In the 21st century, the media are often accused of creating fake news aimed at achieving certain propaganda goals.
In fact, this practice is as old as time. During the Crimean War, the English media were full of reports from correspondents talking about the atrocities of Russian sailors finishing off the unfortunate Turks after a naval battle. British citizens, horrified by the cruelty of “official St. Petersburg,” passionately advocated for a military expedition against the “bloody Russians.”
Protestants vs. Catholics: a little faith, a lot of business
But these are minor things. There have been fakes in history on a much larger scale. Many people remember from school that the expression “invincible armada” became a symbol of a crushing defeat, a military catastrophe. And this name came from the name of the grandiose Spanish fleet, defeated by the British. Moreover, it was so crushed that it allegedly led to Spain losing its status as a great maritime power.
In reality, things were somewhat different.
In 1585, war broke out between England and Spain. The reason for it was London's support for Protestant rebels in the Netherlands, which was the possession of the Spanish crown.
The problem was actually not only in the Netherlands. Pirates in English service attacked caravans of ships carrying gold and other valuables from the colonies in America to Spain, causing significant damage to Madrid. In addition, the British tried to extend their influence to Portugal, neighboring Spain, by supporting a candidate loyal to them in the struggle for the throne. Spain, in turn, provided assistance to the rebels in Ireland who opposed English rule.
Philip II's big dream
King Philip II of Spain decided to take extreme measures. Having assembled a fleet of 130 ships, divided into 6 squadrons, he planned to land an army of about 30,000 people in Britain, defeat the English forces and restore Catholicism in the country.
It cannot be said that the hopes of Philip II were groundless. The position of Catholics in England at that time was quite strong. Emphasizing the religious component of the campaign, the king of Spain assembled an entire “army” of priests—180 people—for the fleet, called the “Invincible Armada.”
The idea of the expedition belonged to the Spanish Admiral Alvaro de Bazan, Marchioness of Santa Cruz. However, while preparations were underway, the admiral died and command was transferred to Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia.
The Duke was a good organizer, but was not endowed with the talents of a naval commander, which seriously affected the outcome of the entire campaign.
The Duke prophesies disaster
On May 29, 1588, about 130 ships left the harbor of Lisbon, carrying 30,500 people, including 18,973 soldiers, 8,050 sailors, 2,088 slave rowers, 1,389 officers, nobles, priests and doctors.
The Armada did not manage to go far - due to a powerful storm it had to make a stop at the port of La Coruña.
The Duke of Medina Sidonia, having assessed the situation, honestly reported to the king - the situation was unfavorable, food supplies were insufficient, and there were many sick people among the sailors. The commander warned that there was a high risk of failure of the whole venture. But Philip II was already set on the victory of Catholicism in England and was not going to change his plans.
There could be no talk of any surprise in such conditions. When the “Invincible Armada” finally approached the shores of England, it was met there by the assembled Queen Elizabeth I a force consisting not only of the regular British navy, but also of Dutch ships, as well as pirates led by Francis Drake.
Illustration from the book "Royal Navy".
"Decisive" battle
The Spanish ships were much heavier, and their armament was based on a large number of melee cannons. Light British ships had an advantage in maneuver, and with their long-range guns they could hit the enemy while remaining invulnerable to return fire.
In minor skirmishes in early August 1588, the pirates were most successful. Drake, for example, managed to capture one of the badly damaged Spanish ships. However, this did not bring a decisive advantage to the British.
The Armada anchored off Calais, awaiting the approach of the allied forces led by the Spanish Viceroy of the Netherlands Duke of Parma. However, the actions of the British, strong winds and currents prevented the Spaniards from receiving help.
On August 8, 1588, the Battle of Gravelines took place, which is considered the main one in the history of the defeat of the “Invincible Armada”. By this time, the British ships were able to obtain new supplies of gunpowder and cannonballs, but for the Spaniards the situation was close to critical.
The nine-hour firefight showed that the British artillery had a significant superiority over the Spanish. The British sank two enemy ships and damaged several more. Several ships ran aground due to damage and were captured by the British and their allies.
Spanish gun from the ship Duquesa Santa Ana. Ulster Museum. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org / Bazonka
Storm and disease are worse than guns
However, there was no talk of any decisive victory. The British were cautious, fearing a boarding battle. The commander of the Armada, Duke of Medina Sidonia, in turn, came to the conclusion that under the current conditions he could not achieve his goals, and gave the order to leave.
The British did not conduct a long pursuit, fearing Spanish cunning and realizing that the Armada still had enough strength. But in fact, the Spaniards, having rounded Scotland, entered the Atlantic and headed home.
And this is where the real disaster occurred. This area was new to the Spanish captains. The ships of the Armada were scattered by storms, some of them crashed off the coast of Ireland, some simply sank. On those ships that survived, many sailors were washed overboard, while the rest suffered from hunger and disease.
By mid-October 1588, about half of the ships participating in the campaign returned to Spain.
The blow for Spain was serious, but far from fatal. The pride of Philip II suffered most of all - the idea of restoring Catholicism in England suffered a complete collapse.
Return visit of the "English Armada"
The British began to extol their success, declaring that it became possible solely thanks to God's will.
The British were so convinced that Spain was broken to smithereens and would never rise again that in 1589 they sent their fleet, known as the English Armada, to the shores of Spain.
The trip cost a lot of money, so it had to be sponsored by a combination of Elizabeth I herself and the English and Dutch rich. Each of the “sponsors” had their own plans for this campaign and each tried to set their own goals for the fleet. As a result, the “English Armada” was given several difficult (and multidirectional) tasks at once: to burn the Spanish navy in the Atlantic, to capture ships coming from America with a load of silver, to organize an anti-Spanish uprising in Portugal and to create a base for the English fleet in the Azores. A significant part of the “sponsors” (including Drake himself) directly hoped to recoup their costs by plundering weakly defended Spanish cities.
