Economic and political development of Russia of the first quarter of the XVIIIV. He passed under the sign of the radical transformations of Peteri, as a result of which Russia became a strong European state, in many respects overcoming its technical and economic backwardness from advanced countries. Petrovsky reforms were an objective consequence of the accumulated problems of Russian Society of the 17th century.
Peter's special attention was made by the mining: government interests required the production and development of metals necessary for the production of weapons, coins, the construction of cities and ships. Industry and craft development in the first decadesXVIIV. In Russia, accompanied by a lively exchange of goods. In its trade, there was a further strengthening of domestic market relations in new historical conditions, expanding the range of goods, growth and strengthening of merchant positions. In the process of socio-economic development of Russia CXVIIIV. Such important qualitative shifts were observed as specialization of trade regions, strengthening internal exchange, consolidation of domestic markets into a single all-Russian market, the growth of large manufactory of a manufactory type. The exit of Petrovskaya Russia to the Baltic Sea sharply increased its foreign trade with Western European countries.
The royal decree of January 16, 1721, the entire urban population, except for foreigners, nobles, clergy and "sublimate people" (lower layers of the urban population), was divided into two categories that were allowed to open their affairs to trade, provide services. The first category related bankers, noble merchants, doctors, pharmacists, merchant ships, golden, silver, icons, painters; To the second - all those who traded dairy and edible products, artisans. This decree merchants lost to the past monopoly - now they could trade all other than the military. Entrepreneurship could be engaged in merchants, industrialists, manufacturers, medium and small merchants.
5. Commercial activity in the reign of Catherine 2.
The basis of production in Tsarist Russia the second half of the XVIIIV. Agriculture remained, and the peasant was a direct manufacturer. At the same time, it was the time of further development of the industry: by the end of the century, 2294 enterprises operated.
In the history of Russia, the second half of the XVIIIIV, covering the rule of Empress CatherineiVelik (1762-1796), marked notable success in the development of domestic trade. For example, the geography of Russian commerce was expanded, the position of merchants, the development of the loan was updated and significantly strengthened, and paper money was developed, trade and industrial legislation were improved, the importance of the commercial fleet in Russian foreign trade. The documents suggest that Catherineii, like Petri, in state activities paid special attention to the problems of industry and trade, took personal part in their resolution.
In the economic policy, Catherine I had considered the principle of complete freedom of industry and trade. Here the opinion of the Empress coincided with the interests of the nobility, and she could consistently implement free internal competition.
Trade fairs. As a special form of trading in the XVIIIV. There was a fair that has reached the highest development in its last quarter. If in 1750, 244 urban and 383 rural fairs operated in Russia (only 627), then in 1780 their number increased to 864 urban and 3180 rural (total 4044). Such a form of mass trading, in which the main figure was the merchant, was due not only to the peculiarities of Russian feudalism with its economic closure, but also a large length of the territory, the weak development of the communication paths, low density of the empire population.
The reforms were carried out during the entire Board of Peter I. It often happened that new considerations and prescriptions have abolished the recently created and not able to check the time. There was no special plan for reform.
Construction of factories. The largest shifts occurred in the field of industry. By the end of the XVII century. There were about 30 manuffs in the country. In the years of Petrovsky government, there were more than 100 them. Along with Moscow and the provinces adjacent to it, two new industrial areas were developed: the Urals and St. Petersburg, whose importance was increased.
Metallurgy developed a particularly rapid pace. By the middle of the XVIII century. Russia paid the cast iron one and a half times more than England, and ranked a leading place in the production of metal. Along with those who existed in the XVII century. Places in the area of \u200b\u200bTula, Kashira and Kaluga, metallurgical manufactories in Karelia (Petrozavodsk, etc.) have emerged, near the theater of hostilities, and then in the Urals. By the middle of the XVIII century. 61 Plant out of 75 acted in the Urals. Nevyansky, Kamensky (Kamensk-Uralsky), Nizhne-Tagilsky, Yekaterinburg, became the largest metallurgical plants in the world. The production of metal made it possible to create, except Tula, weapon plants in Sestroretsk (near St. Petersburg) and in Olonetsk Territory (Karelia). In 1719, Berg-Privilege was published (Peter Decree). She allowed all residents of Russia to engage in the search for minerals and with the permission of the Berg-Collegia to establish plants, i.e. "Proclaimed mountain freedom."
In the center of the country, the largest development was obtained by the textile industry, which worked mainly on the army. The most significant enterprises were the Moscow Sukonnyard, Big Yaroslavl Manufactory, Sukonny Manufactory in Voronezh, Kazan, in Ukraine.
