The richest and most beautiful Russian language allows people who speak it to be spoken in a variety of ways. The accuracy of the wording and beautiful speech depend on the vocabulary that a person owns. The more words he uses, the more developed he is considered more intellectually. Therefore, it becomes important to increase the number of words used.
In scientific terms, the vocabulary is called the lexicon, meaning words familiar to an individual, group, or language. It is conditionally divided into;
- Active. The first group includes words used every day. They come in both written and spoken language. A sign of an active vocabulary is free use, which does not require additional effort.
- Passive. Passive ones include understandable words that are found in various sources, but not used in speech, or used, but very rarely. If necessary, they are used, but it takes effort to remember.
- External. An external lexicon denotes unknown words related to specific areas of knowledge. These are professional terms, neologisms and more. It is hardly possible to draw clear boundaries between these groups. They are rather shaky and oscillate in one direction or another. With growing up and mental development, the lexicon grows.
So, if a child who goes to first grade speaks two thousand words, then in the last one this number already grows to five thousand. For those who study and develop further, the vocabulary reaches 10,000 words or more. Then most of them relate to passive stock.
Erudite people sometimes own even 50,000 words. But, only a small part is used daily in communication. The rest of the lexicon is used only with similar intellectuals.
Vocabulary Exercise Exercises
The following exercises are written or verbal.
- Nouns. They tell a little story using only nouns. "Day. Work. The end. Output. A door. Key. The entrance. A machine. Key. Ignition "and so on.
- Verbs. The same that is told using nouns is repeated only with verbs.
- Adjectives and adverbs. Then comes the turn of other parts of speech.
- Alphabet. They come up with related words that sequentially begin with the letters of the alphabet in order. “Alena talks in the evening, walking to the treasured fir tree, gesturing and eloquently cherishing the lovely gentle dandelions. "Pasha follows, dragging a convenient chrome lamp, often catching a quick chirping in an extravagant humorous language."
- Monophone. They come up with their own speech, the words of which begin with one letter. Each of them is interconnected, even if the meaning is suffering.
It is not easy to complete each of the exercises. But the words gradually change from a passive vocabulary to an active one and its replenishment takes place.
Lexicon Expansion Techniques without Extra Time
The development of vocabulary, in fact, is necessary to voice your thoughts, intentions, analysis and conclusions. This skill is reinforced by practice and weakened in its absence. Therefore, to develop your speech, you should constantly communicate. Vocabulary growth is ensured: when learning new words that we hear from our interlocutors; exact definitions when words are transferred from a passive vocabulary to an active one.
- Therefore, it is desirable to communicate with dissimilar people. These are friends, neighbors, fellow students, comrades in the gym. People who meet on the Internet on forums and pages of social networks, travel companions and sellers also serve as an opportunity for communication and as a way to expand your speech.
- Another effective way to replenish the vocabulary, which does not require special time, is listening to audio books. This is true when you have to spend a lot of time on the road, driving your car, ideal for audiences (for people who better perceive information by ear). A variety of books are sold in this format: novels, aphorisms, and philosophical teachings. Having recorded on a flash drive, you can now not get bored in traffic, but listen to a fascinating story. It is convenient to listen to audio books before bedtime.
Lexicon replenishment with time allocation
The following activities will help increase vocabulary.
- Reading. Reading is the richest source of information. Books, newspapers, online publications, magazines - everywhere there are inexhaustible replenishment of the vocabulary. It is advisable to allocate one hour a day for this fascinating lesson. Sometimes it’s good to say the words out loud.
- Studying of foreign language. Do not limit your vocabulary to a knowledge of one Russian language. Others to study are also helpful. The more a person enriches his speech, the better the connections are made, and it is easier to recall words from memory.
- Games. There are interesting and fascinating linguistic games: charades, puzzles, and the like. When they are guessed, they are involuntarily interested in words and meaning.
- A diary. Another useful activity is keeping a diary. When it is impossible to attend foreign language courses, they write for themselves. This is a good way to improve the vocabulary, as when making notes, they formulate thoughts that are in the emotional and stimulating spheres.
- Memorization. Memorization makes it possible to add new words to the active reserve. To do this, there is a way of retelling what is heard, memorizing verses and definitions. He is one of the most effective methods of assimilation of new knowledge.
For this it is important:
- daily include new words in speech;
- apply a notebook, bringing intricate utterances, words, phrases with clever expressions there;
- learn the essence of new words, adding a visualization technique;
- memorize verses, quotes, sayings, and more.
To improve vocabulary, conscious action is needed. To achieve beautiful speech, constant training is necessary. Ignoring new words will not give them a chance to get into an active or passive vocabulary. It turns out that those who want to expand the supply of words and enrich their language should make regular volitional efforts for this.