The command was entrusted to the same Drake. The English Armada included six royal galleons, 60 English armed merchant ships, 60 Dutch punts and about 20 pinnaces.
At first, everything turned out well for the British - having attacked La Coruña, they destroyed 13 ships in the harbor, captured part of the city, killing several hundred Spaniards and gaining wine cellars at their disposal.
Francis Drake's failure
However, the British never completely took La Coruña - the defenders withstood the siege, causing serious damage to the enemy. The siege of Lisbon, which could not be taken without heavy guns, also ended in nothing. In any case, it was the absence of such weapons that Drake referred to.
To top it all off, the pirates made a mistake and captured French merchant ships. Despite the fact that France was not only a “neutral” country in this case, the English treasury during the last wars incurred huge debts, including to France. Elizabeth herself had to apologize.
Soon Drake realized that it was time to get out - the losses were growing, the “gentlemen of fortune” who had joined the campaign in the hope of easy prey deserted en masse, and epidemics began on the ships.
Like the Spaniards, the British suffered the main losses on the way back - if the Spaniards destroyed 14 ships of the English Armada, more than 20 died as a result of storms. The English Armada lost up to 15,000 people killed, wounded and died from disease.
Peace under the status quo
The Anglo-Spanish War lasted until 1604, ending with the Peace of London, which was concluded by the successors of the previous monarchs - James I And Philip III. In fact, the agreement was drawn up on the terms of the “status quo” - the parties did not acquire any territories, the Spaniards pledged to no longer support Catholicism in England, and the British refused further assistance to the rebellious Netherlands.
The Spaniards lost in one area - PR. It never occurred to them to glorify the defeat of Drake’s “Armada” as much as the British did with their victory over the “Invincible Armada”.
On August 8, 1588, during the Anglo-Spanish War (1586-1589), the British fleet dealt a strong blow to the Spanish “Invincible Armada” (initially it was called “La felicissima Armada” - “The Happy Armada”). This event became the most famous episode of this war.
The reason for the war was the intervention of the British in the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain and the attacks of English sea robbers on Spanish possessions and ships, as a result of which Anglo-Spanish relations deteriorated to the limit. In addition, the Spanish ruler Philip II, while still heir to the throne, married the British Queen Mary the Bloody in 1554. When Mary died, he wished to marry her successor Elizabeth, but the latter skillfully rejected this claim.
Philip II.
Spain - the superpower of the time
Spain at that time was a real superpower, it had a huge colonial empire, a large fleet and a powerful, well-trained army. The Spanish infantry at that time was considered the best in Christendom. The Spanish fleet was larger and better equipped than the navies of other European countries. In addition to power over Spain, King Philip held the crowns of Naples and Sicily; he was also Duke of Milan, Franche-Comté (Burgundy) and the Netherlands. In Africa, Spain owned Tunisia, part of Algeria and the Canary Islands. In Asia, the Spaniards owned the Philippine and some other islands. The Spanish crown possessed the richest lands in the New World. The territories of Peru, Mexico, New Spain and Chile with their huge reserves of natural resources (including precious metals), Central America, Cuba and many other islands in the Caribbean were the possessions of the Spanish ruler.
Philip II, of course, experienced a feeling of annoyance and humiliation when he learned of the rebellion against his authority in the rich possession of the Spanish crown - the Netherlands. The Spanish army was able to return the Southern Netherlands (Belgium) to the control of the Spanish throne, but the Northern provinces of the Netherlands (Holland), with the support of the British, continued the armed struggle against Spanish rule.
However, the damage that the Spanish power suffered by losing the Netherlands was more than compensated by the acquisition of Portugal, which was subjugated in 1581. At the same time, the Spanish crown received not only this ancient kingdom, but also its huge colonial possessions, all the fruits of the campaigns of the Portuguese sailors. Spain gained control of all Portuguese colonies in America, Africa, India and the East Indies. The Spain of Philip II became a true world empire. The brilliant victory at Lepanto (October 7, 1571), where the Spanish fleet, in alliance with other members of the Holy League, defeated the Turkish fleet, brought Spanish sailors well-deserved fame and respect throughout the Christian world. The power of the Spanish Empire seemed unshakable.
But the glory and wealth of Spain irritated England, which was bet on by the “behind the scenes” of that time. For a number of reasons, behind-the-scenes structures relied on Protestantism and England. Catholicism and its representative, Spain, were not suitable for the construction of the “New World Order”. Its basis was to be the future British Empire. Therefore, England tried to find Spain’s weak points and deliver a decisive blow in order to crush its power and seize leadership in the world. The British supported the rebellious Netherlands, providing them with financial and military assistance. English "sea wolves" attacked Spanish possessions and ships, challenging the Spanish Empire. The British waged an information war against Spain and the Spanish king, inflicting personal insults on him. Ideas about “bad Spaniards” and “noble pirates” who challenged the “tyranny” of Spain began to take shape during that era.
As a result, Philip decides to “pull out the thorn” and crush England. There was another factor that forced the Spanish king to oppose England. He was a truly religious man and an ardent supporter of the eradication of heresy (various branches of Protestantism) and the restoration of the dominance of Catholicism and the power of the Pope throughout Europe. In fact, it was a fight between the old “central command post” of Western Europe - Rome and the emerging new center of the future world order.
Philip II believed that his mission was the final eradication of Protestantism. The Counter-Reformation was gaining momentum. Protestantism was completely ended in Italy and Spain. Belgium was again brought to submission in matters of religion, becoming one of the strongholds of Catholicism in Europe. It was possible to restore the power of the papal throne in half of the German territories. Catholicism survived in Poland. It seemed that the Catholic League was gaining ground in France as well. Rome created a powerful and effective tool to combat Protestantism - the organization of the Jesuits and other religious orders. Rome supported the idea of the campaign. Pope Sixtus V issued a bull, which was to be kept secret until the day of the landing, in which he again anathematized Queen Elizabeth of England, as Popes Pius V and Gregory XIII had done before, and called for her overthrow.
