The words act as the building blocks of language. To convey thoughts, we use sentences that consist of combinations of words. In order to be linked into combinations and sentences, many words change their form.
The section of linguistics that studies the forms of words, types of phrases and sentences is called grammar.
Grammar has two parts: morphology and syntax.
Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the word and its change.
Syntax- a section of grammar that studies word combinations and sentences.
In this way, word is an object of study in lexicology and grammar. Lexicology is more interested in the lexical meaning of the word - its correlation with certain phenomena of reality, that is, when defining a concept, we try to find its distinctive feature.
Grammar, on the other hand, studies the word from the point of view of generalizing its features and properties. If the difference between words is important for vocabulary House and smoke, table and chair, then for grammar, all these four words are absolutely the same: they form the same forms of cases and numbers, have the same grammatical meanings.
Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning inherent in a number of words, independent of their real material content.
For example, words smoke and House have different lexical meanings: House- this is a residential building, as well as (collected) people living in it; smoke- aerosol formed by products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be determined by an adjective, change by cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.
Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, components of a complex sentence.
Material expression of grammatical meaning is an grammatical tool. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed with the help of function words, alternation of sounds, changes in the place of stress and word order, intonation.
Each grammatical meaning finds its expression in the corresponding grammatical form.
Grammatical forms words can be simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical).
Simple (synthetic) grammatical form involves the expression of lexical and grammatical meanings in the same word, within a word (consists of one word): was reading- the verb is in the past tense.
When the grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, complex (analytical) form(combination of a significant word with an official): I will read, let's read! In Russian, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.
Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural values are combined into a system of number values. In such cases, we are talking about grammatical category numbers. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of aspect, etc.
Each grammatical category has a number of grammatical forms. The set of all possible forms of a given word is called the paradigm of the word. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, for adjectives - of 24.
The paradigm is:
universal– all forms (full);
incomplete- there are no forms;
private according to a certain grammatical category: declension paradigm, mood paradigm.
Lexical and grammatical meanings are in interaction: a change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in both its grammatical meaning and form. For example, the adjective voiced in the phrase ringing voice is qualitative (has forms of degrees of comparison: voiced, louder, most voiced). It's the same adjective in the phrase media is a relative adjective (voiced, i.e. formed with the participation of the voice). In this case, this adjective has no degrees of comparison.
And vice versa grammatical meaning some words may directly depend on their lexical meaning. For example, the verb run away in the meaning of "move quickly" is used only as an imperfective verb: He ran for quite some time until he collapsed completely exhausted. The lexical meaning (“to escape”) also determines another grammatical meaning - the meaning of the perfect form: The prisoner escaped from prison.
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Words are the building blocks of any language. Sentences and phrases are built from them, with their help we convey thoughts, communicate. The ability of this unit to name or designate objects, actions, etc. is called a function. The suitability of a word for communication, the transmission of thoughts is called its
Thus, the word is the main, main structural unit of the language.
Every word in Russian has a lexical and grammatical meaning.
Lexical is the ratio of the sound (phonetic) design of the word, its sound with the phenomena of reality, images, objects, actions, etc. To put it simply: it makes sense. From a lexical point of view, the words "barrel", "bump", "point" are different units, because they denote different objects.
The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning of its forms: gender or number, case or conjugation. If the words "barrel", "point" are considered grammatically, then they will be exactly the same: creatures. feminine, standing in the nominative case and unity. number.
If we compare the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word, we can see that they are not the same, but are interconnected. The lexical meaning of each of them is universal, while the main one is fixed at the root. (For example: "son", "son", "son", "son").
The grammatical meaning of a word is conveyed with the help of word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes. So, "forest", "forester", "forester" will be quite close: their meaning is determined by the root "forest". From a grammatical point of view, they are completely different: two nouns and an adjective.
On the contrary, the words "came", "arrived", "ran", "ran", "flew off", "shot down" will be similar in grammatical orientation. These are verbs in the past tense form, which are formed with the suffix "l".
The conclusion follows from the examples: the grammatical meaning of a word is its belonging to a part of speech, the general meaning of a number of similar units, not tied to their specific material (semantic) content. "Mom", "dad", "Motherland" - creatures. 1 declensions, standing in the form of I.p., units. numbers. "Owl", "mice", "youth" - female nouns. kind, 3 declensions, standing in R.p. The grammatical meaning of the words "red", "huge", "wooden" indicates that these are adjectives in the form of a husband. kind, unique. numbers, I.p. It is clear that the lexical meaning of these words is different.
