Words are divided into syllables. Not all syllables have one. longitude and strength. One of the syllables in the word stands out naib. the strength and duration of the pronunciation of a vowel sound. It's called percussion. The Russian language is peculiar power accent.
stress- this is the music. tone, on a cat. the word is adjusted, that "voice", according to the cat. we learn the word. All words, yavl. self. parts of speech are usually stressed. Assimilation of rights. stress is associated with a number of difficulties, explained. its features.
The first is that the stress in Russian words is not attached to def. syllable in a word (as, for example, in most Turkic languages, in French (where the stress falls on the last syllable), in Polish (the stress is on the pre-positive syllable), in Czech and Hungarian (the stress is on the first syllable)). This accent is called free, it can be on any syllable of the word.
The second feature of Russian stress is its mobility, its ability to change its place depending on the form of the word. For example, the verb understand in neopr. form has an accent on the second syllable, in the past. tense in the masculine gender it moves to the first syllable - p'onyal, and in the feminine - to the last one - understood'a.
Large groups of words, men. stresses, depending on the form, are also among verbs. These are the verbs to live, be, twist, pour, give, drink and their prefix. education. The scheme of their stress is bizarre and, moreover, changes over time. Only the feminine form of past remains unchanged. time - with an emphasis on the ending.
The mobility of Russian stress leads to the need, along with the formation of forms, declension, conjugation of words, to be attentive and to stress, which, apparently, does not remain constant. This is the difficulty of the language, but also one of its colors, when a word in different forms sounds in a new way.
These two properties of Russian stress are taken into account in Russian versification, cat. is based on the number of syllables and the number of stresses, as well as the ratio of stressed syllables to unstressed ones. Such a verse is called syllabotonic (syllable-stressed). In sillabotonic versification, there are 5 fundamentals. sizes: iambic, trochee, amphibrach, dactyl, anapaest.
The third feature of Russian stress is its variability over time. Language serves society, it develops, improves, changes.
Any statement is pronounced with some intonation. Differences in intonation depend on the change of 4 acoustics. components:
sound intensity;
The duration of the sound (the more sounds are pronounced per unit of time, the shorter their duration, the faster the pace of speech);
The degree of distinctness of the timbre, i.e. the quality of the sounds.
Changes to these first intonation components are caught by ear and more accurately calculated on the special. equipment: oscilloscopes, intotonographs, sonographs.
Each speaker has his own average tone of speech. But in some places of the phrase there is an increase or decrease in tone. Such a movement of tone up or down from the middle level is called intonation. In scientific linguistics, the concept of intonation also includes changes in the intensity, duration, timbre of a speech tact and phrase.
In Russian, 6 intonations can be distinguished. structures (abbreviated as IC). Each of them has a center - a syllable, on a cat. the main stress falls (bar, phrasal or logical), pre- and post-center parts (in some cases they may be absent). That part, the cat. is in front of the center, usually pronounced on a medium tone. One IR is distinguished from another by the direction of movement of the tone in the center and after the center:
First IC: on the vowel of the center there is a decrease in tone, the tone of the post-center part is below average;
· second IC: the center vowels are pronounced almost the same as the pre-center vowels, and the tone of the post-center part is below average;
third IC: on the center vowel, the tone rises sharply, and in the post-center part it is below average;
fourth IC: on the vowel of the center, the tone rises sharply, the tone of the post-center part is also above average;
Fifth IC: has two centers: on the vowel of the first center, an ascending tone movement, on a vowel of the second center or on the next vowel - descending, the tone between the centers is above the middle, the tone after the center is below the middle;
sixth IC: on the vowel of the center, the tone rises, the tone of the post-center part is higher than the middle one.
Intonation distinguishes sentences of different types, reflects neutral. or subject. the attitude of the speaker to the content of the statement, conveys a variety of shades of emotion. Intonation is closely related to punctuation, although, of course, punctuation cannot be based on it alone.
For example, in the sentence: "Tired children quickly fell asleep", a comma can be placed after the word tired, if the definition is given ext. the situation the meaning of the cause, and then it should be highlighted intonationally.