Outdated words
The process of archaizing vocabulary
Vocabulary, which has ceased to be actively used in speech, is not immediately forgotten. For some time, outdated words are still understood by the speakers, familiar to them from fiction, although when people communicate, they no longer need them. Such words become part of the vocabulary of the passive stock, they are given in the explanatory dictionaries with a litter (outdated). They can be used by writers depicting past eras, or by historians in describing historical facts, but over time archaisms completely disappear from the language. So it was, for example, with Old Russian words komony - “horse” sleep - “skin” (hence the burr), worm - “kind of shoes”. Individual obsolete words are sometimes returned to the vocabulary of an active vocabulary. For example, words not used for a while soldier, officer, ensign, gymnasium, lyceum, promissory note, exchange, department now again actively used in speech.
The special emotionally expressive coloring of obsolete words leaves its mark on their semantics. "To say that, for example, verbs to shake and march (...) have such and such values \u200b\u200bwithout defining their stylistic role, - D.N. "Shmelev - this means, essentially, to abandon precisely their semantic definition, replacing it with an approximate formula of subject-conceptual comparisons." This puts obsolete words in a special stylistic framework and requires a lot of attention to them.
Composition of obsolete words
The archaic vocabulary distinguishes historicisms and archaisms. TO historicisminclude words representing the names of the disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts ( chain mail, hussar, tax in kind, NEP, october (primary school child preparing to join the pioneers) enkvedist (employee of the NKVD - People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs), commissioner etc.). Historisms can be associated both with very distant eras and events of relatively recent time, which, however, have become facts of history ( soviet power, party activist, general secretary, political bureau) Istorizm have no synonyms among the words of active vocabulary, being the only names of the corresponding concepts.
Archaisms represent the names of existing things and phenomena, for some reason supplanted by other words belonging to active vocabulary (cf .: every day - always, comedian - actor, gold - gold, know - know).
Obsolete words are heterogeneous in origin: among them are native Russian ( full, shelled), Old Slavonic ( smooth, kiss, shrine) borrowed from other languages \u200b\u200b( absheed - "resignation" voyage - "journey").
Of particular stylistic interest are words of Old Slavic origin, or slavs . A significant part of Slavisms assimilated on Russian soil and stylistically merged with neutral Russian vocabulary ( sweet captive hello), but there are also Old Slavonic words that are perceived in the modern language as an echo of high style and preserve the solemn, rhetorical coloring characteristic of it.
The history of poetic vocabulary related to ancient symbolism and imagery (the so-called poetisms) is similar to the fate of Slavisms in Russian literature. Names of gods and heroes of Greek and Roman mythology, special poetic symbols ( lyre, ellis, parnassus, laurels, myrtle), artistic images of ancient literature in the first third of the XIX century. constituted an integral part of the poetic dictionary. Poetic vocabulary, like Slavs, strengthened the opposition of sublime, romantically colored speech - everyday, prosaic speech. However, these traditional means of poetic vocabulary have not been used for long in fiction. Already at the successors of A.S. Pushkin's poetry is archaized.
New words
Replenishing vocabulary with new words
Each era enriches the language with new words. During the periods of the most active socio-political and cultural life of the nation, the influx of new words especially increases. Our country has developed exceptionally favorable conditions for the enrichment of vocabulary. The turbulent events of the last decade - the collapse of the totalitarian state, the abandonment of the command and administrative system, the collapse of the socio-economic and spiritual foundations of social life that have taken shape over 70 years - have made fundamental changes in all spheres of human activity.
The emergence of new concepts led to the influx of new words into the Russian language. They replenished the most diverse thematic groups of vocabulary, from the name of the state Russian Federation, Republic of Sakha, Tuva, CIS), government agencies ( Duma, department, municipality, city hall, Federal Employment Service of Russia), officials ( manager, prefect, suprefect), educational institutions ( lyceum, gymnasium), representatives of public organizations, movements ( labor Russians, demorosses) etc. to the name of the new commercial enterprises ( TOO [limited partnership], AO[joint-stock company]) and the realities that have become signs of economic restructuring ( voucher, privatization, stocks, dividends) Many of these words were present in the Russian language as foreign names of concepts from the life of other states ( mayor, prefecture), or as historicisms assigned to the era of pre-revolutionary Russia ( department, lyceum, gymnasium) Now this vocabulary is perceived as new, becoming very common.
The fate of new words takes shape in the language in different ways: some get recognized very quickly, others pass the test of time and are fixed, but not immediately, and sometimes they are not recognized at all, forgotten. Words that are widely disseminated are poured into active vocabulary. So, in different periods of the XX century. words entered the Russian language university, educational program, salary, astronaut, lunar rover, chewing gum, shuttle business, federals etc. At the end of the 90s, they no longer seem new to us.