Preparing for the hike
Back in 1585, Spain began to prepare a large fleet, which was called the “Invincible Armada,” for a campaign against England. The Armada was supposed to land an expeditionary force from the army of the Dutch governor Alexander Farnese on the British Isles. Farnese's troops, in order to prepare a base on the Dutch coast, besieged and captured the port of Sluys on August 5, 1587. But in the same 1587, an English squadron under the command of Admiral Francis Drake raided Cadiz and destroyed many ships and warehouses with military materials. This attack delayed the start of the Spanish fleet's march to the shores of England.
In Flanders, work was underway on the construction of small flat-bottomed ships, on which they planned to transport landing troops under the cover of the Armada ships to the mouth of the Thames. Gun carriages, fascines, various siege equipment, as well as materials necessary for establishing crossings, building camps for the landing army and erecting wooden fortifications were prepared. They dug a canal from Sas van Ghent to Bruges and deepened the Yperle fairway from Bruges to Nieuport so that ships approaching the coast would not come under fire from the Dutch fleet or the guns of the Vlissingen fortress. Military forces were transferred from Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria and Burgundy and volunteers came who wanted to take part in the punitive expedition. Spain and Rome took over the financing of the operation. In the summer of 1587, an agreement was concluded under which the Pope was to contribute one million escudos to military expenses. Rome was supposed to contribute this money after the Spaniards captured the first English port.
Farnese knew that the harbors of Dunkirk, Newport and Sluys at the disposal of the Spanish authorities were too shallow for large ships to enter and proposed to capture Vlissingen, which was more convenient for basing the fleet, before sending the expedition. But the Spanish king was in a hurry and did not accept this reasonable offer.
May 28, 1588. A few more minutes - and the Armada ships will leave the Lisbon port to the sound of bells.
The campaign and its results
On May 20, 1588, the Spanish fleet, consisting of six squadrons (Portugal, Castile, Vizcaya, Guipuzcoa, Andalusia and Levant) set sail from the mouth of the Tagus River. In total, the Armada had 75 military and 57 transport ships with 2,431 guns, on board which were 8 thousand sailors, 2 thousand slave rowers, 19 thousand soldiers, 1 thousand officers, 300 priests and 85 doctors. In addition, the Farnese landing army was to join the fleet in the Netherlands. The Spanish fleet was commanded by the most distinguished nobleman of Spain, Don Alonso Perez de Guzman el Bueno, Duke of Medina Sedonia, his deputy was the national hero and favorite of Philip II, captain-general of the Milanese cavalry Don Alonso Martinez de Leyva, knight of Santiago. The Spanish fleet was to sail from Cadiz to Dunkirk and take on board the forces located in the Netherlands. Next, the ships planned to enter the mouth of the river. Thames near London, land an expeditionary force and, with the support of a “fifth column” of English Catholics, take the English capital by storm.
The British had about 200 smaller, but more maneuverable combat and merchant ships with a crew of 15 thousand. The fleet was commanded by Admirals Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher. The British command relied on the superiority of its long-range artillery and wanted to fight at long range, shooting down enemy ships. The Spaniards, having superiority in the number of small cannons, infantry and the power of ships that resembled small fortresses, wanted to engage in close combat.
The Spaniards were decidedly unlucky. Initially, going to sea had to be postponed for a year due to a surprise attack by English ships on Cadiz and other Spanish ports. When the Spanish fleet recovered from the first blow and reached the Dutch shores in May 1588, a severe storm hit the ships, and they were forced to go to La Coruña for repairs. The Duke of Medina Sidonia, concerned about the lack of food and illness among the sailors and soldiers, expressed doubts about continuing the campaign, but the king insisted on the further movement of the fleet. The fleet was able to go to sea only on July 26.
The staff officers suggested that the Duke of Medina make his way to the enemy ports as soon as possible in order to destroy the English ships in the roadstead. However, the Spanish admiral rejected this proposal. For better protection, the Spaniards positioned their ships in a crescent shape, placing the most powerful ships with long-range artillery on the flanks, and transports in the center. This tactic was initially successful. In addition, the British ships lacked ammunition. July 30 - August 1, the Spaniards lost two ships: the Rosario collided with the Santa Catalina and lost its mast, the ship had to be abandoned. Then, for an unknown reason, a fire occurred on the San Salvador, where the Armada treasury was located. The surviving crew members and the treasury were removed and the ship was abandoned.
On August 5, the fleet approached Calais and replenished water and food supplies. But further, towards Dunkirk, in order to join the forces of the Duke of Parma, the Spanish ships could not move: the Dutch removed all navigational marks and buoys east of Calais, just where the shoals and banks began. In addition, the Anglo-Dutch fleet cruised in the Dunkirk area to intercept Farnese landing craft if necessary. As a result, the Armada was unable to connect with the landing army of the Duke of Parma.
Section of an English warship from the time of Elizabeth I - displacement of about 500 tons with 28 guns on board. Reconstruction in 1929.
On the night of August 7-8, the British sent eight fire ships (vessels loaded with flammable or explosives) towards the closely packed Spanish ships. This caused panic in the Spanish fleet, and the order of battle was disrupted. The fireships did not harm the fleet, but some of the ships were damaged due to collisions with each other. However, the British were not able to take full advantage of the favorable moment; they did not have enough gunpowder and cannonballs.
On August 8, the British fleet received reinforcements and ammunition and launched an attack. The battle took place between the Gravelines Bank and Ostend. The English ships came to close range and began firing at the Spaniards, still avoiding boarding action. Several Spanish ships were destroyed and damaged. The battle stopped when the British ran out of ammunition. The Spaniards were also running low on ammunition. This battle cannot be called a great victory. The Spanish fleet retained its combat effectiveness; its main problem was supply. And the British themselves did not feel like winners. They waited for the battle to continue.