So, any statement is pronounced with intonation. Intonation- a complex phenomenon, it consists of several. components:
1) in each phrase there is a logical. stress, it falls on the word that is the most important in the meaning of the phrase. With the help of logical stress, you can clarify the meaning of the statement, for example:
a) Tomorrow we will go to the theater (and not next week);
b) Tomorrow we(our class, not another) let's go to the theater;
c) Tomorrow we let's go to the theater (but we won’t go);
d) Tomorrow we will go to theatre(and not to the circus);
2) intonation consists of rises and falls of the voice - this is the melody of speech. It has its own in every language;
3) speech is accelerated or slowed down - this forms its pace;
4) intonation is characterized by the timbre of speech, depending on the target setting;
5) a pause - a stop, a break in the movement of tone - always happens on the border of phrases, but it can also be inside a phrase.
It is very important to pause in the right place, since the meaning of the statement depends on this: How surprised his words / brother! How surprised him / his brother's words! There are pauses logical(semantic) and psychological(dictated by feelings).
The concept and function of intonation
Topic 6. Intonation and its elements
Speech culture is not only a good knowledge of the language, but also the possession of the expressive possibilities of speech. No matter how meaningful this or that speech is, it is worth little if it is indistinct, hard to hear and replete with such shortcomings that can completely switch the attention of the listeners from its content to the form of presentation.
The main means of speech expression is intonation, which is understood as a variety of shades of the voice of the reader, the speaker, which reflect the semantic and emotional aspects of speech. The effectiveness and expressiveness of speech is carried out in intonation. When a person says something in his own words, “from himself”, words and intonation are born simultaneously, determined by the intention and feeling of the speaker. Difficulties arise before the executor of the written text due to the fact that written speech and oral speech are each subject to their own, special laws. Overcoming the contradiction between written and oral speech is a necessary condition for the art of the sounding word.
Although intonation is an external expression of internal psychological processes, only a correct understanding of internal tasks does not provide the correct form of their expression. Therefore, the performer does not have the right to fully trust his intuition. A thorough mastery of the elements of intonation is necessary. Intonation factors must be brought under the control of our consciousness and hearing. A trained ear provides the reader with the opportunity to finely control his own intonation in terms of the correspondence of the "result" to the task.
Intonation consists of the following elements: logical stress, pauses, tempo, voice power, voice pitch (speech melody), tone (timbre).
logical stress- this is the allocation by voice of the most important word or group of words in a phrase in a semantic sense. Logical expressiveness plays a leading role. It is aimed at an accurate transmission of thought, which should not be lost with all permissible intonational transformations. Logical expressiveness has the widest "range"; it is used when voicing any text.
pauses are stops in speech. There are three types of pauses: logical, psychological and rhythmic. Logical pauses for the most part coincide with punctuation marks; they divide speech in accordance with the semantic and grammatical relationships between words. Psychological pauses are made before words that are emotionally important for the author, and do not depend on punctuation marks. Rhythmic pauses are found only in poetic speech and are motivated by the structure of the verse.
Pace- this is the speed of speech, its slowdown or acceleration, depends on the nature of speech and the tasks of the speaker.
Voice pitch (speech melody)- this is the movement of the voice up and down, its rise or fall. The pitch of the voice is determined by the logical construction of speech. The melody of speech belongs to almost the main role. In combination with logical stress and pauses, melodic phonetically forms the semantic relationships between the parts of the phrase and combines them in the expression of a coherent thought or sequence of thoughts. Melodica distinguishes between the narrative and interrogative meaning of phrases, and to a large extent is an expression of the emotional state of the speaker. Finally, in many cases it serves as a means of figurative expressiveness of speech.
The Russian language, which has an inexhaustible wealth of intonational colors, is as if created for skillful reading, in it, according to N.V. Gogol, there are "all shades of sounds and the most daring transitions from the sublime to the simple." You just need to be able to find them, master them.