In contrast, words that are not fully mastered by the language retain a hint of unusualness. So, the word that appeared in the 30s far vision has now given way to its synonym - the television; in the first title of image transmission over a distance, the shade of novelty and freshness has not yet been erased, since it has not been included in the active vocabulary. Neologisms that appear in the language as the names of new objects can remain a part of passive vocabulary for a long time if the corresponding concepts are not universally recognized. We cannot foresee the fate of such neologisms as, for example, pulsar (electronic ignition device used by motorists), biofeedback (kefir enriched with biophidobacteria that protect against intestinal infections), euro (European currency). But time will pass, and they will declare about themselves or will be forgotten.
Stylistic interest is represented by new words, which have not yet had time to get used to, which are not yet in the dictionaries. Almost all new words remain for some time in this capacity. But over time, some of them lose their stylistic connotation of novelty, others even become archaic (compare historicisms: jumpsuits, Stakhanovite, Red Army man) Of the latest innovations, this fate is destined for the notorious vouchers, financial company MMM, State Emergency Committee and under.
Types of Neologisms
Neologisms words that preserve a hue of freshness, novelty are called. The term “neologism” narrows and concretizes the concept of “new word”: when highlighting new words, only the time of their appearance in the language is taken into account, assigning words to neologisms emphasizes their special stylistic properties associated with the perception of these words as unusual names. With this in mind, compilers of explanatory dictionaries usually refuse stylistic labels indicating new words.
Neologisms appear and function in the language in different ways, which allows us to distinguish several groups in their composition. The classification of neologisms is based on various criteria for their evaluation. Neologisms are distinguished depending on the methods of education. lexicalthat are created according to productive models or are borrowed from other languages \u200b\u200b( signatory - the official signing the document; post-communist, anti-perestroika, denationalization, party and party nomenclature, special forces, armored personnel carriers, riot police, demoross, federal, video bar), and semanticthat arise as a result of assigning new values \u200b\u200bto already known words ( shuttle - a small merchant of imported goods, bringing them from abroad, go clubbing - communicate in a friendly atmosphere, steep (guy, motive) collapse (national currencies) and under.).
Semantic neologisms are inferior in number to lexical ones, although in the 80-90s many words got unusual meanings. The peculiarity of semantic neologisms lies in the fact that they have long been known in the language as lexemes, but having renewed their meaning, they move from the previous thematic groups to completely new ones, while changing lexical compatibility and often stylistic fixation, expressive coloring. So word collapse in the dictionaries of the Russian language is given in two meanings: 1. The fall of the separated mass ( building collapse); 2. Snow blocks or fragments of rocks that have fallen from the mountains. With this use, the word collapse stylistically neutral, semantics make him related to words related to natural phenomena ( mudflow, rockfall, avalanche) The use of this word in the journalistic speech of the early 90s radically changes its meaning: The collapse of the national currencies of Ukraine, Belarus; Record collapse of the dollar against the yen; Mutual lending operations were practically not carried out on the Moscow market of interbank loans, which is unambiguously associated with the collapse of the banking system ... No collapse will come out, said the Minister of Finance (from gas.). In a new meaning - crash, catastrophe - collapse belongs to a thematic group of words related to financial transactions; it becomes expressively colored and assigned to the journalistic style of the Russian language.
In the composition of semantic neologisms, words with a bright expressive coloring are not isolated, it is not by chance that fashionable new words are borrowed from jargon. So, go clubbing originally used by gamblers, it was commented on in his dictionary by V.I. Dal: Shuffle cards, interfere with randomness, shove across the deck. True, the figurative meanings of this word were also indicated here: shuffle goods - interfere with bulk goods of various denominations, and shuffle people - stop them. The literary version of the word required writing through A, since this verb was formed from the French tasser - to collect in a heap. A.S. Pushkin used it in a humorous context with a meaning close to modern: I'm shuffling with you without ranks. I love you with my soul, Fill the mug to the brim, - Reason! God be with you! Obviously, expression was the reason for the unusually wide use of this slang word, which entered our language with a new meaning. It does not leave the pages of magazines and newspapers, overgrown with related words: ( party, party girl, party etc.): Our artists who are engaged in contemporary art have always stood apart in the European art community; Not recognizing the authorities, the "pinkie" party and regulars of nightclubs, rapidly dropping to them at their "Mercier"; "Autumn, autumn, let's hang out ..." (article title); the title of the column in the newspaper “Arguments and Facts” - PARTY etc.
Another expansive semantic neologism with vivid expression is another word - steep, a new meaning which also developed not without the influence of jargon. As an adjective, this adjective has been known for a long time, so in any dictionary it is given as common and neutral.