The Spanish commanders realized that in the current situation they could not establish control over the strait and move towards the mouth of the Thames. Therefore, the decision was made to retreat. Medina Sidonia sent the fleet north on August 9, intending to go around Scotland and down south along the west coast of Ireland (the final decision to use this route was approved on August 13). The Spanish command did not dare to return through the Strait of Dover, fearing new attacks by the British fleet. The British at this time were waiting for the return of the enemy fleet, or the appearance of the forces of the Duke of Parma.
The defeat of the Invincible Armada on August 8, 1588. Painting by the Anglo-French artist Philippe-Jacques (Philip-James) de Loutherbourg (1796).
On August 21, Spanish ships entered the Atlantic Ocean. At the end of September - beginning of October, the surviving ships reached the coast of Spain. About 60 ships and 10 thousand people returned. The remaining ships were destroyed by storms and wrecks.
It was a serious defeat. However, it did not lead to the immediate collapse of Spanish power. The British attempt to send their Armada to the shores of Spain under the command of Drake and Sir John Norris also ended in a crushing defeat, then the British lost several more battles. The Spaniards quickly rebuilt their fleet to new standards: they began to make lighter ships armed with long-range guns. However, the failure of the Spanish fleet buried hopes for the restoration of Catholicism in England and the victory of the Roman throne in Europe. The position of the Spaniards in the Netherlands worsened. England took a step towards its future position as “mistress of the seas” and a world superpower. It should be noted that the main reason for the future decline of Spain was not military defeats, but internal reasons, in particular the financial and economic policies of the successors of Philip II.
The tragic route of the "Invincible Armada".
The defeat of the Invincible Armada in 1588 was the most important event in European history.
He shook Spain’s position at sea and deprived it of its monopoly on trade with the New World, but that’s not all: Protestant England managed to defeat the most powerful and formidable fleet of the Catholic world.
From that moment on, Protestantism began to spread more rapidly throughout the world, and England became a strong trading power.
"Invincible armada"
The Spanish king Philip II created his “Armada” to finally cope with his enemy in the Anglo-Spanish War. He planned to conquer England, landing in Essex and from there heading towards London.
For his goal, he was going to unite his own army with the 30,000-strong army of the Duke of Parma, his ally. The fleet assembled by the king was huge and clumsy. These were 108 armed merchant ships, accompanied by 22 galleons.
The ships had huge reserves of provisions intended for more than 30 thousand personnel of the Armada. These included:
- Sailors and officers;
- Nobles;
- Slave rowers;
- Doctors;
- Priests.
The clergy were supposed to be one of the most important "departments" as they were supposed to support the English Catholics who opposed the Protestant royal family and persuade the English Protestants to convert to Catholicism. Recruits who wanted to go on a campaign were required to confess and receive communion.
First failures
From the very beginning, the Spanish fleet was plagued by misfortunes. Shortly after leaving Lisbon, a storm broke out, driving the ships into the port of La Coruña. It turned out that there was not enough provisions, and a significant number of soldiers fell ill.
The Duke of Medina Sidonia, the commander-in-chief of the “Invincible Armada,” wrote to the king about the problems, but he ordered to move on, no matter what. It also turned out that the ships could not approach the possessions of the Duke of Parma to take his soldiers on board because of the shallow waters. However, the Spanish ships approached the English Channel and positioned themselves in a crescent.
This formation made it possible to successfully operate against the more maneuverable English fleet. The British attacked from the leeward side, but for a long time they could not break the Spanish formation. Only the Battle of Calais changed the situation, in which the British managed to get close to the Spanish ships at a sufficient distance.
The day after it, the Battle of Gravelines took place, which decided the outcome of the battle: the battered “Invincible Armada,” which had run out of ammunition, hastily retreated. Along the way, strong storms broke out, which almost destroyed the remnants of the Spanish fleet. But the disaster passed, thanks to which the Duke of Medina Sidonia managed to withdraw the ships to Spain. Storms and storms plagued the Spanish fleet even at the height of the campaign, making military operations difficult.
Meaning
The power of Spain was shaken, but at that time it was not felt strongly: the kingdom’s fleet successfully withstood subsequent military conflicts - in particular, it repelled the “symmetrical” campaign of English ships against Spain. The Spaniards learned a useful lesson from the fate of the “Invincible Armada” - they modernized their fleet, replacing large and clumsy ships with lighter and more maneuverable ones, equipped with more modern weapons.
The Spaniards were not very lucky in maritime historiography. Until recently, almost the entire history of the 16th century relied only on English sources, which led to the emergence of a wild number of completely unthinkable myths. Ask almost anyone - he will answer that the British defeated the Invincible Armada at Gravelines, and that from that moment the decline of Spain's naval power began.
Background
Anglo-Spanish contradictions have been growing for a long time, since the 1560s. The two naval superpowers had many reasons to dislike each other, but the final straw was the official signing by the Queen of England of an agreement on military assistance to the Netherlands, which rebelled against the rule of the Habsburgs.
In the end, Philip II decided to send a large fleet to the shores of England, land his troops there and carry out a palace coup - or force Elizabeth to act under the dictation of the Spanish king. A lightning-fast operation was planned, because at that time Spain was already involved in several protracted wars, and the king did not want to get involved in another one.
As a result, after much vicissitudes, the Spaniards equipped a large fleet - 21 galleons, 2 gallibars, 39 nao, 30 urcas, 22 patashas, 2 pinas, 4 galleasses, 4 galleys, 8 zabars - a total of 132 ships (of which 67 with a displacement of more than 500 tons) with a total tonnage of 59,394 tons with 2,493 guns of all calibers. With 30,565 sailors and soldiers on board, as well as supplies for so many people, some of the ships were terribly overloaded. The Duke of Medina Sidonia was appointed commander of the fleet.
The task set for the Armada by Philip II was simple: without being distracted by protracted battles, reach Dunkirk and transport to Albion an experienced 27,000-strong army of its allies - the Flemish Army under the command of the nephew of the Spanish king Alessandro Farnese. The Spaniards planned to land the “landing force” in the area of the British ports of Dover and Margate.