The same sentence, say “What are you saying?”, in a situation “didn’t understand what you said”, will sound like a question pronounced with a specific intonation of a “clarifying question”, and in other situations it will express other intentions and subjectively modal meanings or feelings: irony, surprise, joy, delight, fear, fear, indignation, etc. The text is the same everywhere, and its real emotional and logical content, transmitted by means of intonation in different situations, with different intentions of the speaker , will be different. At the same time, the nature of emotional evaluation comes first. The most perfect means of expressing the "inner content" in a sounding word is intonation, which appears both in neutral and in numerous subjective-modal realizations, sometimes more or less close, "synonymous", sometimes completely different.
A text well conveyed by intonation activates the listener's thought and imagination, opens up the possibility of a deeper penetration into the text, into understanding what is hidden behind his words.
Intonation is a set of active sound elements of oral speech, determined by the content and goals of the utterance.
Basic elements of intonation:
- 1. The force that determines the dynamics of speech and is expressed in stress;
- 2. The direction that determines the melody of speech, expressed in the movement of the voice over sounds of different heights (melody);
- 3. Speed, which determines the pace and rhythm of speech and is expressed in the duration of the sound and stops (pauses);
- 4. Timbre (hue), which determines the nature of the sound (emotional coloring of speech);
The value of intonation in expressive speech is very high. “No lively speech is possible without intonation,” psychologists say. “Intonation is the highest and most acute form of speech influence,” say the masters of the artistic word. It phonetically organizes speech, dividing it into sentences and phrases (syntagms), expresses semantic relationships between parts of the sentence, gives the pronunciation sentence the meaning of a message, question, command. All speech is situational. Intonation is a response to a conversation situation. It is, to a certain extent, arbitrary. In the process of his own speech, a person does not think about it. .
Elements of intonation according to their cumulative role in oral speech should be considered as an undivided whole. One, for the convenience of lighting, it is necessary, somewhat artificially highlighting the main components of intonation, to talk about each separately.
Stress as a component of intonation; phrasal and logical stress.
An integral syntactic intonation-semantic rhythmic unit is called a syntagma or phrase. A syntagma can be one word or a group of words. From pause to pause, the words are pronounced together. This unity is dictated by the meaning, the content of the sentence.
The group of words representing the syntagma has an accent on one of the words, mostly on the last one. From the end of August | the air starts to get colder.
One of the words in the group stands out: phrasal stress falls on it: August, get cold.
In practice, this is achieved by slightly amplifying or raising the voice, slowing down the tempo of pronouncing the word, and pausing after it.
Logical stress must be distinguished from phrasal stress. (True, sometimes these types of stress coincide: the same word carries both phrasal and logical stress). The main words in the sentence are highlighted, they are brought to the fore by the tone of voice and the force of exhalation, subordinating other words to themselves. These nominations by the tone of voice and the force of expiration of the word to the fore in a semantic sense are called logical stress.
Logical stress is very important in oral speech. If the logical expression is incorrectly highlighted, then the meaning of the entire phrase may also be incorrect.
Will you be at the theater today?
Will you be at the theater today?
Will you be at the theater today?
Will you be at the theater today?
In each sentence, you need to find the word on which the logical stress falls. The practice of reading and speech has developed a number of guidelines on how to place logical stresses. These rules are set out in the famous book by Vsevolod Aksenov "The Art of the Artistic Word".
1. Logical stress, as a rule, is placed on nouns and sometimes on verbs in cases where the verb is the main logical word and usually comes at the end of a phrase or when the noun is replaced by a pronoun.
Spectators gathered in the hall. The table was set.
2. Logical stress cannot be placed on adjectives and pronouns.
Today is a frosty day. Thank you. You will excuse me.
3. When comparing, the setting of a logical stress does not obey this rule.
I don't like blue, but green.
I like it, not you.
4. When combining two nouns, the stress always falls on the name of the noun, the stress always falls on the noun taken in the genitive case and answering the questions whose? whom? what?
This is an order from the commander.
5. The repetition of words, when each subsequent one reinforces the meaning and meaning of the previous one, requires a logical stress on each word with increasing amplification.
But what now boils in me, excites, infuriates.