The grammatical meaning of a word is expressed in a certain form, corresponding to the position of words in a sentence (or phrase), expressed using grammatical means. Most often these are affixes, but often the grammatical form is formed with the help of auxiliary words, stress, word order or intonation.
From how the form is formed, its appearance (name) directly depends.
Simple (they are also called synthetic) grammatical forms are formed within the unit (with the help of endings or formative suffixes). The case forms (no) of mother, daughter, son, Motherland are formed with the help of endings. the verbs "wrote", "jumped" - using the suffix and and the verb "jumped" - using the suffix "l" and the ending "a".
Some forms are formed outside the lexeme, and not inside it. In this case, there is a need for official words. For example, the verbs "I will sing" and "let's sing" are formed using function words (verbs). The words "I will" and "let's" in this case have no lexical meaning. They are needed to create In the first case - the future tense, and in the second - the incentive mood. Such forms are called complex or analytical.
Grammatical meanings are defined into systems or clusters of gender, number, and the like.
grammatical meaning- this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology, these are the general meanings of words as parts of speech (for example, the meanings of objectivity in nouns, processivity in verbs), as well as particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.
Unlike the lexical meaning inherent in a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have several grammatical meanings, which are revealed when the word changes its grammatical form while maintaining the lexical meaning. For example, the word table has a number of forms (stola, table, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.
If the lexical meaning is associated with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their names and the expression of concepts about them, then the grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.
For example, the words cow and bull exist in order to distinguish animals by biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. Forms table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).
1) grammatical meanings are not universal, less numerous, form a closed, more clearly structured class.
2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “compulsory” manner. For example, a Russian speaker cannot "evade" the expression of the category of the number of the verb, an English speaker - from the category of the definiteness of the noun, etc.
3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of ways and means of their formal expression.
4) grammatical meanings may not have full correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number, time usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).
The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called the grammatical category.
All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech- the main lexical and grammatical categories, according to which the words of the language are distributed on the basis of signs: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a x i c h e c o g o (syntactic functions of the word)
. The classification of academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most reasonable and convincing. She divides all words into four grammatico-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:
1. Words-names, or parts of speech;
2. Connective, service words, or particles of speech;
3. Modal words;
4. Interjections.
1. Words-names (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, signs, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech V.V. Vinogradov assigns nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words to the category of state; pronouns are also attached to them.
2. Service words are devoid of a nominative (naming) function. These include connective, auxiliary words (prepositions, conjunctions, proper particles, bundles).
3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a nominative function, but are more “lexical” than auxiliary words. They express the attitude of the speaker to the content of the utterance.
4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by the lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive test.
In modern Russian, 10 parts of speech are distinguished: 1) noun,
2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) category of state, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) union, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of the proposal. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words devoid of a nominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a nominative function and do not act as independent members of the sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, special groups of words are distinguished in the modern Russian language: 1) modal words expressing the relation of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections that serve to express feelings and will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow
Independent (significant) parts of speech include words that name objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions to independent words, and in a sentence, significant words are members of a sentence.
The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:
| Part of speech | Questions | Examples | |
| Noun | who? what? | Boy, uncle, table, wall, window. | |
| Verb | what to do? what to do? | Saw, saw, know, learn. | |
| Adjective | which? whose? | Good, blue, mother's, door. | |
| Numeral | how? which the? | Five, five, fifth. | |
| Adverb | as? when? where? and etc. | Fun, yesterday, close. | |
| Pronoun | who? which? how? as? and etc. | I, he, such, mine, so much, so, there. | |
| Participle | which? (what does he do? what did he do? etc.) | Dreaming, dreaming. | |
| gerund | as? (doing what? doing what?) | Dreaming, deciding |
Notes.
1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position in the system of parts of speech of participles and participles. Some researchers attribute them to independent parts of speech, others consider them to be special forms of the verb. Participle and participle really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and verb forms.
Service parts of speech- these are words that do not name either objects, or actions, or signs, but express only the relationship between them.
- It is impossible to put a question to official words.
- Service words are not members of the sentence.
- Functional words serve independent words, helping them to connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
- The service parts of speech in Russian include the following
- pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
- union (and, but, but, however, because, in order to, if);
- particle (would, whether, same, not, even, precisely, only).
6. Interjections occupy a special position among the parts of speech.
- Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words, and do not serve to link words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
- Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use such interjections as ah, ooh, ooh; to express feelings of cold brr, to express fear or pain - Oh etc.
Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their signs, actions, states, quantity, signs of other signs or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of a sentence in a sentence.
Service parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are invariable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to link words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.