March of the Invincible Armada
On May 28, 1588, the Armada left Lisbon. Headwinds and storms delayed the Sidonian fleet on its way, but on July 30, the Spaniards finally entered the English Channel, today more commonly referred to as the English Channel.
Armada at sea
Who was preparing for their meeting?
By May 1588, the English fleet consisted of 34 royal galleons and 163 chartered privateers - a total of 197 ships. Of this number, 30 ships had a displacement from 200 to 1000 tons. 19 royal ships had at least 30 cannons. 12 ships from this number were privateers under the command of corsairs - Francis Drake, Martin Frobisher, John Hawkins, Lord Charles Howard of Effingham. The latter was appointed commander-in-chief of the fleet.
The total tonnage of the English ships was only 29,744 tons (that is, the average ship had a displacement of 150 tons, which corresponded to the Spanish patas), the total number of crews was 15,551 people. According to the doctrine of John Hawkins, appointed treasurer and surveyor of the Royal Navy in 1573, the Spaniards were expected to be defeated in an artillery battle. It was for this purpose that ships of a new type were built and their crews were trained.
On August 5, the Spaniards arrived at the Calais roadstead and contacted Alessandro Farnese, whom they were sent to transport. However, the Flemings could not go to sea - Dunkirk and Antwerp were blocked by the Dutch fleet of Justin of Nassau.
Attacking the Dutch fleet, with the British in the rear, and outnumbering the Spaniards, was like murder - even if Medina-Sidonia had managed to break through the barriers of the “sea geezes” to the roadstead of Dunkirk, it would have been impossible to get back. If we add here the problems with ammunition on the Armada ships, it is clear that already at this stage the plan for landing in England collapsed.
Armada off the coast of England
News about the unpreparedness of Farnese's army for landing had the effect of a bomb exploding. Even then, the Spaniards were considering the option of turning back and returning to their home ports. So far, the wind has favored this plan - a steady southeast. But still we decided to wait. On August 6, Howard tried to attack the Spaniards, joining forces with Seymour. The shooting continued all day, but there were no casualties. Both sides began to run out of gunpowder, the British retreated to their shores to replenish supplies.
Breath of the Lord
The next day, the British, on the advice of Drake, decided to attack with fireships. For this purpose, the following sailing and rowing vessels were allocated: the barque "Talbot", the pinnace "Hope", the howe "Thomas", the barque "Bond", small ships "Bir Yange", "Elizabeth", "Angel" and "Curse Ship". On the night of August 7-8, the fire-ships set on fire were sent towards the Spaniards with a fair wind.
It is worth saying that a little earlier the inventor of the “infernal machines” Gianibelli fled to England, who in March 1585, during the siege of Antwerp, lowered fire ships onto the Spaniards, which were loaded with gunpowder and a lot of flammable materials - sulfur, coal, tar, fagots. Grenades filled with lead shot, pieces of iron, nails, and glass shards were placed inside the fireship hull. In addition, six iron blowers emerged from the base of the vessel, which during the explosion emitted long streams of fire (a prototype of flamethrowers). Then the explosion of such a fire-ship killed more than 800 Spaniards. Naturally, the Spaniards knew that Gianibelli was in England at that moment, moreover, he was appointed to Howard as a naval assistant.
And when burning ships attacked the Armada, the Spaniards were sure that Gianibelli’s “infernal machines” were coming towards them, and not the usual boats with flammable substances. This caused panic at the Calais roadstead. The galleon captains hastily cut the anchors, the galleas San Lorenzo ran aground and was boarded the next day (with British losses amounting to 200 people), the fleet of the Spanish dons scattered across the sea. On August 8, the British approached and showered cannonballs on the scattered Spanish ships, and at Medina-Sidonia only 40 ships were at hand - the rest were carried away to the west.
Fireboat attack on the Calais roadstead
Thus began the Battle of Gravelines. From the book of the English historian William Thomas Welsh:
“The fierce battle lasted from 9.00 to 18.00. Medina Sidonia at that moment had only 40 ships, with which he opposed the entire English fleet. The Spaniards fought with desperate determination. Never before or after - even at Lepanto - did Spanish sailors and naval soldiers give such an example of fearlessness as on this day, August 8th. And this–after nine days of continuous fighting, after a terrible night full of emotional excitement and fear caused by the attack of the fireships and the loss of anchors"
The British managed to cut off 6 Spanish galleons (San Martin, San Marcos, San Juan de Sicily, Trinidad Valencera, San Felipe and San Mateo) from the main forces and fall on them. According to reports from the Spaniards, they were attacked by as many as 150 ships (it’s hard to believe, but the British probably outnumbered the enemy many times over), but the squadrons of Recalde and Oquendo broke through in time and helped fight back. The 665-ton, 24-gun chartered ship Maria Juan was heavily damaged by gunfire. On August 10, it sank from damage received at Gravelines, and its crew was removed.
Drake's Squadron (50 pennants) within three hours shot at the galleon “San Martin” (1000 combat tons, 48 guns) from a lethal distance of 30–50 yards. Its masts were badly damaged, but the galleon was able to repair itself at night and join the main forces. Next came Hawkins and Frobisher with their divisions, and 17 English ships two hours they shot the galleon "San Felippe" (840 tons, 40 guns). On the galleon "San Mateo" (750 tons, 34 guns) three times eight English ships boarded, and all three times were repulsed.
Battle of Gravelines
The unfortunate San Felippe (840 tons, 40 guns) and San Mateo (750 tons, 34 guns) received severe damage after a six-hour battle and fell behind. Both of them ran aground, and the crews were killed by the Dutch - both on the San Felipe after the capitulation of the galleon's crew, and on the San Mateo as a result of a fierce boarding battle.