6. Enumeration in all cases requires an independent stress on each word.
I got up, washed, dressed and drank tea.
- 7. When combining author's words with direct speech, the logical stress is preserved on the main word of one's own speech.
- - Yes, well, in my opinion, - Fyodor gritted through his teeth.
It is impossible to mechanically apply these or other rules for setting logical stresses. You should always take into account the content of the entire work, its leading idea, the whole context, as well as the tasks that the teacher sets himself when reading the work in this audience. .
- pause, tempo, rhythm
The speech stream is separated by pauses. At the same time, linearly located elements of the speech sequence are combined and at the same time delimited precisely at the break point between rhythmic segments of speech - phrases.
Pauses vary in duration. Short pauses separate bars (phrases) in a sentence. Intermediate pauses separate sentences and are called logical pauses. Logical pauses shape the speech, give it completeness, harmony. These are, as it were, signals of the transition from one sentence to another, from one part of the whole text to another.
Sometimes a long pause develops into a psychological one, acting as an expressive means of artistic speech and reinforcing the content of the statement.
A special place is occupied by a rhythmic pause in poetic texts. At the end of each poetic line, the so-called verse pause must be observed. A verse pause is short if it is not blocked by a logical or psychological pause.
Pauses of any duration and meaning are organically included in the rhythmic structure of speech. The speech takes some time. We make sounds of various durations. Sounds are combined into words, syllables, i.e. rhythm groups. Some groups require a short, abrupt pronunciation, others a stretched, singsong pronunciation. Some attract stress, others are pronounced without stress.
Stops are made between words and combinations of words - pauses, also different in time. All this together makes up the pace and rhythm of speech - the movement of speech, the speed of its flow in time. This includes speeding up and slowing down speech. Distinguish between a fast pace of speech and slow, smooth and intermittent. Rapid speech is characterized by the reduction of vowels, the omission of some sounds. Features of slow speech are that words appear in full forms.
Rhythm is called a uniform alternation of acceleration and deceleration, tension and relaxation, longitude and brevity, similar and different in speech. We find the most tangible expression of rhythm in poetic speech. Rhythm is felt only in unity with content. It is intertwined with the intonational structure of the verse.
Melody of speech
The movement of the voice over sounds of different pitches makes up the melody of speech. One of the main qualities of speech - flexibility, musicality - depends on how easily the voice passes from the average, always inherent in the reader to a higher or lower height. Simultaneously with the rise or fall of the voice, its strength will also change. The rise or fall of the tone and strength of the voice is controlled by hearing and muscular sensation, muscular sensation, just like the timbre of the voice.
- 1. The full form includes rising, punchline and falling;
- 2. Descending form - with a lowering of the voice towards the end;
- 3. Rising form - with an increase in voice towards the end;
- 4. Monotonous form - with slight rises and falls in the voice (usually in a low register).
When preparing a text for pronunciation aloud, the reader is helped by the author's punctuation marks that express the rhythmic and melodic features of speech: period, question mark and exclamation point, ellipsis, semicolon, quotation marks in direct speech, brackets and dashes in introductory words and sentences.
Melodic changes (rise and fall of tone) divide the sentences into two parts: the culmination of the rise is the stressed syllable of the word lilac. The sentence represents a complete melodic figure.
It should be said about the role of melody in the expressiveness of reading individual parts of the work. Each part of a poem, story, fairy tale is different in theme, content, mood. Accordingly, the reader chooses the means of verbal expression.
The timbre of the voice is a means of expressiveness of oral speech and reading. Excitement, sadness, joy, suspicion - all this is reflected in the voice. In a state of excitement, depression, etc., the voice changes, deviating from the usual sound. This deviation is called emotional coloring, timbre.
Only by analyzing the content of the text is it possible to determine the desired coloring. It is necessary to carefully read the content of the work, understand the author's intention, his creative task, the idea of the work, set the goal of reading. .
Intonation, as noted earlier, refers to super-segment (supra-linear, prosodic) phonetic means of the modern Russian literary language.
