of Ivan on Opoki. In the hands of the "Ivan" merchants were the city scales for weighing wax and the income from the duties collected at the same time. Another was the association of "overseas merchants", whose patronage church was the Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa at the Novgorod market. The fate of these associations turned out to be different. The union of "overseas" merchants fell into decay when trade in the Baltic Sea in the XIII century. captured the Hanseatic League of German cities, and the "Ivan" merchants became the main association of Novgorod merchants. These associations included very wealthy people. So, to join the ranks of "Ivan's" merchants, it was necessary to make a contribution of 50 hryvnia and present a thousand pieces of expensive Flemish cloth to the thousand. Participation in the "commercial court" together with the thousand merchant elders suggests that this court primarily defended the interests of the wealthy merchants.

The stability of the Novgorod state was ensured by two types of agreements - between Novgorod and other centers of the Novgorod land and between the top and bottom of the Novgorod urban community. While they were operating, that part of the population of the Novgorod land, which took part in political life, acted as a united front both against the prince's attempts to strengthen his power, and against the attempts of powerful neighboring rulers to subjugate the Novgorod state.

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NOVGOROD PRINCIPALITY

The territory of the Novgorod principality increased gradually. The Novgorod principality began with the ancient region of the settlement of the Slavs. It was located in the basin of Lake Ilmen, as well as the rivers Volkhov, Lovat, Msta and Mologa. From the north, the Novgorod land was covered by the fortress-city of Ladoga, located at the mouth of the Volkhov. Over time, the territory of the Novgorod principality increased. The principality even had its own colonies.

In the 12th - 13th centuries, the Novgorod principality in the north owned lands along Lake Onega, the Ladoga Lake basin and the northern shores of the Gulf of Finland. The outpost of the Novgorod principality in the west was the city of Yuryev (Tartu), which was founded by Yaroslav the Wise. It was the Peipsi land. The Novgorod principality expanded very rapidly to the north and east (northeast). So, lands that extended to the Urals and even beyond the Urals were transferred to the Novgorod principality.

Novgorod itself occupied a territory that had five ends (districts). The entire territory of the Novgorod principality was divided in accordance with the five districts of the city into five regions. These areas were also called pyatins. So, to the north-west of Novgorod was Vodskaya pyatina. It spread towards the Gulf of Finland and covered the lands of the Finnish Vod tribe. The Shelon pyatina spread to the southwest on both sides of the Shelon River. Derevskaya pyatina was located between the rivers Msta and Lovat, southeast of Novgorod. On both sides of Lake Onega, the Obonezhskaya pyatina was located northeast to the White Sea. Bezhetskaya pyatina was located to the southeast behind Derevskaya and Obonezhskaya pyatina.

In addition to these five heaps, the Novgorod principality included Novgorod volosts. One of them was the Dvina land (Zavolochye), which was located in the area of the Northern Dvina. Another volost of the Novgorod principality was the Perm land, which was located along the Vychegda river, as well as along its tributaries. The Novgorod principality included land on both sides of the Pechora. This was the Pechora region. Yugra was located to the east of the Northern Urals. Within the Onega and Ladoga lakes was the Korela land, which was also part of the Novgorod principality. The Kola Peninsula (Terskiy Bereg) was also part of the Novgorod principality.

The basis of the Novgorod economy was agriculture. The land and the peasants working on it provided the main income to the landowners. Such were the boyars and of course the Orthodox clergy. There were also merchants among the large landowners.

The plowed system prevailed on the lands of the Novgorodian pyatins. In the extreme northern regions, the undercut was preserved. The lands at these latitudes cannot be called fertile. Therefore, part of the grain was imported from other Russian lands, most often from the Ryazan principality and the Rostov-Suzdal land. The problem of providing bread was especially relevant in lean years, which were not uncommon here.