Ticket number 8
Noun
The significant part of speech, which includes words with objective meaning, which have the category of gender, change in cases and numbers, and act in the sentence as any member.
The basic unit of grammar is the grammatical category. The word category denotes a generic (general) concept in relation to specific (private) concepts. For example, the name dog will be a category in relation to the names of specific breeds - shepherd, terrier, dachshund.
The grammatical category combines grammatical forms with a homogeneous grammatical meaning. A set of homogeneous and opposed grammatical forms of a particular language is called a paradigm. For example, the grammatical category (paradigm) of the case in modern Russian consists of six forms with the grammatical meanings of nominative, genitive, etc. cases; the grammatical category of case in English includes two forms - nominative and possessive (genitive with the meaning of belonging) cases.
Grammatical meaning is a generalized meaning inherent in a number of words or syntactic constructions and expressed by regular (standard) means. Grammatical meanings, according to grammatical categories, are morphological and syntactic.
In a word, grammatical meanings are an obligatory addition to lexical ones. The differences between them are as follows:
a) lexical meaning is inherent in a particular word, grammatical meaning is inherent in a number of words.
b) lexical meaning is associated with realities - objects, features, processes, states, etc. The grammatical meaning indicates 1) the relationship between objects and phenomena (gender, number, case); 2) the relation of the content of the utterance to reality (mood, tense, face); 3) the attitude of the speaker to the statement (narration, question, motivation, as well as subjective assessments - confidence / uncertainty, categorical / presumptiveness).
c) lexical meaning is always meaningful. In a sense, the exception is words with an empty lexical meaning. They are called desemantized. The word girl defines female representatives at the age of approximately 15-25 years, and as an address is used in relation to much more mature saleswomen, conductors, cashiers, etc. In this case, the word girl does not mean age, but indicates the professional status of the addressee.
The grammatical meaning is purely formal, i.e. having no prototype in reality itself. For example, the gender of inanimate nouns is a stream - a river - a lake; Spanish el mundo ‘peace’, fr. le choux ‘cabbage’ (m.s.); neuter gender of animate nouns - Russian. child, child; Bulgarian momche ‘boy’, momiche ‘girl’, heap ‘dog’; German das Mädchen ‘girl’. An analogue of formal grammatical meanings are words with empty denotations (goblin, Atlantis, etc.).
The grammatical form is the external (formal) side of the linguistic sign, in which a certain grammatical meaning is expressed. The grammatical form is a representative of the grammatical paradigm. If a language has a certain grammatical category, then the name will always have one or another grammatical form. When describing linguistic facts, they usually say this: a noun in the form of the genitive case, a verb in the form of the indicative mood, etc. Grammatical form is the unity of grammatical meaning and the material means of its expression.
Grammatical meaning can be expressed in two ways - synthetically (within the word) and analytically (outside the word). Within each method, there are different means of expressing grammatical meanings.
Synthetic means of expressing grammatical meanings.
1. Affixation (inflection, suffix, prefix of a species pair): mother (s.p.) - mothers (s.p.); run (infinitive) - ran (past tense); did (non-sov. view) - did (sov. view).
2. Stress - hands (ip, pl.) - hands (r.p., singular).
3. Alternation at the root (internal flexion): collect (non-common view) - collect (owl view); German lesen ‘read’ – las ‘read’.
4. Reduplication - doubling the root. In Russian, it is not used as a grammatical means (in words like blue-blue, reduplication is a semantic means). In Malay, orang ‘person’ is oran-orang ‘people’ (complete reduplication); partial reduplication - Tagalsk. mabuting ‘good’ mabuting-buting ‘very good’.
5. suppletivism - the formation of word forms from another stem: I - to me; good - better; German gut ‘good’ – besser ‘better’ – beste ‘best’.
Grammatical meanings can be expressed in several ways. In the formation of the perfect form of ancient Greek. τέτροφα ‘fed’ from τρέφο ‘I feed’ four means are involved at once: incomplete repetition of the stem τέ-, inflection -α, stress and alternation at the root - τρέφ / τροφ.
Analytical means of expressing grammatical meanings.
1. Actually analytical means - special grammatical means for the formation of analytical forms: to teach - I will read (bud. time); fast (positive degree) - faster (comparative degree) - fastest (superlative degree).
2. A means of syntactic links - the grammatical meanings of a word are determined by the grammatical meanings of another word. For indeclinable words of the Russian language, this is the only means of expressing their grammatical gender. Indeclinable animate nouns belong, as a rule, to the masculine gender: funny kangaroo, green cockatoo, cheerful chimpanzee. The gender of inanimate indeclinable nouns is usually determined by the generic word: malicious tsetse (fly), deep-sea Ontario (lake), sunny Sochi (city), unripe kiwi (fruit).