Intonation in the broad sense of an elephant consists of the following elements:
1) the melody of speech, that is, the movement of musical tone, raising and lowering the voice;
2) rhythm, that is, the ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables;
3) pace, that is, the speed of speech in time, acceleration and deceleration;
4) the intensity of speech, that is, the strength or weakness of pronunciation, strengthening and weakening of exhalation;
5) the presence-absence of intraphrasal pauses that divide the phrase into speech measures;
6) timbre - the color of the sound, which depends on which overtones accompany the main tone, i.e. from complex oscillatory movements that give a sound wave; in Russian, the timbre distinguishes from each other the diverse shades of stressed and unstressed vowels, as well as the different colors of consonants; timbre is an individual feature of sound (for men, women, children, the timbre of speech is different; it is different for those who speak, say, in bass or tenor), but there are also constant components of sound coloring, as a result of which [e] will always differ from [ a] or [p] from [m].
31. Types of intonation structures in Russian
There are seven types of intonational structures (IC) in Russian:
IK-1 (falling tone on the center vowel):
After the conversation, he thought.
IK-2 (on the vowel of the center, the tone movement is even or descending, verbal stress is increased):
And where should I go?
IK-3 (a sharp rise in tone on the vowel of the center):
Is can forget?
IK-4 (on the vowel of the center, a decrease in tone, then an increase; a high level of tone is kept until the end of the construction):
A how same dinner?
IK-5 (two centers; on the vowel of the first center there is an increase in tone, on the vowel of the second center - a decrease):
I haven't seen her in two years!
SG-6 (raising the tone on the center vowel, the high tone level is maintained until the end of the construction; SG-6 differs from SG-4 in a higher tone level on the center vowel, for example, when expressing bewilderment or evaluation):
What an interesting movie!
SG-7 (raising the tone on the center vowel, for example, when expressing expressive negation):
Completed the task? – Fulfilled!
32. The functional aspect of the study of sounds. Sound of speech, sound of language, phoneme.
Speaking in speech, sound units serve to form and distinguish between words and forms. Words and forms differ in the composition of the sound units that form them. Differences may be of a different nature: two words may differ completely in the composition of the sounds presented in them (cf.: kol and dam); they may differ in the number of sounds (cf .: meadow and plow); a sequence of the same sounds (cf .: cat and current) and, finally, only one sound unit with the identity of all other units (cf .: house and ladies, beat and drank, grew and mouth, damage and lesson, etc. .). If two words differ from each other only by one sound unit, and in all other respects they are identical, then it can be argued that in this case two sound units, opposed to each other in an identical phonetic position, play a functional role in the language, acting as a means of distinguishing given word forms, i.e. as phonemes of the language. Therefore, a phoneme is such a unit of the sound system of a language that can independently distinguish between words and forms. Comparing the word forms [dal] - [dol] - [dul] and dividing them according to the sound units that make up these forms - [d / a / l] - [d / o / l] - [d / u / l], you can establish that they differ from each other by vowels 1a], [o], [y], which are in an identical phonetic position - under stress between hard consonants (in the examples given, even between identical hard ones). This means that the only sound difference between these forms is concluded as a vowel, and therefore [a], [o], [y] act here as distinguishers of word forms, that is, as phonemes. If these vowels can appear in the same phonetic position, then, consequently, their quality, i.e., the features that define them, does not depend on the position, is not conditioned by this position. However, such a statement will be inaccurate, if one important circumstance is not taken into account. The point is that sound units always appear in the vicinity of other units and experience their influence; Under such influence, they can change their quality, i.e., their inherent characteristics. Above (see § 64) it has already been said about the change in stressed vowels under the influence of adjacent hard and soft consonants: non-front vowels under the influence of soft consonants experience a forward movement, and front vowels under the influence of hard ones move backward or in positions between soft ones acquire tension and closeness. If we compare the word forms [val] - [v '-al] - [va "l's] - [v'al '], then we can establish that in these word forms there are “different” sounds [a] - from [a] non-anterior to [a] anterior formation, but all these [a] have two identical features: they are all lower rise and non-labialized; their difference lies in the non-anterior-anterior nature of the sound. Consequently, all these [a] have dza features that do not depend on the position of the vowel (i.e., on the quality of neighboring consonants), and one feature dependent on this position. The degree of