It was not only the earth that fed. The population was engaged in hunting for fur and sea animals, fishing, beekeeping, salt mining in Staraya Russa and Vychegda, mining of iron ore in Vodskaya pyatina. Trade and crafts were widely developed in Novgorod. Carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, shoemakers, tanners, felt makers, bridge builders and other artisans worked there. Novgorod carpenters were even sent to Kiev, where they carried out very important orders.

Trade routes passed through Novgorod from Northern Europe to the Black Sea basin, as well as from Western countries to Eastern Europe. In the 10th century Novgorod merchants sailed on their ships along the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks." At the same time, they reached the shores of Byzantium. The Novgorod state had very close trade and economic ties with the states of Europe. Among them was the large shopping center of North-Western Europe, Gotland. There was a whole trading colony in Novgorod - the Gothic court. It was surrounded by a high wall, behind which were barns and houses with foreign merchants living in them.

In the second half of the 12th century, trade ties between Novgorod and the alliance of the North German cities (Hansa) were strengthened. All measures were taken to make foreign merchants feel completely safe. Another merchant colony and a new German trading yard were built. The life of the trading colonies was regulated by a special charter ("Scra").

Novgorodians supplied linen, hemp, flax, bacon, wax and the like to the market. Metals, cloth, weapons and other goods were sent to Novgorod from abroad. Goods went through Novgorod from the countries of the West to the countries of the East and in the opposite direction. Novgorod acted as an intermediary in this trade. Goods from the East were delivered to Novgorod along the Volga, from where they were sent to Western countries.

Trade within the vast Novgorod Republic developed successfully. The Novgorodians also traded with the principalities of North-Eastern Russia, where Novgorod bought primarily bread. Novgorod merchants were united in societies (like guilds). The strongest was the Ivanovskoe hundred trading company. Members of the society had great privileges. From among its members, the trading society again chose the elders according to the number of districts in the city. Each head, together with the tysyatsky, was in charge of all commercial affairs, as well as the commercial court in Novgorod. The merchant elder established measures of weight, measures of length, etc., monitored the observance of accepted and legalized rules for conducting trade. The dominant class in the Novgorod Republic were large landowners - boyars, clergy, merchants. Some of them owned lands that stretched for hundreds of miles. For example, the Boretsky boyar family owned lands that extended over vast territories along the Northern Dvina and the White Sea. Merchants who owned land of considerable territory were called "living people". The landowners received their main income in the form of quitrent taxes. The landowner's own farm was not very large. Serfs worked on it.

In the city, large landowners shared power with the merchant elite. Together they made up the city patriciate and ruled the economic and political life of Novgorod.

The political system that took shape in Novgorod was distinguished by its originality. Initially, Kiev sent princes-governors to Novgorod, who were subordinate to the great Kiev prince and acted in accordance with instructions from Kiev. The prince-governor appointed posadniks and tysyatskys. However, over time, boyars and large landowners more and more evaded submission to the prince. So, in 1136 it turned into a revolt against Prince Vsevolod. The chronicle says that "the rider of Prince Vsevolod in the episcopal court with his wife and children with his mother-in-law and guards, the strezhakh was given a day and night 30 men for a day with weapons." In the end, Prince Vsevolod was exiled to Pskov. And in Novgorod, a national assembly was formed - veche.

The posadnik or tysyatsky announced the gathering of the people's assembly on the trading side at the Yaroslavl yard. Everyone was summoned by the ringing of the veche bell. In addition, birgochi and podvaysky were sent to different parts of the city, who called (clicked) the people to the veche meeting. Only men participated in the decision-making. Any free person (man) could take part in the work of the veche.

The powers of the veche were broad and weighty. Veche elected a mayor, a thousand (previously they were appointed by the prince), a bishop, declared war, made peace, discussed and approved legislative acts, tried mayor, thousand, sotsk for crimes, concluded treaties with foreign powers. Veche invited the prince to the board. It also "showed him the way" when he did not meet his expectations.