From the Dutch description of the last battle of San Mateo:
“As soon as our boats approached the doomed Spanish ship to within 15 yards, a wall of arquebusiers appeared at the sides of the Spaniard, which fired a aimed salvo at us. Many of my comrades were wounded and killed, some flew off the boats into the sea. The Spanish musketeers fired harassing fire from the masts; even their cuirasses could not save them from the bullets of their heavy guns. Several lieutenants leading the boarding parties were killed by these musketeers. We still managed to get on board, and a fight began, cruel and merciless. Neither we nor our enemies knew mercy. Blood flowed like a river"
The damaged nao "Trinidad Valencera" headed for Bruges, but near Blankenberge it was intercepted by the English captain Robert Cross on the "Hope" and surrendered after half an hour of shelling. Mention should also be made of the Portuguese "Urka" "San Pedro Menor", which before the battle went over to the side of the British with its entire crew.
On the same day, a message arrived from Farnese that the troops could be ready for loading no sooner than in two weeks. At the next military council, a heated discussion unfolded about subsequent actions. Admirals Recalde, Leyva and Oquendo said that the attack at Gravelines did not lead to a British victory. They suggested that the Armada should drift at the entrance to Pas-de-Calais, waiting for the usual north-west in those parts and Farnese's readiness to break through to Dunkirk, load troops and land them in England. But although the opinion of these admirals was very significant, Medina-Sidonia decided to still hold a vote. The majority were in favor of returning back to the English Channel and steering the ships home.
However, these plans were not destined to come true. The wind changed to the southwest, so the Armada command decided to go around the British Isles and return to Spain. The Queen of England, having learned about the decision of the Iberians, said very precisely: “The Lord blew, and they were scattered!”
March of the Armada
The further fate of the Armada is widely known. Until August 11, the British, not believing their luck, carefully followed the Spaniards, but did not attack them. On August 12, the Spaniards passed the Firth of Forth, and by the 20th they were near the Orkney Islands. Already at this moment there were about 3,000 sick and frostbitten people on the squadron. On September 3, part of the squadron passed the strait between the Hebrides and Scotland. By this time, the ships were scattered across the sea. On September 10, Spanish ships reached Ireland. Hopes for the help of brothers in faith were not justified - the Irish robbed and killed the survivors. Many sailors died of hunger. 20 Spanish ships crashed on the inhospitable rocks of this island. On September 21, the remnants of the Biscay Armada of Recalde entered the raid of the Spanish Santander. From September 22 to 30, stragglers arrived. Some of the ships reached La Coruña, San Sebastian and Ferrol. In total, the Happiest Armada lost 63 ships, of which only 7 were combat losses. The cost estimate of losses is 1 million 400 escudos. In addition, the Armada was missing 10,000 sailors.
Lessons from Graveline
But let's still talk about the results of the battle of Gravelines. So, the Spaniards had 125 ships (out of 132 units, 3 ships were lost at Plymouth, and 4 galleys could not cope with the rough seas and went to France).
As a result of the battle of Gravelin, in which the enemy operated 195 ships (155 English and 40 Dutch), the Spaniards lost 5 ships (galleas "San Lorenzo", galleons "San Felipe" and "San Mateo", "Urku" San Pedro Menor" and nao "Trinidat Valencera"), of which only three were direct losses from damage in battle, and even then they were not sunk, but boarded. That is, 3 out of 125 ships.
Can this really be considered a decisive victory? This looks much more like a failure of Hawkins’ concept of the general role of artillery in naval combat. This does not look so fantastic if we remember that large-caliber guns then had a short firing range, and a salvo from light guns could not penetrate the side of an enemy ship. For example, guns larger than 26 pounds were very rarely found on Spanish and Dutch ships. This fully fit into the concept of the auxiliary role of artillery: the task of guns was to fire quickly, and large calibers required significant reloading time.
Thus, first conclusion, made from battles in the English Channel, was the following - the main technique of naval combat was and remains boarding.
At the same time, battles with the Invincible Armada showed that fast, light, maneuverable ships can easily avoid boarding heavier, but clumsy enemy galleons, and can also easily maintain a distance at which the galleon’s guns would be ineffective. Hence followed second conclusion– the squadron must have a fairly large number of small ships, which will either drive such ships away from the main forces, or attack the enemy. It is clear that one on one a small ship with a small crew has almost no chance when boarding an enemy ship. From here the naval commanders made another conclusion - when boarding large ships with small ones, it is necessary to create local superiority in forces, that is, one large ship should attack three to five small ships.
This is how it appeared swarm tactics. To attack the enemy, the ships lined up in accordance with this tactic - that is, concentrating at the flagships of the divisions. Each division consisted of three to five ships. The fleet itself was divided into vanguard, rearguard and center, and the vanguard and rearguard were often used not as the front and rear lines of ships, but as on land - along the flanks, “right-hand regiment”, “left-hand regiment”. Leadership of the battle was present only at the initial stage, then each ship chose its own target. If the enemy had ships of large displacement, then they were attacked by one or two divisions. The task of the “swarm” ships was to quickly approach and board. Just like earlier Zaporozhye Cossacks or later the “sea servants” of Peter the Great’s rowing fleet, many small ships surrounded the enemy’s “leviathans” from all sides, the prize crews landed on the enemy decks and went to board.
But what if the enemy has greater forces than the attacker? Or if the enemy’s formation precludes a swarm attack? For destruction fireships were used to destroy the enemy formation and inflict significant losses- ships loaded with flammable or explosive substances used to set fire to and destroy enemy ships. Such a ship could be controlled by a crew who left the ship in the middle of the journey, or floated downstream or downwind towards the enemy fleet. Torches floating on wooden ships usually completely disrupted the formation and control of the enemy fleet, as demonstrated by the attack at Gravelines of the Invincible Armada, where the Spaniards lost all anchors and, in fact, could no longer take on board Farnese's land units.