tongue elevation and the absence of labialization are independent signs, and the number of sound formation is dependent. If we compare the word forms [v'-al] and [v'-ol], [l'-ak] and [l'-uk], then again we can establish that they differ from each other in vowels [¦а] - [- o] and [-a] - [* y], which do not completely coincide with [a] - [o] in [shaft] - [ox] and with [a] - [y] in [varnish] - [bow], but having the same signs of the degree of elevation of the tongue and the absence-presence of labialization. So, in the articulatory-physiological characterization of vowels (see §61), there is no need to distinguish between features independent of position and features dependent on position; that is why three signs are attributed to each vowel sound: the degree of rise of the language, the attitude towards labialization, and the series of education. Now, when sound units are considered in functional terms, it is necessary to distinguish between independent, permanent features of sound units and dependent, variable features, since phonemes differ from each other in terms of permanent, or constitutive, features, but they cannot differ from each other in terms of variables. Consequently, the phoneme -¦ is such a sound unit, which is formed by a set of constitutive features inherent in it and differs from another phoneme in the composition of these features. Position dependent variables are not included in the definition of a phoneme. From this it becomes clear that a phoneme is not a speech sound actually pronounced, but a certain abstraction, a distraction from speech sounds, a generalization of speech sounds into a unit of a higher order. After all, if, based on what has been said about the constant features of the vowels of the Russian language, we determine the vowel phonemes according to their two constitutive features, then it will be necessary to say that the phoneme (a) \ for example, is a vowel phoneme of the lower rise, non-labialized, (o) - the middle rise is labialized , (i) - upper rise non-labialized, etc. and that these phonemes are opposed to each other according to these two features. However, in this case, the phoneme (a) appears both in the word form [bas] and in the word form [b'as'], the phoneme (o) - in the word form [m'-ot], and in the word form [t'bt'] i , phoneme (s) - in the word form [p'il], and in the word form [dust], although in each given word form the sound of speech is different compared to the sound in another word form. Therefore, we can say that the phoneme as a functional unit does not coincide with the sound of speech: it is only realized in the sounds of speech, which are its allophones. Each allophone of a phoneme differs from another allophone of the same phoneme in a variable feature that depends on the position; and all allophones belong to a given phoneme because they all have the same set of constitutive features. So, the phoneme is not given to us in direct observation, because it is an abstract unit of the sound system; in direct observation - in speech - allophones of phonemes are given, i.e., speech sounds, determined by a combination of constant and variable features of sound units. The general definition of a phoneme can be formulated as follows: a phoneme is a unit of the sound system of a language that can independently distinguish between the word forms of a given language, opposing another phoneme in an identical phonetic position by a set of constitutive features inherent in each of them, and which is actually represented in speech by one or several speech sounds that are its allophones. If a phoneme is a generalization of its allophones, in which it actually appears, and allophones as sounds include variable, positionally conditioned features, then, consequently, this generalization is the “removal” of all positional and the reduction of an essentially unlimited number of speech sounds to a limited number of phonemes. , which perform the functional role of the distinguishers of words and their forms in the language. So, for example, in the word forms [val], [v'-al], [va-l']ik, [v'el']it there are four “kinds” [a], differing from each other in the nature of the position of the language in relation to to the anterior-non-anterior zone of formation, and the change in this character depends entirely on the hardness-softness of neighboring consonants. The “removal” of this feature allows us to establish that all these four [a] can be “combined” into one by the presence of common features in them - lower rise and lack of labialization - independent of the phonetic position, i.e. constant; and that is why these four [a] can be represented as four allophones of one phoneme (a). The identification of various sound "representatives" of a particular phoneme makes it possible to establish a limited number of phonemes that meet all the needs of the language in distinguishing word forms. The ability to meet the needs of a language with a small number of phonemes is associated with a variety of combinations and with an extensive system of opposition of phonemes in identical phonetic conditions. The nature of the compatibility and opposition of phonemes determines the specifics of the phonological system of a given language at a given stage of its development, just like the specifics of this system in comparison with the phonological systems of other languages.