Veche was the legislative branch of the Novgorod Republic. The decisions made at the veche had to be carried out. This was the responsibility of the executive in power. The chief executive was the mayor and the tysyatsky. The man was elected at the veche. His term of office was not predetermined in advance. But the Veche could recall him at any time. The posadnik was the highest official in the republic. He controlled the activities of the prince, ensured that the activities of the Novgorod authorities were in accordance with the decisions of the veche. The supreme court of the republic was in the hands of the posadskiy. He had the right to remove and appoint officials. The prince headed the armed forces. The man went on a campaign as an assistant to the prince. In fact, the mayor headed not only the executive branch, but also the veche. He received foreign ambassadors. If the prince was absent, the armed forces were subordinate to the mayor. As for the tysyatsky, he was the assistant to the mayor. He commanded individual units during the war. In peacetime, tysyatsky was responsible for the state of commercial affairs and the commercial court.

The clergy in Novgorod was headed by a bishop. Since 1165, the archbishop became the head of the Novgorod clergy. He was the largest of the Novgorod landowners. The archbishop was in charge of the ecclesiastical court. The archbishop was a kind of foreign minister - he was in charge of the affairs of Novgorod's relations with other countries.

Thus, after 1136, when Prince Vsevolod was expelled, the Novgorodians elected a prince at the Veche. Most often he was invited to reign. But this reign was severely limited. The prince did not even have the right to buy this or that piece of land for his own money. All his actions were watched by the mayor and his people. The duties and rights of the invited prince were stipulated in the contract, which was concluded between the veche and the prince. This agreement was called "near." Under the contract, the prince had no administrative power. In fact, he was supposed to act as commander-in-chief. At the same time, he personally could not declare war or conclude peace. For his service the prince was allocated funds for his "feeding". In practice, it looked like this - the prince was allocated an area (volost), where he collected tribute, which was used for these purposes. Most often, the Novgorodians invited the Vladimir-Suzdal princes to reign, who were considered the most powerful among the Russian princes. When the princes tried to break the established order, they received a fitting rebuff. The danger to the liberties of the Novgorod Republic from the side of the Suzdal princes passed after in 1216 the Suzdal troops were completely defeated by the Novgorod detachments on the Lipitsa River. It can be considered that from that time the Novgorod land turned into a feudal boyar republic.

In the XIV century, Pskov branched off from Novgorod. But in both cities the veche order held out until their annexation to the Moscow principality. One should not think that an idyll was realized in Novgorod, when power belongs to the people. There can be no democracy (power of the people) in principle. Now in the world there is not a single country that could say that the power in it belongs to the people. Yes, the people are taking part in the elections. And this is where the power of the people ends. So it was then, in Novgorod. The real power was in the hands of the Novgorod elite. The cream of society has created a council of gentlemen. It included former administrators (mayor and tysyatsky old osts of Novgorod districts), as well as current mayor and tysyatskiy. The council of gentlemen was headed by the Novgorod archbishop. In his chambers, the council met when it was necessary to decide matters. At the veche, ready-made decisions were made, which were worked out by the council of the masters. Of course, there were cases when the veche did not agree with the decisions proposed by the council of gentlemen. But there weren't many such cases.

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Geographical position

In the $ XII - XIII $ centuries. possessions of Novgorod included a vast territory from the Gulf of Finland to the Urals and from the Arctic Ocean to the Upper Volga. Around Novgorod stretched vast expanses of land that belonged to Novgorod and received the name "Land of Hagia Sophia"... All this land was divided into five and a half areas. Quantity five corresponded to the number of ends. In the north-east of Novgorod, along the shores of Lake Onega, there was a Pyatina Obonezhskaya; to the northwest, between Luga and Volkhov, - Votskaya; in the southeast, between Msta and Lovat, - Pyatina Derevskaya; to the south-west, on the banks of the Sheloni River, - Shelonskaya, and finally, in the south, the Bezhetskaya pyatina stretched. The suburbs of Novgorod were in the five-quarters: - Pskov, Torzhok, Ladoga, Izborsk and others, which had political self-government but were vassals of Novgorod. The Novgorod “ parishes", Which had a device different from the heels; their number at different times was different. The most prominent place among them was occupied by Zavolochye and Dvinskaya land, located beyond the watershed of the Onega, Western Dvina and Volga basins. In the east was the Perm land, lying along the Vychegda and Kama rivers; to the northeast of Zavolochye and the Perm land was the Pechora volost, located along the Pechora river; on the other side of the Ural ridge, the land of Yugra, and on the shores of the White Sea, the land of Terskaya, or "Tre", and others. In addition to pyatins, the territory of the Novgorod Republic was divided into volosts, which included possessions more distant and acquired later.