In the "Dictionary of the Russian language" S.I. Ozhegova adjective steep interpreted as follows: 1. sheer, steep. Steep shore; 2. With a sharp, sudden change of direction. Sharp turn; 3. Harsh, strict. Cool character, cool measures; 4. Finished by cooking, kneading to a certain degree of density, density. Cool egg, cool porridge. Cool boiling water - boiling water. In these meanings, the word cool had limited possibilities of compatibility with nouns: combinations were impossible cool man, cool girl, cool motive. The use of an adjective in a new meaning - the highest degree of appreciation of the manifestation of quality - has changed its valency: now it can be combined with an unlimited circle of nouns; the fashion for the word made it common. Here are some examples from different newspapers: The city, the glory of the saints, has not yet been divided into “settlements” on a common basis, but its inhabitants have been in a tense quarrel with themselves for several years now (“AiF”); ... Then Alexander Ivanovich looked bewildered and clearly did not know what to do. With all his appearance, he seemed to be trying to say: “Actually, I'm cool, I'm just sick now” ("MK"); Cool dinner with cool prices(heading to MK); heading in "Komsomolskaya Pravda" - The coolest events of the week; It’s ridiculous to assume that someone’s “cool” money was laundered under the roof of the branch ("Work").
Depending on the conditions of creation, neologisms should be divided into two groups: words whose occurrence is not associated with the name of their creator, they can be called anonymous, and words entered into use by specific authors, i.e. individual author neologisms. The vast majority of neologisms belong to the first group. And although every newly created word has a creator, usually it remains unknown (no one can say who the words were invented by earthlings, market, Duma, ownerless and the like). More often a new word is created according to such a productive model that many begin to use it simultaneously ( readable, watchable, operating time, progress, gekachepisty) The second group of neologisms includes, for example, the word created by V. Mayakovsky perchedwhich invariably makes us recall the poet's satirical work, written about endless meetings.
Having crossed the boundaries of individual author's use, becoming the property of the language, such words join active vocabulary. So, the Russian language created by M.V. Lomonosov terms: constellation, full moon, attraction; introduced by N.M. Karamzin once "new" nouns industry, future and etc.
Depending on the goals of creating new words, their purpose in speech, all neologisms can be divided into nominative and stylistic. The former perform a nominative function in the language, directly naming concepts; the latter give a figurative characterization of objects that already have names. The emergence of nominative neologisms is dictated primarily by the needs of the development of science and technology. These neologisms arise as names for new concepts. Nominative neologisms usually do not have synonyms, although the simultaneous emergence of competing names (cf .: astronaut - astronaut), one of which eventually supersedes the other. Nominative neologisms contain many highly specialized terms, as a rule, stylistically neutral in an emotionally expressive sense. Inventors are trying to introduce both new items and their names. This is facilitated by the advertising of new products and products. For example: pulsar(electronic ignition device used by motorists), biofeedback (kefir enriched with biophidobacteria that protect against intestinal infections).
New terms become known through the media, in which popular science articles on various topics are published. For example:
All equations of physics, along with particles, allow the existence of reverse-charge antiparticles. And such particles (antiproton, antineutron, antielectron, aka positron) have long been discovered. At the Protvino accelerator, for example, there is an antiproton storage ring, where many unique experiments have been performed. The problem, however, is to create a stable atom by anti-release a large amount of energy (from gas.).
Stylistic neologisms are created as a bright expressive tool, they always have a positive or negative color. For example, failures and abuses during the privatization of state-owned enterprises led to the birth of a satirical word privatization.
The result of perestroika and glasnost were such stylistic neologisms as scoops (i.e. Soviet citizens), shovel; sharply satirical word member-man (personal car of a senior official); horror movies (horror films), chernukha (revealing films); mayhem and under.
In contrast to nominative neologisms, the appearance of which is caused by the need to name a new phenomenon, subject, scientific discovery, stylistic neologisms are created as names of already known concepts. The new word contains his assessment, reflects the attitude of the speaker. Stylistic neologisms have synonyms that are usually inferior to them in the intensity of expressive coloring. However, the frequent use of neologisms of this type in speech leads to the neutralization of their stylistic coloring.
Depending on whether neologisms enter the language or are merely facts of speech, are created “just in case”, neologisms are distinguished linguistic (nationwide) and occasional (from lat. occasionalis - random).
Linguistic neologisms eventually become the property of interstitial or special vocabulary and are fixed by dictionaries. Like ordinary words, linguistic neologisms are reproduced in speech with meanings assigned to them. Examples of linguistic neologisms are all the lexical and semantic, nominative and stylistic, anonymous and individually-authored neologisms that we have examined.