In the first quarter of the XVIII century. There were new industries: shipbuilding (in St. Petersburg, Voronezh, Arkhangelsk), silkworm, glass and faience business, paper production (in St. Petersburg, Moscow). Further development received craft. In 1722, a decree was issued on the creation of handicraft workshops in Russian cities.
The Russian industry developed in the premium of serfdom. Since there were almost no free workers in the country, in enterprises organized by Peter I, foreign masters, soldiers, as well as fluent peasants and positive people, tramps, convicts, etc. were used. In the first years of the creation of a large industry of Russia, hired labor was used. However, his reserves were small. Owners of the factories have become strongly spreading serfdom on manufactory.
In 1721, a decree was issued, allowing breeders to buy and relocate the peasants to the factories. Such workers were called posting peasants. By decree of 1736, the workers who fell to the plants whose owners were the faces of non-invalious origin, fastened for them forever, they could only sell them together with the plant. This discharge of the population was called "eternal to the factories." Later they merged with post-peasants.
In addition, from the very beginning of large manufactory construction, with a lack of workers, especially in the Urals and in Karelia, the peasants were attributed to the factories, which the state was not paid with money, but were worked out on plants on established rates.
Thus, the peculiarity of the development of Russian manufactory especially in such industries as metallurgy, the linen and the cloth industry has come closer to serfdom. Volnonapile work was used episodically. The largest Russian industrialists of Stroganov, Demidov, Okokina, Myasnikov, and others, they sought to get noble titles and their corresponding class privileges. This process was called "edging" of the emerging Russian bourgeoisie. The peasants and the land under the plant were worth three or four times more expensive than the enterprise itself.
Trade. The development of industrial and craft production, obtaining Russia's access to the Baltic Sea helped the growth of external and internal trade. Improved message paths. Channels connected by the Volga with Neva (Vasivolotsky and Ladoga) were built. The construction of canals between Moscow and the Volga, as well as between Don and Volga, was intended, and even started, and also discontinued due to lack of funds.
Intected the exchange of goods between individual parts of the country. Fair (Makarevskaya, Svenskaya, Irbitan and others) played a big role, i.e. The country continued the process of formation of the All-Russian market. Further development was obtained by foreign trade, the main center of which was the Petersburg, where he came to several hundred shopping ships per year.
Along with silver coins, copper exchange money began to focus. The government of Peter has provided continued support to Russian merchants and industrialists (protection policy). The merchants were combined into the first and second guild. In order to encourage merchants in 1724, the first trading rate was introduced, which encouraged the export of Russian goods abroad. By 1726, the importation of goods was twice as much as the export. Peter understood that the trade strengthens the power of the state.
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During the reign of Peter I received incentives to develop internal and foreign trade. This was facilitated by the development of industrial and handicraft production, conquering the exit to the Baltic Sea, improving the communication paths. During this period, the channels connected by the Volga and Neva (Vyshnevolotsky and Ladoga) were built. The exchange between the individual parts of the country, the exchange of Russian fairs (Makarevskaya, Irbit, Sväna, and others) increased, which was manifested by the formation of the All-Russian market.
International trade
The developing changes in economic policy also led to the decree of 1762 on freedom of bread exports. Gradually, the government refused state and private monopolies to a number of goods.
The development of foreign trade led to a total increase in foreign trade turnover (export-import), which increased from the 50s to the 90s of the XVIII century. Seven times (from 14.0 to 109.6 million rubles per year). At the same time, a favorable trade balance consistently remained, that is, the export from Russia exceeded the import into the country.
The composition of Russian exports shows the predominance of agricultural goods, but some Russian industrial products took a durable place in it. First place in Russian export in 1793--1795. He was occupied by hemp (8.5 million rubles per year), Len (5.3 million rubles), and the Russian hardware was accounted for (5 million rubles), flax fabrics, yuffs and skin, forest. Bread exports were still small, amounting to 2.9 million rubles per year. (400 thousand quarters).
In, I. Lenin pointed to the "Higher prosperity of the Urals and his domination not only in Russia, but partly in Europe. In the XVIII century, iron was one of the main articles of Russia's holidays. " But by the end of the century, iron exports decreased, which was a direct consequence of the inhibitory impact of serfdom, which did not allow to compete with England, when it turned into an advanced capitalist country.
Imports to Russia from Western Europe constituted mainly luxury objects for the highest class. In the first place was the bridges of cloth, woolen and paper fabrics, including cloth for the army, silk goods, dyeing substances.
A significant role was played by trading with the countries of the East. Of China, they were brought mainly paper ("Chinese") and silk fabrics, as well as tea. Silk-raw, cotton and silk fabrics came from Iran, from Central Asia - fur, cattle, fabrics. Trade turnover with East was in 1758-- 1760. On average per year to export 1.3 million rubles., Imported - 1.4 million rubles.