The Dutch fleet quickly drew exactly these conclusions for itself - lighter ships were loaded with light artillery and equipped with increased crews. As for the Spaniards, they decided that their galleons with a large number of naval soldiers presented a rather tough nut to crack for any attacker. For the hidalgo, the galleon was an ocean ship, with all its advantages and disadvantages. And the main role in the construction of galleons was played by their universalism, and not by their focus on specific combat missions. Today he could carry cargo to the West Indies, tomorrow he could sail for goods to Manila, the day after tomorrow guns were installed on the galleon, and the ship took part in a military expedition to the English Channel, and a few days later the ship, having returned the guns to the Cadiz Arsenal, was again heading for silver to the West Indies. Yes, it was a heavy and clumsy ship, but the galleons were not tasked with attacking anyone’s maritime trade. Rather, they had to fear that they would be attacked, so they did not really need speed.
In general, there is a paradox - the real conclusions from the Battle of Gravelines are not that artillery became the decisive force in a naval battle, but in the conservation of boarding tactics and fire ships until the mid-1650s.
However, strategically, Gravelines did turn out to be a defeat for the Spaniards, and plans for a lightning war on the Island of Philip II after Gravelines were buried and forgotten. A long and difficult war began - now also with England.
Literature:
- Colin Martin, Geoffrey Parker "The Spanish Armada" » , Penguin Books, 1999
- Parker, Geoffrey "The Grand Strategy of Philip II" - New Haven and London, 1998.
- William T. Walsh "Philip II" - London, "Sheed and Ward", 1937.
- Neil Hanson "The Confident Hope of a Miracle - The True History of the Spanish Armada" - London, 2003.
- Fernández Duro, Cesáreo “Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón” – Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Madrid, 1972.
- Lewis, M. “Armada guns” – Austalia, 1961.
- Ed. Laughton, J. K. "State papers relating to the defeat of the Spanish Armada, anno 1588", - London, Navy Records Society, 1894.
- Corbett, Julian S. Drake and the Tudor Navy: With a History of the Rise of England as a Maritime Power, 1898.
Among historians there are lovers of “alternative” history. “What would happen if…” they say. What would have happened if there had not been a volcanic explosion on the island of Santorini that destroyed the Cretan civilization? What if the scientists of the Third Reich, working on the creation of an atomic bomb, had not taken the wrong path? Or here’s another thing - if the storm had not scattered the huge Spanish fleet, already ready to fall on England! What would the English anthem sound like, “Rule Britain the Seas”?
But it wasn't just the storm. England was truly ready to rule.
* * *
16th century – maritime age. Europeans went far beyond the borders of their continent, reached America, circumnavigated Africa, and began dividing the world. The leading role in colonization at this time belonged to Spain. The relentless conquistadors destroyed entire states, and Spanish ships dominated the oceans. For a long time, their main rival at sea was Portugal, but in 1581 it submitted to its northern neighbor. Gold, spices, and fabrics arrived in an endless stream to the Iberian Peninsula. But perhaps it was this flow that slowed down the development of the country. The largest power in the world remained exclusively agrarian, the old feudal order continued to operate in the country, and the leading ideology was zealous, intolerant Catholicism. The power of Spain was based on war, the brutal exploitation of subordinate countries - and, in addition to the colonies, the Spanish king also owned other possessions, for example the Netherlands.
In the second half of the 16th century. England is also increasingly asserting its territorial claims. Unlike Spain, England quickly moved along the path of technical, political and social progress. Merchants and factory owners increased their influence, and cities grew. The English Church did not submit to Rome; the English monarch himself became its head.
The interests of the two powers in the 80s. XVI century collided in several places. First, the Spanish king, the dark despot Philip II, laid claim to the English throne. Queen Elizabeth's predecessor Mary I was Philip's wife. Secondly, the Spanish king wanted Britain to return to the fold of Catholicism. He was pushed to this by both Pope Gregory XIII (d. 1585) and his successor Sixtus V. And English Catholic emigrants had already repeatedly called on Philip to extend the Counter-Reformation to England. The Spanish king was infuriated by the fact that Elizabeth I pursued a tough policy towards English Catholics and was the spiritual head of Protestants throughout Europe. Thirdly, the king was outraged by the help that Elizabeth provided to Philip's rebellious subjects in the Netherlands. (The events of that time in the Netherlands are familiar to anyone who has read The Legend of Ullenspiegel.) Finally, fourthly, the British constantly harassed the Spanish ships. With the permission and support of London, numerous pirate ships went to sea, plundering Spanish transports, capturing warships, and raiding the coast in the New World. One of the outstanding privateers favored by the English crown was Francis Drake. His trip around the world (by the way, the second in history after Magellan) pursued not least predatory goals. The Spaniards used the name of the pirate to frighten their children; in their literature he was allegorically depicted as a dragon.
Thus, the inhabitant of Escurial had every reason to carry out a large-scale operation to eliminate the Elizabethan regime. The king was prompted to take decisive action by the raids on Spanish ships and settlements in the Caribbean carried out by Drake in 1585–1586. Finally, in February 1587, Mary Stuart, the Scottish queen who also claimed the English throne, was executed for participating in a conspiracy against Elizabeth (her Protestant son James VI had ruled in Scotland since 1567), and Philip wanted to avenge her death. Preparations began for a grandiose military expedition to Britain.
* * *
To protect the planned campaign from interference from France, Philip tried to distract the then reigning Henry III of Valois by supporting the Guises, his rivals in the struggle for power. When financing the expedition, Philip relied on loans from Italian and German bankers, regular revenues from the royal treasury, as well as wealth collected in the American colonies. He collected from all fleets (Mediterranean and Atlantic, Portuguese, as well as the allies) more than 130 large and medium-sized ships (with a total displacement of more than 59,000 tons with 2,630 guns on board) and 30 auxiliaries. The squadron was called the "Invincible Armada" by the Spaniards. The ships carried 8,000 sailors and 19,000 soldiers, who were to be joined by the 30,000-strong army fighting in the Netherlands under the command of Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma. The organization of the squadron was initially carried out by one of the heroes of Lepanto, the experienced admiral Don Alvaro de Basan, Marquis of Santa Cruz, but he did not live to see its departure. Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia, a reasonable man, but little familiar with maritime affairs, was appointed to replace Santa Cruz. (Realizing his incompetence, he even tried to recuse himself, but to no avail.)