Intonation is associated with a sentence and with a syntagma, intonation is the most important means of dividing a sentence into syntagmas or phrases. Elements of intonation: melody, stress, pause, rate of speech and duration of individual syllables, intonation acts in the language as a grammatical and expressive means.
Intonation acts in the language as a grammatical and expressive means. The grammatical function of intonation is determined by the grammatical structure of the sentence. Thanks to intonation, homogeneous members of the sentence, introductory words, introductory sentences are determined, the members of the sentence and enumeration are generalized. With the help of intonation, different types of sentences are distinguished: narrative, interrogative, incentive. Each language is characterized by its inherent intonational features, which are associated with the structural features of sentences. The grammatical function of intonation is associated with the use of grammatical functions of intonation, associated with the use of sound means by all native speakers of a given language. The expressive function of intonation is associated with the sound features of a single speaking person. In each intonation, 2 aspects are distinguished:
Universal (manifested in the fact that in different languages there are certain similarities in the functions of individual components of intonation and even there is a similarity of intonation structures)
National (characteristic of each language, each language has its own type of intonation).
Positional changes in sounds
Positional changes of consonants can be either at the end or at the beginning of a word. At the end of a word, a consonant may be stunned, or a final consonant may be dropped. A prosthetic consonant can be inserted at the beginning of a word (acute - east).
Positional vowel changes: the position of a vowel in a stressed syllable is called a strong position, and in an unstressed syllable it is called a weak position. In a strong position, the vowel is stable, and in a weak position, it undergoes significant changes that are associated with weakening or reduction. Vowel reduction can be quantitative or qualitative. With quantitative vowels lose part of the longitude, they are weakened, but do not change their quality. With a qualitative reduction, not only the weakening of sounds occurs, but also a change in its characteristic features (Russian English is widely represented).
Combinatorial changes in sounds (assimilation, accommodation, diaeresis, substitution, dissimilation)
1. Assimilation (similarity). During assimilation, some, and sometimes all, pronunciation features of one sound are likened to features of the influencing sound. Assimilation can be complete or partial. With partial, some signs of sound (fur coat) change, and with complete assimilation, all signs of sound change. The sound becomes exactly the same as the sound that caused the assimilation.
Assimilation can vary in direction. If the previous sound affects the next, such assimilation is called progressive. If the subsequent sound affects the previous one, it is regressive.
It can be contact (2 nearby sounds interact) and distant (separated by sounds).
Assimilation can be in relation to consonants with consonants, in relation to vowels with vowels (characteristic only for the Turkic languages. Vowel endings are likened to the vowel of the root - vowel harmony - the Tatar language).
Assimilation is the assimilation of the same type of sounds, i.e. can interact. from sol., vowel. with vowel
2. If different types of sounds interact (vowel with agreement), such a change is called accommodation.
3. Dissimilation - dissimilarity. With dissimilation, one of the 2 sounds similar in articulation loses its common features.
On the basis of assimilation or dissimilation, dieresis arises (discarding of sound; sun, holiday). Sometimes a separate syllable can be thrown out - haplology, sound insertion - epenthesis.
4. Metothesis - mutual permutation of sounds (in vernacular, when borrowing).
5. Substitution - replacement of the sound of the native language when borrowing a foreign language.
Phonetic and historical alternations of sounds
Phonetic: due to the norms of the modern language, are not reflected in the letter (for example, haystack - haystack).
Historical: cannot be explained by the norms of the modern phonetic system and they are always reflected in the letter (s-sh, t-ch, wear - wear)
The concept of phonemes. phoneme options. Basic functions of phonemes. phoneme positions. Development of the theory of phonemes in linguistics.
1. THE CONCEPT OF PHONEMS. PHONEME OPTIONS
In the process of speech, sounds have different features in their sound. Some of these features do not affect the meaning of words or form, while others affect the meaning or form. The sound unit that is used to distinguish between words and word forms is called a phoneme.