Occasional neologisms are words used in a certain context only once. These include, for example, children's neoplasms: - Let me unpack the packages, - Look how the rain poured! Among them may be not only lexical, but also semantic neologisms [ - Mom, look, there is a caterpillar with children! (about the goose); - Turn this key into the closet]. Such occasionalisms arise especially often in spoken language; they are created involuntarily, which distinguishes them from other neologisms.
In written speech, occasionalisms may be quoted in the transmission of one's conversations, speeches, or jokes. So, the newspaper talks about the Golden Ostap festival, dedicated to comedians. In this regard, the Throne Speech of the President of the Russian Academy of Humor by Alexander I (Shirvindt) is published:
“GOLDEN OSTAP” is a wonderful nonsense in the series of general nonsense that exists in the country. (Pointless applause). The funniest nonsense. (Funny pops). Ostap and today, oddly enough, relevant in all respects. (Exclamations: "Surely speaks!"). No matter how it is festooned, it always turns out modern.
("Arguments and Facts")
An occasional word can be heard on TV; for example, the host of the program "Morning" promises to appear on the screen every day. In book literary language, occasionalisms can be used if dialogue is reproduced in the text. For example, in an interview with the former press secretary of the president, journalist Sergei Medvedev:
- Can you recall any funny incident from your television practice?
- The worst thing on the air is when a laughter attacks and it is terribly difficult to resist laughing ...
("News")
Talking about the English Parliament, the radio commentator uses occasionalism, which, in his opinion, will help listeners to vividly present the British debate: Speech was delivered by the backbencher Sir John ... Such innovations are not always successful, but created on the occasion, they do not cause much damage to the language, as they are quickly forgotten.
The problem of occasionalisms is not well understood: occasionalisms are usually considered as part of neologisms, however, some linguists rightly emphasize that occasionalisms, being facts of speech, are not included in the language.
A special place in the composition of neologisms is occupied by the so-called individually stylistic neologisms - words created by writers, publicists with a specific artistic purpose [ will wither (Bl.), leaflet (Es.) nightly (Past.)]. The individual stylistic neologisms are united with occasionalisms by their use within the context; they live only in the work of art in which the author used them. In special cases, these neologisms can be repeated, but at the same time they are not reproduced, but are “born again”. For example, A. Blok introduced a new word in the text of the poem "On the Islands" Again snow-covered columns. Elagin bridge and two lights. And the voice of a woman in love. And a crunch of sand and a horse's snoring. Six years later, A. Akhmatova used the same definition in her poem “December 9, 1913”: I realized that there is no need for words, snow-covered branches are light ... Networks have already spread out birders on the river bank. However, no one will argue that such a usage indicates a dependence of one poet’s style on another, especially a desire to repeat a “poetic find” or imitation.
Individual stylistic neologisms have a number of significant differences from occasionalisms. Occasionalisms are used in colloquial speech mainly in oral communication, individual stylistic neologisms belong to book speech and are recorded in writing. Occasionalisms arise spontaneously, individual stylistic neologisms are created in the process of conscious creativity with a specific stylistic purpose.
From non-Slavic languages
Greece
A noticeable trace (some believe that the greatest) was left by the Greeks, who came to the Old Russian language mainly through Old Slavonic in connection with the process of completing the Christianization of the Slavic states. Byzantium took an active role in this process. The formation of the Old Russian (East Slavic) language begins. The Greeks of the period X-XVII centuries include the words:
§ from the field of religion: anathema, angel, bishop, demon, icon, monk, monastery, lampada, sexton;
§ scientific terms: mathematics, philosophy, history, grammar;
§ household terms: lime, sugar, bench, notebook, lantern;
§ names of plants and animals: buffalo, beans, beets and others.
§ Later borrowings relate mainly to the field of art and science: trochees, comedy, mantle, verse, logic, analogy and others. Many Greek words, which received the status of international, fell into the Russian language through Western European languages.
Turkisms
Words from the Turkic languages \u200b\u200bpenetrated the Russian language since Kievan Rus was adjacent to such Turkic tribes as the Bulgars, Polovtsy, Berendey, Pechenegs and others. Approximately to the VIII-XII centuries, there are such old Russian borrowings from the Turkic languages \u200b\u200bas the boyar, the tent, the hero, the pearls, the koumiss, the gang, the cart, the horde. It is worth noting that historians of the Russian language often disagree on the origin of certain borrowings. So, in some linguistic dictionaries, the word horse is recognized as Turkism, while other experts attribute this word to the original Russian.
Latinisms
By the 17th century, translations from Latin to Church Slavonic appeared, including the Gennadiev Bible. Since then, the penetration of Latin words has begun in the Russian language. Many of these words continue to exist in our language today (the Bible, doctor, medicine, lily, rose, and others).