3. Functional words - grammatical meanings are expressed through prepositions, particles or their significant absence: the highway shines (s.p.) - stand by the highway (r.p.) - approach the highway (d.p.) - drive onto the highway ( v.p.) - turn around on the highway (p.p.); learned (indicative mood) - would have known (subjunctive mood).
4. Word order - grammatical meanings are determined by the position of the word in the sentence. In a construction with homonymous nominative and accusative cases, the first place of the word is recognized as its active role (subject), and the second as its passive role (object): ) - The mouse sees the horse (mouse - ip, subject horse - ch, addition).
5. Intonation - the expression of grammatical meanings with a certain intonation pattern. ↓Money went to the phone: 1) with a logical stress on the word money and a pause after it; the verb went is used in the indicative mood; the meaning of the phrase "Money spent on buying a phone"; 2) with an unaccented intonation pattern, the verb went is used in the imperative mood; the meaning of the phrase "You need to put money on the phone."
Questions and tasks for self-control:
1. What is grammar?
2. What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meaning?
3. What features does the reflection of reality in grammar have?
4. What means of expressing grammatical meanings do you know?
More on the topic § 2. Grammatical category. grammatical meaning. Grammar form.:
- Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical category (GK), grammatical meaning (GZ), grammatical form (GF).
grammatical meaning.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Grammar word categories
Grammar as a science.
Word forms are constructed by means of inflectional morphemes. Thus, the morpheme can be considered a separate unit of the grammatical structure of the language. Grammar is a science that studies the regular and general features of the structure of linguistic signs and their behavior. The object of grammar is 1) the patterns of word changes and 2) the principles of their combination when constructing an utterance. According to the duality of the object, the traditional sections of grammar are distinguished - morphology and syntax. Everything related to the abstract grammatical meanings of a word and its form change belongs to morphology. All phenomena associated with the syntagmatics of a word, as well as with the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belong to the syntactic sphere of the language. These subsystems (morphology and syntax) are in the closest interaction and interweaving, so that the assignment of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax often turns out to be conditional (for example, the category of case, voice).
The generalizing nature of grammar allows it to reveal the most essential features of the structure of the language, so grammar is rightly considered the central part of linguistics. In the process of development of grammar as a science, the understanding of its object has changed. From the study of word forms, scientists moved on to the connection between grammar and the vocabulary of the language, as well as to the study of speech functioning.
Vladimir Alexandrovich Plungyan: Cognition is always asymmetrical: only fragments
reality, a person tends to perceive as if through a magnifying
glass, while others - as if through inverted binoculars. “Cognitive
deformation” of reality is one of the main properties of human cognition.
Grammatical meanings are exactly those meanings that fall into the field
view of a magnifying glass; this is the most important for the user
given linguistic system of meaning.
2. Grammatical meaning.
The focus of grammar is grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. Grammatical meaning is 1) a generalized meaning inherent in 2) a number of words or syntactic constructions, which finds its regular and typed 3) expression in the language. For example, in a sentence Petrov - student the following grammatical meanings can be distinguished:
the meaning of a statement of some fact (the meaning inherent in a number of syntactic constructions is regularly expressed by falling intonation)
the meaning of the fact being related to the present time (expressed by the absence of a verb; cf.: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student)
singular meaning (the meaning inherent in a number of words is expressed by the absence of an ending ( Petrovs, students),
as well as a number of others (the meaning of identification, the meaning of the unconditional reality of a fact, masculine).
The grammatical meaning of a word includes the following types of information:
information about the part of speech to which the word belongs
information about the syntagmatic relationships of the word
information about the paradigmatic relationships of the word.
Let us recall the famous experimental phrase of L.V. Shcherby: The glistening kuzdra shteko bobbed up the bokra and curls the bokra. It includes words with artificial roots and real affixes that express the whole complex of grammatical meanings. It is clear to the listener, for example, to which parts of speech all the words of this phrase refer, what between budlanula and bokra there is a relation of object and action, that one action has already taken place in the past, while the other actually continues in the present.
The grammatical meaning is characterized by the following main features:
generality
obligatory: if a noun, for example, has the meaning of a number, then it is consistently expressed in each word in one way or another, regardless of the goals and intentions of the speaker.
Prevalence for a whole class of words: for example, all verbs in Russian express the meanings of aspect, mood, person and number.
The list is closed: if the lexical system of each language is open and constantly updated with new units and new meanings, then the grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of grammatical meanings: for example, in Russian nouns, these are the meanings of gender, number and case.