The concepts of phoneme and sound do not coincide:
The sounds of speech are something particular, separate, and the phoneme is a combination of a whole series of sounds.
The phoneme constitutes a strict system, and the same sound in different words can be correlated with different phonemes.
Diphthongs, consisting of two sounds, represent one phoneme.
There are cases when 2 phonemes sound like one sound (for example, children's)
There are cases when the phoneme is present, but there is no sound (for example, the sun)
It should be borne in mind that any combination of sounds acts as a single phoneme, that is, a phoneme can be considered the minimum unit of the sound structure of a language. It functions as a whole, even if it consists of two sounds. Each phoneme is a set of essential features that it distinguishes from other phonemes (for example, the sound t - all features represent a single content of the phoneme). Features that distinguish one phoneme from another are called differential.
A phoneme is the smallest unit of the sound system of a language, which serves to fold and distinguish between meaningful units of a language.
Such a definition makes it possible to establish which sounds are independent phonemes, and which are varieties of the same phoneme. Independent phonemes are sounds that are used in the same position, changing the meaning (ship - sheep). Sounds that are used in the same phonetic conditions do not change the meaning of the word, they are variants of the phoneme. The variants of a phoneme retain its essential features and have the same phonological content.
2. PHONEME FUNCTIONS
The phoneme has 2 functions that are associated with the features of the process of verbal communication.
The function of perception is a perceptual function. Thanks to this function, phonemes are a kind of standards by which we recognize and perceive speech.
Distinguishing - significative. In this case, phonemes are the distinguishers of words and forms of words (tom-house).
The named functions are obligatory in each phoneme, they are interconnected and assume the presence of each other in the process of communication.
3. POSITIONS OF PHONEMES
The phoneme in live speech falls into various pronunciation conditions - positions. Positions are strong and weak. Strong positions are positions favorable for the phoneme to perform its functions. In a strong position, a phoneme is opposed to any other phoneme. In a strong position, the phoneme least of all depends on phonetic conditions, the significative function is clearly manifested. The phoneme always appears in a strong position in isolation, appears in its basic form. The basic form of a phoneme is how it is pronounced in isolation. But not in all positions, phonemes are able to perform a significative function. In some positions, they lose this ability, and the phoneme is neutralized. The position in which phonemes are neutralized is called the weak position. In English, the end of a word is a strong position (white, wide)
4. PHONEM SYSTEM
In this system, phonemes are grouped based on their quality: a system of vowel phonemes and a system of consonant phonemes. The systemic nature of the sound side of the language is manifested in the fact that the number of phonemes is strictly limited. Its constituent units are closely related to each other. Phonemes are grouped because their various features are opposed. Such groups can cover a different number of phonemic pairs. The opposition of phonemes is called oppositions of phonemes. Members of the opposition can be opposed on one basis (p-b), or several (a-b).
The system of phonemes does not remain unchanged throughout the history of a given language. Changes that affect the system of phonemes are called phonemic. The most frequent phenomenon is the emergence of new phonemes and the loss of old phonemes, the change of one of the variants of the phoneme into an independent phoneme. Phoneme systems affect borrowed words. Any borrowed word, being rearranged, changes its external side under the influence of the system of phonemes of the borrowing language.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY OF PHONEMS IN LINGUISTICS
There are 2 directions - the school of traditional teaching about the phoneme (school Shcherba, Leningrad and Moscow Phonological School)
The Leningrad school believes that the phoneme is a sound type, and sound types distinguish between words and word forms. There are few sound types in the language, they can be listed by referring to the alphabet, i.e. letters perform the same function as the phoneme, but differ from each other in their material side
There are more sounds in live speech than phonemes. And sounds are combined into types according to acoustic and articulatory proximity. This sound type is the phoneme.
The concept of phoneme and sound is not distinguished by the Moscow school
Sounds are combined into phonemes according to the functions of commonality, if the sounds perform the same function, they are the same phoneme, but both schools are unanimous in emphasizing the meaning of phonemes in the general characteristic of the concept of phonemes.