At the end of the XVIII century. Trade begins with states on the Black Sea coast. After the first Russian-Turkish war, Kerch moved to Russia, after the second Russian-Turkish war - Feodosia, Sevastopol and Northern Black Sea region.
Russia's policy in respect of foreign trade in the second half of the XVIII century. was a protectionist, the customs imposition of finished products, already produced in the country (sugar-raffin, paper, iron, canvas) grew; On the contrary, duties from the bridge of industrial raw materials are cotton, raw sugar, etc. Freamed and, finally, were completely removed.
Domestic trade
The fracture in the economic policies of the government in respect of trade was primarily in the destruction of internal trading duties. Back in privileges, issued industrialists in the device of manufactory, often included the right to duty-free sale and purchase of goods. The largest Ural breeder of the Akinfiy Demidov Akinfius instead of domestic customs duties and other fees received the right to contribute annually a certain amount into the treasury. Finally, by decree on December 20, 1753, the abolition of domestic trade duties and the elimination of domestic customs was announced. Instead of domestic customs fees, a new border duty was established on a foreign trade turnover of 13% from the price of goods. Representatives of merchants solemnly thanked Empress Elizabeth for this measure and presented her diamonds and a large amount of gold and silver. Cancellation of internal trading duties in Russia occurred much earlier than in Western European countries, where domestic customs existed to the French bourgeois revolution.
Next year (1754), banks were charged for the first time - one for the nobility (issued a loan for a period of 8 years) and the other for merchants. Loans to the merchants were provided out of 6%, which was much lower than the usual percent of the time, for a period of 6 months, and then up to the year.
Cities in the Russian Empire XVIII century.
After the abolition of the main and city magistrates, the city fell into an exceptional dependence on the governor otherwise to say, found himself in the same position, in which he was in the XVII century. The real citizens were only Posovy people, merchants of all guilds and shop artisans, who made up the landing community, the body of which was the Town Hall with the executive functions and landing gathering, who had a lot of "Posad Services" among his members, was not much different from the similar services of the previous century.
The rest of the population in the life of the city did not matter. Elizabeth restored magistrates, but the union of the urban population into one common integer was the case of the second half of the century.
Foreign trade in the Russian Empire in the XVIII century.
nobility merchants Manufactory trade
In the history of Russian trade, the entire period of 1725 to 1762 is characterized by a further rise, the initial points of which must be sought in the Petrovsk era. First of all, we note the growth of absolute figures, weighted on average threefold, and the active nature of foreign trade. Disport of food, in particular bread, although it grows, but does not matter what he received in the XIX century.
The dominant value, and more accurate, had the export of raw materials, where hemp was occupied first place and Len, as it was in the Dopamerovsk era. The drop in the removal of finished products stood in an undoubted dependence on the growth of the domestic market. The most important articles and this group were the Urals iron for England and the canvas. The removal of iron began to gradually fall in the second half of the century due to the industrial coup in England.
Products prevailed: silk fabrics, thin juvenile, jewelry, etc. For the rich top of society. For the same top there was a significant proportion of imported supplies: sugar, tea, coffee, wine and spices. In the group of raw materials imported silk for the Russian industry, paints.
In the total amount of turnover, Western Europe had the predominant importance. Trade with the East did not exceed the XVIII century in the 50s. 17% of the total external trading size. Compared to European trade, trade with the East had two characteristic features, first of all, was passive - imports prevailed over export, and consisted mainly of industrial raw materials (silk, cotton, wool); Secondly, in export, the main place was occupied by finished products sent to Central Asia - canvas, metal products, dishes, and oil. The conquest of the Central Asian market of the Russian industry began in the middle of the XVIII century.
Domestic trade in the Russian Empire in the XVIII century.
The gradual emergence of new trading points, mainly periodic trading centers, in the form of bazaars, Torzkov and Fairs, is evidenced by the continuous and strong growth of domestic trade.
In a number of large fairs in the first place there is Makarevskaya on the Volga, which lasted for a month in summer; In the XIX century It was translated into Nizhny Novgorod. It was not only the All-Russian trade: the Fair was visited by merchants from Central Asia, Persia, the Caucasus and even from Poland. Irbita, native - near Kursk, Swinse - near Bryansk, Muromskaya, went behind the Macarea Fair.
The last three took place in the summer and arose on trade routes from the central regions to Ukraine, south and to Asia. The abolition of domestic customs fees from April 1, 1754 was huge importance for the growth and development of domestic trade (Decree on December 20, 1753), who was finally removed from the internal trade of its age-old ways.
Together with the abolition of the Russian-Ukrainian customs feature, this event finally consolidated the Unified All-Russian market.