The English and Dutch had been aware of Philip's plans since 1586. To prevent the land army of Parma from joining the Spanish naval forces, the commander-in-chief of the English fleet, Lord Howard, Baron of Effingham, sent small squadrons under the command of Winter and Seymour to patrol the coast along with the Dutch .
In 1587, the Anglo-Spanish War began. It lasted ten years.
In April of the first year of the war, Francis Drake made a raid on the Spanish port of Cadiz, amazing in its audacity, in the harbor of which he destroyed over 20 ships, as well as port equipment (in particular, fresh water tanks). Only 4 (!) Drake’s ships took part in the raid: “Bonaventure”, “Golden Lion”, “Fear Nothing” and “Rainbow”. The Spaniards were forced to postpone the departure of the squadron. On the way back, Drake did not fail to attack ships stationed off the coast of Portugal, from where he brought to England a captured ship loaded with spices from India (it must be said that one such ship at that time could cover the costs of a circumnavigation). Drake's raid delayed the departure of the Spanish fleet.
In the same year, in order to prepare a base on the Dutch coast, Farnese's troops besieged and on August 5 captured the port of Sluys, defended by an English garrison. Small flat-bottomed ships were built in Flanders, which were supposed to transfer troops to the Armada ships. A canal was dug from Sas van Ghent to Bruges and the Yperle fairway from Bruges to Nieuport was deepened so that ships approaching the shore would not come under fire from the Dutch fleet or the cannons of the Vlissingen fortress. Troops were transferred from Spain, Italy, Germany and Burgundy and volunteers flocked in to take part in the expedition against England.
Farnese saw that the harbors of Dunkirk, Newport and Sluys at the disposal of the Spaniards were too shallow for the Armada ships to enter. He proposed to capture the deeper-water port of Vlissingen before sending the fleet to the coast of England. However, Philip was in a hurry to establish himself in the British Isles as quickly as possible.
The Armada left Lisbon on May 9, 1588. In addition to soldiers, sailors and oarsmen, there were 300 priests on board the ships, ready to revive Catholic power in the British Isles. The storm drove the six squadrons that made up the Armada to La Coruña, from where, after repairs, the ships went to sea again only on July 22.
After much debate, the English commander Howard agreed to Drake's plan to remove 54 of the best English ships from Plymouth harbor and try to destroy the Spanish fleet before it went to sea. However, a change in the wind prevented this operation, and on July 29, 1588, the Armada appeared near the Isles of Scilly off the western tip of the Cornwall peninsula.
* * *
The first collision occurred in sight of Plymouth on July 31st. The Spaniards lost three ships here, and the British suffered almost no damage. On August 2, clashes continued to the east, in Lyme Bay near Portland Bill. This time there were no ship losses, but both fleets used up a lot of ammunition. If the British could replenish their ammunition, the Spaniards, who were far from their native shores, did not have such an opportunity.
The English ships were superior to enemy ships in maneuverability; they were commanded by experienced admirals Drake, Howard, Hawkins, and Frobisher. Dutch ships, captained by experienced sailors, also came to the aid of the British. The absence of a mass of soldiers on the English ships made them vulnerable during a boarding battle, but it gave them an advantage in ease of maneuver.
In the battles, the English fleet also used the advantage of its artillery, not allowing the Spaniards closer than the distance of a cannon shot and thereby preventing them from boarding. The Spanish had mostly high-sided ships, which caused the Spanish shells to miss their targets, while the low ships of the British hit the Spanish ships in the most important parts of the hull - near the waterline. For every shot from the Armada ship, the British responded with three. The Spaniards suffered losses in ships and personnel.
But the Armada continued sailing northeast, deep into the English Channel. The Spanish fleet was located in a crescent: at the edges were the strongest warships, under their cover in the center slow merchant and cargo ships were grouped. The English fleet again approached the Spanish in the dead of night from 7 to 8 August, when the Armada anchored opposite Calais in the Strait of Dover. Lord Howard sent eight burning fireships straight into the center of the Spanish fleet. It was possible to try to use boats to move the fireships to the side, but the flagship signal was raised to “immediately set sail.” Many of the Spanish ships had only time to cut off the anchor ropes, after which they rushed away in panic and confusion. One large Spanish galleas ran aground and many ships suffered significant damage.
Without giving the enemy the opportunity to regroup, the British attacked the Spaniards again the next morning. During the eight-hour battle, the Spanish ships were carried away on the banks northeast of Calais, opposite Gravelines; it seemed that the Armada was about to inevitably run aground, delivering an easy victory to the British, but the northwest wind gave way to the southwest and carried the Spanish ships into the waters of the North Sea. The Spanish fleet moved north; the British pursued him to the Firth of Forth on the east coast of Scotland, where a storm separated the opponents on 12 August.
The Spaniards had to abandon the idea of joining up with the forces of the Duke of Parma, and they undertook a voyage around the British Isles - they rounded the Shetland Islands from the north, walked along the west coast of Ireland, where they hoped to receive help from their co-religionists, and then returned to Spain.
On the way back, a storm near the Orkney Islands scattered the already battered fleet in all directions. Many ships sank, crashed against rocks, and thousands of corpses were thrown ashore. Only 86 ships and less than half of the sailors and soldiers returned to the Spanish port of Santander on the Bay of Biscay. Thus ended the campaign of the “Invincible Armada” ingloriously. The Spaniards still believe that the Armada was not defeated - it was prevented by the elements. However, the storm struck the most significant blow when the Spanish fleet was already returning home. He returned with a light slurp.