Remark 1

Most likely, the Novgorod land was divided into five quarters between the ends to systematize taxation from the population living there. Probably, Novgorod periodically redistributed the five rubles between different ends in order to reduce the likelihood of corruption.

Agriculture

Agriculture played the main role in the economic life of Novgorod. Winter rye was in the first place among cultivated crops. Cattle breeding, closely related to agriculture, also played an important role in the economy of the Novgorod land. So, if agriculture was the main occupation of rural residents of the Novgorod Republic, then the townspeople were often engaged in cattle breeding.

Remark 2

The cultivation of wheat indicates that in the $ XII $ century in the Novgorod land was used three-field crop rotation system.

Crafts

In the Novgorod scribal books of that time, more than $ 30 $ of trades, which the inhabitants of these lands were engaged in, in addition to farming, are mentioned. One of the industries of great importance for the economy was salting... Many peasants of Derevskaya and Shelonskaya pyatins, as well as Pomorie, were engaged in it. The owners of the salt breweries resorted to the labor of seasonal workers - diggers. In the lakes of the rivers and the inhabitants of the Novgorod land caught a large number of fish: "black" (carp, perch, pike, etc.) and "red" (sturgeon, salmon). In addition, crayfish were caught, which were also abundant. Due to the fact that the Novgorodians did not know sugar, honey and wax were highly valued. This contributed to the widespread distribution of beekeeping (collecting honey). Bees were not bred on purpose, but honey was taken from wild bees. Pearl was an interesting type of fishing. In the annals of Moscow and others, one can often find a description of Novgorod pearls. Hunting was also widespread. The Novgorod forests were famous for the abundance of various species of animals, and fur animals were especially appreciated. Novgorod was a major exporter of fur to Europe, where squirrel, marten, sable and other furs were supplied.

Remark 3

The wide spread of hunting is evidenced by the fact that hunting grounds are often mentioned in documents of sale and purchase.

Craft

The agriculture of Novgorod the Great was developed as far as the natural conditions allowed, but, nevertheless, it could not fully satisfy all the needs of the local population. The poor soil and the nature of the climate forced the Novgorodians to actively engage in handicrafts and trade. It should be emphasized that, independently producing goods, Novgorod sold them without intermediaries in the West, which was much more profitable. As a result, the preconditions for the development of handicrafts in the Novgorod Republic were quite substantial. The Novgorodians achieved the greatest success in the carpentry business: throughout Russia they were known as the best carpenters.

In the annals, we can often find the following craft professions: shield-maker, tanner, silver-worker (artisan-jeweler), kettle-maker, oponnik (weaver), clove-maker, blacksmith.

In the $ XII - XIII $ centuries. Novgorod was a major center of handicraft production. Novgorod was not inferior to the largest medieval cities in Europe in terms of the level of handicraft production technology and the scale of its distribution.

Trade

In historical sources, one can find numerous evidences of the paramount importance of trade in the economic life of Novgorod. Novgorod traded with both the East and the West.

Remark 4

The scale of trade relations in Veliky Novgorod is evidenced by the large number of oriental coins found in the former Novgorod lands during archaeological excavations.

In the $ XII $ century, when the Hanseatic city of Lubeck began to predominate in the trade of Northern Europe, the Novgorodians entered into trade relations with the Germans, as evidenced by the treaties that have survived to this day, which reflected the relations between German and Novgorod merchants. The most convenient geographical position facilitated the transformation of Novgorod into the largest trade center, supplying furs, honey, leather, and seafood products to European markets. The merchants were mainly engaged in trade, but they received the products themselves from the boyar fishing villages.