Trade policy. The mercantilistic views that dominated Peter's era gave the general direction of the protectionist trade policy of the imperial government, which she kept until the end of the century the only exception was the customs tariff of 1731. Significantly reduced customs rates on the importation of the importation of merchants. This should be considered as one of those concessions that Anna Ivanovna willingly made nobles, since the main mass of consumers of imported goods of finished products and life supplies was just a rich part of the nobility.
However, the next customs tariff of 1757 became again on the path of protectionism, which remained strength and in the second half of the XVIII century.
Merchant companies. One of the characteristic forms of industrial and trade activities in the middle of the XVIII century. There were merchant monopoly companies. Merchant companies were established by Peter. Individual cases of the emergence of monopoly companies are observed in the first half of the reign of Elizabeth.
So, in 1748, a Belomorsk company on the hunt for the marine beast arose. Such companies were especially often appeared in the 50s. They usually consisted of a group of merchant businessmen and in most cases were headed by some strong "person," most often someone from Shuvalov or Vorontsov, who participated in profits, but not contributing capital. The main reason for the appearance of companies was the intense state of finance due to the time.
Seven-year-old war, forced to rent profitable items for which the fee was made forward in large amounts. Thus, the company, headed by a merchant Shemyakin, received customs for the deposit of customs with the obligation to make annually amount of fees equal to the average for the previous three years.
In 1759, shemeakin was provided with the comrades of a monopoly on the import of raw silk from the east, which caused a sharp rise in prices for this product; In the same year, a monopoly company appeared, headed by R.I. Vorontsov, on the export of salt from Astrakhan Lakes to Persia. The number of such examples could be increased.
Up to 18 century Trade exchange with other states has not been widespread. Russia in the eyes of European merchants had the status of a "remote colony", which in abundance had various goods using demand all over the world. In the 18th century in Russia, it became intensively developing both trade within the country and with foreign countries.
In the early 18th century, thanks to the development of industry and an increase in domestic production volumes, as well as the growth of agriculture, Russian goods acquired competitiveness in the European market. This was also facilitated by the exit of Russia to the Baltic Sea and the signing of several trading agreements with European countries.
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History of Russian trade during the reign of Peter I
Especially active industry in Russia developed during the reign of Peter the Great, who encouraged the shipbuilding, mining, weapon and cloudy production. In order to stimulate trade with Europe through Petersburg, and not through Arkhangelsk, Peter it was necessary to adopt a number of extraordinary and fairly unpopular measures. At different times, various groups of goods were banned for exporting through Arkhangelsk, which constituted the subject of state monopoly, such as hemp, caviar, potash, resin and bristles.
Some merchants were subjected to forced relocation to Petersburg, but economic measures were also applied: in the northern capital, the export duty was reduced from 5% to 3%. As a result, in the period from 1717 to 1726, exports through the port of St. Petersburg increased 9 times, and the volume of imports is 7 times. The number of foreign commercial vessels arrived in the St. Petersburg port in the first quarter of the 18th century, increased 9 times and reached 450 vessels. Thus, by the mid-18th century, St. Petersburg became the largest port of the country in the amount of trade.
Despite all the achievements of Peter I in establishing trade relations with Europe, exterior trading at that time took mainly passive character. This was due to the fact that Russian merchants lacked skills and enterprise, as well as intelligence in order to establish business connections with foreign entrepreneurs. Therefore, the Government itself was engaged in exporting agricultural products and some other categories of goods. It had a monopoly right to their implementation, which was sometimes provided to acquire a fee.
Trade in the middle and late 18th century
The trade relations between Russia with foreign countries continued to gain momentum by the middle of the 18th century, but in the second half of the 18th century they were still not developed enough. This was due to the small number of seaports and the undeveloped infrastructure and shipbuilding. Despite the restrictions, from the middle of the century until the end of the 70s, imports doubled, and exports increased 3 times. The increase in trade contributed to an increase in the amount of customs fees.
In the past two decades of the 18th century, after the Crimea became part of Russia, external trade was developed through the ports of black, and later the Azov Sea. They were sources of significant tax revenues, especially after opening in ports of several customs points.
Siberia was playing a significant role in the foreign trade of those times, which provided the export of the Ferns and led an active trade with China and the rest of the neighboring states. Economic transformations contributed to the permanent increase in the external trade turnover of Russia and strengthening cities that were foreign trade centers throughout the country.
However, the possible potential level of foreign trade was not achieved due to the backwardness of Russia in some economic fields. Its weak places were the presence of serfdom, the underdevelopment of industry, the low standard of living and the inappreciation of the majority of the population.
Performed: Danilov N. A.
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