© 2015-2019 website
All rights belong to their authors. This site does not claim authorship, but provides free use.
Page Created Date: 2017-12-12
The changes taking place in society primarily affected the spheres of politics and economics. New political and economic terms appeared: “new political thinking”, “open civil society”, “single economic space”, etc.
For neologisms of recent years, a more productive way of education was a descriptive one (open joint stock company, network marketing, etc.), in contrast to the previously active tendency to save language and word formation methods:
1. the formation of words from phrases: train, record, progression;
2. word formation using the zero suffix: heating, sewing, firing;
3. collocations: fleet, slag concrete, rail.
However, the method of abbreviation remains frequency: CJSC (Closed Joint-Stock Company), CAO (Central Administrative District).
The debate about the benefits and dangers of borrowed words has not subsided for decades. On the one hand, the speeches of linguists against the use of foreign words unnecessarily cause a lively response and sympathy from most people. On the other hand, the emergence of new words is caused by the emergence of new life realities that did not exist before and which do not have a language analogue in Russian (see the same names of professions: logistics, marketing, office manager; or: mixer, toaster, mobile (cellular ) phone, fax, pager).
Attitude to borrowed words is not only a linguistic, but also a social problem, requiring a thoughtful and cautious approach.
Along with updating the part of obsolete vocabulary that has again returned to the active dictionary (gymnasium, lyceum, banker, governor, cadets, liberal democrats), the process of deactivation of part of the vocabulary is taking place in the vocabulary of the Russian language. The reason for the deactivation of entire lexical groups was the dismantling of the existing political and economic systems. Words and phrases have lost relevance: the five-year plan, the collective farmer, the link, the pioneer, the Komsomolets, the drummer of communist labor, the winner of socialist competition, etc.
Word combination
Of particular difficulty, in terms of usage, is the compatibility of words. The possibilities of combining words with each other are very different. Service parts of speech (conjunctions, prepositions) possess the greatest ability to enter combinations with other words. Significant parts of speech can conditionally be divided into two groups. One is characterized by compatibility, almost unlimited within the limits of their subject-logical connections: a specific noun ( man, house, book), verbs ( live know know), especially to auxiliary verbs ( be, become, start), the estimated adjective ( good big) In other words, limited compatibility ( gain, ticklish, blue).
Limitations in the compatibility of words can be semantic: there should be no contradictions in the concepts being joined (expressions of the type should not be used huge house, square circle, blooming January).
Combining some words into phrases becomes impossible due to their grammatical nature ( fast - sad; five - laugh) And finally, restrictions on compatibility can be caused by the lexical features of words (it is customary to say win a victory, not nice - defeat; received - laughter, evil, fear takesnot nice - joy takes).
Errors in the compatibility of words are often made in the compositions of schoolchildren and applicants, in the oral answers of students in exams. For example: “A child is born with a blank board in his head, and something right needs to be written on it”; “His character is not Nordic, but frail, and maybe even seasoned, but he intently hides it”; “A comprehensive education program consists of pieces of different subjects and labor, which also learns as a subject.”
Avoiding such errors will help appeal to special dictionaries, which provide typical examples of the compatibility of certain words with others, for example, to the “Dictionary of the compatibility of words of the Russian language” / Ed. P.N. Denisova and V.V. Morkovkina.
The norms of compatibility of words cannot be too rigid, once and for all given.
In the language there is a redistribution of connections between words. Much of what was generally accepted in the language earlier becomes obsolete and unusual for the present. For example: story taker(now the meaning of the word "instigator" is narrowing) nursery of enlightenment, promote processes, come from the Komsomol. At the same time, many new phrases appear and become legalized by speech practice: a set of problems, a burning permit, a computer virus, cellular communications, a helpline, a luxury train.
Test questions:
1. Identify the role of visual and expressive means of language in speech communication.
2. Name the paths, describe them.
3. List the stylistic figures, give them a description.
4. What are the conditions for a successful word choice?
5. Due to what is the replenishment of Russian vocabulary?
6. What can be a limitation in a combination of words?
6.7. Seminar lesson *.
Do you know a situation when you speak English and cannot fully express an idea because you don’t know the right word?
Small vocabulary is a common problem. It depends on its size how freely you can express your thoughts in English.
In this article you will learn:
- How to learn English words to expand vocabulary;
- The best ways to expand your vocabulary;
- 3 tips to quickly replenish your English vocabulary.
How to learn words in order to increase the vocabulary of English words?
The main reason for the lack of vocabulary growth is the wrong method of learning new words. This is when you learn words, and after 3-5 days, remember only a small part.