Typization of expression: grammatical meanings are transmitted in languages in strictly defined ways - with the help of means specially assigned to them: affixes, service words, etc.
Languages differ from each other in what meanings they choose as grammatical. Thus, the meaning of a number is, for example, grammatical in Russian and English, but non-grammatical in Chinese and Japanese, since in these languages a name can serve as the name of one or several objects. The meaning of certainty/uncertainty is grammatical in English, German, French and many other languages and non-grammatical in Russian, where there are no articles.
3. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
The ways of expressing grammatical meanings are varied. There are two leading methods: synthetic and analytical, and each method includes a number of private varieties.
The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings implies the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word. The grammatical meaning in this case is always expressed within the framework of the word. The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings includes:
affixation (use of various types of affixes: I go - you go);
reduplication (full or partial repetition of the stem: fari- white, farfaru- whites in the Hausa language in Africa);
internal inflection (grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root: foot-feet in English);
suppletivism (combining heterogeneous words into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (I go - went)
The analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings involves the separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. Grammatical forms are a combination of fully significant morphologically invariable lexical units and service elements (functional words, intonation and word order): I will read, more important, let me go). The lexical meaning is expressed by an unchangeable full-valued word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by a service element.
Depending on whether synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings prevail in the language, two main morphological types of languages are distinguished: the synthetic type of language (in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates) and the analytical type (in which the tendency to analyticism prevails). The nature of the word in it depends on the predominance in the language of the tendency to analyticism or synthetism. In synthetic languages, the word retains its grammatical characteristics outside the sentence. In analytical languages, a word acquires a grammatical characteristic only in a sentence.
Grammatical meaning is revealed as a result of the opposition of one linguistic unit to another. So, the meaning of the present tense is revealed by contrasting several forms of the verb: knew - knows - will know. Grammatical contrasts or oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category can be defined as a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, expressed by formal indicators (affixes, functional words, intonation, etc.). In the above definition, the word “homogeneous” is very important. In order for the meanings to be opposed on some basis, they must also have some common attribute. Thus, the present can be contrasted with the past and the future, since they all relate to the sequence of events described. In this regard, another definition of the grammatical category can be given: it is the unity of a certain grammatical meaning and the formal means of its expression that actually exists in the language. These definitions do not contradict each other. If we compare them, it becomes clear that the grammatical category includes a generalized grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of time), private grammatical meanings (for example, the present tense, past tense, future tense), they are called grammes, and the means of expressing these meanings (for example , suffix, function word, etc.)
Classification of grammatical categories
by the number of opposing members. There are two-member categories (number in modern Russian: singular-plural), three-member (person: first-second-third), polynomial (case). The more grammes in a given grammatical category, the more complex the relationship between them, the more features in the content of each gramme.
Form-building and classifying. In formative categories, grammatical meanings belong to different forms of the same word. For example, the category of case. Every noun has a nominative, genitive, etc. form. case: table, table, table, table, table, about the table. In classifying categories, grammatical meanings belong to different words. The word cannot change according to the classifying attribute. For example, the gender category of nouns. A noun cannot change by gender, all its forms belong to the same gender: table, table, table - masculine; but bed, bed, bed is feminine. Nevertheless, the gender of a noun is important from the point of view of grammar, since the forms of concordant adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etc. depend on it: a large table, this table, the table stood; but: the bed stood, a large bed.
By the nature of the transmitted values
Objective (reflect real connections and relationships that exist in reality, for example, the number of a noun)
Subjective-objective (reflect the point of view from which reality is viewed, for example, the pledge of a verb: workers build a house - a house is being built by workers)
Formal (do not reflect objective reality, indicate a connection between words, for example, the gender of adjectives or inanimate nouns)
5. Grammar categories of words
Grammar categories of words must be distinguished from grammatical categories. A grammatical category necessarily has a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning. The lexico-grammatical category does not have such a system of forms. Lexico-grammatical categories are divided into semantic-grammatical and formal.
The semantic-grammatical category has semantic features that distinguish it from other categories and affect the grammatical features of the words of this category. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. Thus, a noun has the meaning of objectivity and is combined with an adjective. The verb has the meaning of action and is combined with an adverb. Within the parts of speech, smaller groupings are distinguished, for example, among nouns - animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
Formal categories differ in the way in which the grammatical forms of the words they contain are formed. These are groupings of words according to the type of conjugation (conjugation classes), according to the type of declension (declination classes). Between formal categories, in principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings. The assignment of a word to one of the categories is determined by tradition.