The most extensive property in the specific era: Pskov, Velikie Luki, Ladoga ... There was a hierarchy of cities. Novgorod is the main one, the rest are suburbs.

Dominance on the most important trade routes: to Ladoga, from there to Sweden, Denmark, the Hansa or the Volga and further east. Forest resources, trade. With agriculture it is worse, in a poor harvest - dependence on neighbors, suppliers of grain. Cattle breeding, horticulture, gardening. Especially trades.

The aboriginal tribes of Izhora, Karela, pechera were forced to pay tribute ...

By the 13th century. Novgorod is a large, well-organized and fortified city of artisans. There were rudiments of associations by profession.

In politics, the boyars have leading positions. Historically, it has retained its isolation and relative self. They were in charge of the tribute.

Large boyar land tenure (not princely!) Quickly developed. The boyars lived in the city. The corporativeness of the boyars. The boyar title was hereditary (!). The isolation made the boyars independent of the prince. The Novgorod Republic is a boyar.

Non-boyars-landowners - live and people. They, boyars, merchants, traders, artisans and community members, farmers - we are free. Serfs and deaths are dependent.

Development of veche institutions. The specificity of the prince's vocation (he had no right to own fiefdoms!). The prince is a military leader, the addressee of tribute, the highest court and a symbol of the unity of the republic.

Novg.polit.sistema - a federation of self-governing communities and corporations, the supreme body for cats was the veche. At the city veche, officials were elected: a mayor (controlled by ten prince) from the boyars, a tysyatskiy (tax collection, a merchant court, the leadership of the militia), an archbishop (also possessed secular power) - the chairman of the council of mayors.

Pskov also created the sovereign Pskov feudal republic.

"Black people" also took part in the polit. processes.

From the 2nd half of the 13th century. - oligarchic tendencies: a boyar territorially representative council appeared.

A huge role in the father's history: he reflected the aggression of the German knights.

12. North-eastern Russia in the 12th - 13th centuries. Andrey Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest.

Outskirts of the Kiev state-va. Agriculture, more or less, fishing, cattle breeding, forestry. Trade routes. Colonization streams (threat in the south from the nomads). Under Vladimir Monomakh (the fatherland of his descendants), the rise of North-Eastern Russia began. A strong princely power is characteristic: many cities arose thanks to the prince.

The first independent Rostov-Suzdal prince was Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky (1125 - 1157), the son of Monomakh. Under him, the principality turned into a vast and independent. Struggle with Volzhskoe Bulgaria, fought with Novgorod, founding new cities (the first mention of Moscow in 1147). 1155 Yuri is a Kiev prince.

It flourished under the sons of Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1212). Andrew 1157 became the prince of Kiev and moved the capital to Vladimir (not Rostov-Suzdal, but Vladimir-Suzdal Rus). The support of the prince is the mercenaries, the future support of the despotic monarchy. Our Lady of Vladimir. Andrei turned to Constantinople to elevate the Rostov metropolitan to the rank of Vladimir, but only achieved the transfer of the episcopal diocese from Rostov to Vladimir.

Numerous wars: subjugated Kiev and Novgorod (dependent princes), 1164 - Volga Bulgaria, 1169 - Kiev. Andrey is an "autocrat". Conspiracy, killed.

Vsevolod did not immediately take the throne, but people wanted a native prince. First Michael, but he died. Vsevolod consolidated the traditions of princely autocracy in the North of Russia. He made Kiev and Ryazan lands dependent. Novgorod invited Vsevolod to reign. Active construction. The approach of the younger squad. Strong army. The title of the Grand Duke of Vladimir appeared.

After his death, a struggle between 6 sons.

In the city, large landowners shared power with the merchant elite. Together they made up the city patriciate and ruled the economic and political life of Novgorod.