If you learn English words correctly, then the vocabulary will gradually expand, and you will not forget the words. Follow these guidelines to avoid wasting time.
1. Learn less words, but do it well.
It makes no sense to learn a lot of words, if in the end you remember only a few. Do not take 50 words at once. Better take 10-15 words, but then work properly with them.
2. Use the English-English dictionary.
Of course, it’s easier to see the translation in an electronic translator or in the Russian-English dictionary. But the use of the English-English dictionary gives certain "advantages":
- You will easily understand the meaning of the word. Indeed, in such dictionaries, not a translation of a word is given, but its meaning (in English).
- You will learn similar (synonyms) and opposite words (antonyms) that are given to each word.
- The English-English dictionary provides consistent expressions where the word is used.
At the initial levels, a bilingual dictionary (English-Russian) should be used.
3. See not one, but all the meanings of the word.
Most often, one word has several meanings, and they are completely different. For example, the word break can mean either a hole in something (a crack, a hole), or free time (break).
The more meanings of one word you know, the more correctly you can use it.
4. Constantly use the words you know.
No matter how well you remember the word, if you do not use it, you will forget it. Constantly use the words you have learned.
If you do not have the opportunity to communicate in English every day, then you can mentally describe what you see and learn to think in English.
Attention: Want to overcome the language barrier and speak English? Find out in Moscow how our students start speaking in 1 month!
Best ways to expand your English vocabulary
These are the most popular ways to help you learn a lot of new words and phrases.
1. Watch movies and TV shows in English.
Who doesn’t like to watch an interesting movie or series? By doing this in English, you will expand your vocabulary.
Be sure to choose a movie / series for your level of English. After all, if there are too many unknown words in it, you just get tired of watching it.
You can also focus on what vocabulary you need more. For example, when watching the series “Friends”, you can replenish your vocabulary with everyday expressions, while watching the series “Office” - with working vocabulary.
2. Listen to English songs and podcasts.
In songs you can always find many interesting and useful expressions. But from passive listening, you will never increase your vocabulary. You need to do this correctly.
Listening to podcasts is also very useful. You can choose a podcast according to your level and choose any topic that interests you.
3. Read English books and articles.
Reading is another popular way to replenish your vocabulary. However, do not forget that if you want to remember words, you need to work through them, and not just sign the translation in pencil over an unknown word.
4. Solve crosswords and play games.
Now there are many games that are aimed at training and memorizing new words. Solve crosswords, add words from letters, search for necessary words, etc. All this will help you replenish your vocabulary and repeat the words you already know.
Movies, series, songs, podcasts and games will help you gradually increase your vocabulary. But what if you need to recharge it in a short period of time? We will open 3 ways that will allow you to do this.
3 tips to quickly replenish your English vocabulary
1. Learn word lists on one topic.
Learning words that are united by one topic is much easier than learning everything mixed up.
To do this, take 10-20 words related to one topic. For example, animals, home decoration, work, travel, etc. Be sure to take a topic that is interesting and necessary for you. Why do you need to learn car parts if you are not faced with this in life?
Learned words on the topic of work? Write a short story about what responsibilities you perform and how your work day goes. If you don’t have a job yet, dream and tell us about your dream job.
If you learn a language in a group, you can play skits. It is very fun and useful. Imagine that one person is an employer and the other came for an interview.
2. Learn the most used words.
There are words that people use very often, and there are those that are used in rare cases.
Learning words that you can use in any situation is much more useful. For example, in the list of words “work” it is much more useful to include the words: employer, employee, hire, fire, work schedule, etc. These are the words that you really need.
If you learn specific words that are not related to your work, you are unlikely to use them. And, as I wrote above, if you do not use words, then you will forget them.
3. Learn the words that are around you.
This exercise will allow you to test and improve your English vocabulary. Inspect the room / office / park / restaurant where you spend time. What do you see?
Name each item that you see. If you don’t know a word, write it down. As a result, you will make your own list of words that you can learn. Thanks to him, you will know the names of objects surrounding you.
So, if you follow all the methods described in the article, you can significantly replenish your vocabulary. And you definitely won’t have a situation when you want to say or ask something, but don’t know the right English word.
Friends, how do you learn English words?
It is believed that a rich language helps make a living for journalists, copywriters, editors and translators. In any case, it is directly related to their professionalism. We are talking about expanding the vocabulary when we want to speak publicly and impress the audience. What are the most effective ways to increase your active vocabulary?
The question of increasing vocabulary usually arises when studying foreign languages. When we speak English, Spanish, German or any other non-native language, we regularly come across the fact that we don’t know some words. In this case, dictionaries come to the rescue. It’s easier with a Russian: if the desired expression has flown out of our head, we can always find a synonym or explain what we mean by it descriptively.
Lexicon of the Russian language
Conventionally, the lexicon is divided into active, passive and external. The first group includes that part of the vocabulary that a person not only knows, but also actively uses in everyday speech. To use it does not require additional effort.
Passive words are those words that we understand, but do not constantly apply. If necessary, they will most likely have to be remembered. The external vocabulary includes special, professional and scientific terms, as well as neologisms. It is almost impossible to draw a clear line between these groups.
As you grow up, mental development and expansion of the circle of communication, the child’s vocabulary grows.
It is believed that a first grader on average owns 2,000 words, and this is enough to explain at the household level.
During school, this figure increases by 5 times or more. The vocabulary begins to include terms that are heard in the lessons, as well as words found in the works of classical literature. However, most of the new knowledge goes into a passive reserve.
Many teachers of oratory are sure that an educated person needs to enrich the vocabulary as a whole. However, if it is necessary to make the speech more expressive, rich and convincing, it is worth paying attention primarily to the expansion of the active stock, as well as to the translation of part of the vocabulary from the passive dictionary into the active.
Preparatory work
It is not so difficult to identify verbal “garbage” in your speech: it is enough to read correspondence with friends and relatives on social networks. All the findings must be written out in a notebook and ask a colleague or friend to pull you every time you say something from the forbidden list. You can even argue with a friend and promise to treat him with coffee or lunch for a certain number of “misfires”.
Such motivation will help to get rid of superfluous and unnecessary words in the shortest possible time, and in the meantime, the memory itself will toss you literary synonyms from the passive stock.
Remember the synonyms
The Russian language is so rich that one word can pick up a dozen synonyms for different contexts and styles of speech. In everyday life, we use only a couple of them, so the so-called universal words appear that make our language primitive and not rich.
One of the most popular ways to change this situation is to keep your own dictionary of synonyms or write new expressions on cards.
The same method is used in the study of foreign languages, but it has a big minus: memorizing words individually is almost pointless, since they are likely to fall into a passive reserve and will not be widely used. Therefore, it will be more useful and more expedient to memorize not thoughtlessly, but to immediately put the words into practice - to compose sentences with them or whole dialogues.
For training, you can do several exercises. Compose a short text or take one already prepared and rewrite it several times in other words. At the same time, you need to make sure that whenever possible there are different words in it, try to avoid repetitions. With the constant implementation of this exercise, expressions will be firmly anchored in the active dictionary and will often come to mind when talking.
Take time every day to write on social networks three small notes about what is happening around you.
The task is that you should use the most unusual vocabulary for you so that your friends and subscribers decide that your page was hacked and the text was written not by you, but by someone else.
Most sites and blogs that teach how to replenish the vocabulary of the Russian language always offer you to keep a dictionary of synonyms on hand and often look into it. But this rule is rather useful for those who write a lot. A person is looking for an alternative at the moment when he really needs it, and immediately uses it. This does not guarantee that the word found will continue to be used. Thus, new words will be in the passive language and enrichment will not contribute.
The benefits of reading books
Reading books is an obvious way to increase vocabulary. But the question arises: what kind of literature should be read and what should be done so that the expressions remain in memory?
The only problem is that while reading fiction we are fond of the plot and forget about vocabulary. This can be dealt with if you read slowly and thoughtfully, perhaps even write out individual words and phrases. Use the knowledge you need as soon as possible so that they do not go into a passive reserve.
Many note the special benefit of memorizing poems for expanding vocabulary. Thus, you can learn not only vocabulary, but also the syntax. There is no strictly fixed word order in sentences in Russian, which gives us tremendous freedom. True, we rarely use it.
Each person has favorite constructions and expressions that he uses over and over again.
To increase the lexical range, it is worth taking a more creative approach to building phrases. It is enough to replace the impersonal sentences (“I want”) with personal ones (“I want”). If you use both subject and predicate, then the synonymous series and space for maneuvers will be much wider.
Can I replace reading with listening to audio books? This way of perceiving information, of course, significantly saves time, because you can enable recording in the car or in the kitchen. But in this case, there is a risk of being distracted from the language and perceiving audio exclusively as a background. In addition, it must be borne in mind that not all people perceive information well by ear.
Live chat
The easiest way to increase vocabulary is to communicate with different people. The main thing is that the interlocutors should differ from each other as much as possible: by age, education, and profession. So you can learn new words for yourself and immediately start using them.
In addition, oral practice is recognized by many teachers of oratory as the most effective for replenishing the vocabulary. Even if you do not intend to gather halls and give lengthy monologues to a large audience, this experience will be useful. Retell stories and movies more often, or just tell your friends, acquaintances, relatives, or yourself about your life.