Country and population

Ancient Chinese civilization arose on the basis of neolithic crops that were preserved in the V-III millenniums BC. e. On average, the River Juanhe. The Juanhe basin was the main territory of the formation of the ethnic community of the ancient Chinese, one of the centers of early world civilizations, for a long time developed under relative isolation. Only from the middle of the Millennium BC. e. The process of expanding the territory mastered by the ancient Chinese begins. They gradually spread in the southern direction, first in the Yangtze basin area, and then further south. On the verge of AD, the ancient Chinese state is already far beyond the limits of the Juanhe basin, although the northern border, the ethnic territory of the ancient Chinese remained. Avenue is unchanged.

Crossing from the north to the south a lesing plateau, lying at 400-1500 m, the Juanhe River turns to the east, flowing on the Middle-old plain and flows into the Bo-Hai Bay. Drone Juanhe in its lower current over the past millennia has been repeatedly moved; The configuration of the coastline of the Bohaji Gulf has been changed, continuously retreating under the influence of river nans.

Several millennia ago, the entire Huanghe Valley was covered with forests, fully exterminated by now. The climate of this region has consistently changed from higher to lower average annual temperatures with a general downgrade leveling. In the IV-II millennia BC e. In the middle course of Juanhe, elephants and rhinos, tapir and bamboo rats were found, in the floodplains of rivers there were extensive bamboo thickets. In the epigraphic monuments of the second half of the II millennium BC. e. We find information about abundant sediments - "long-term rains", which went with breaks all year.

Soft alluvial soils in the valleys of Juanhe and her tributaries created very favorable conditions for agriculture. Therefore, before the I millennium BC. s. The settlements were placed in the immediate vicinity of the river beds on low lesing terraces, and the significant spaces of the Mid-Chinese plain remained unauthorized. Poaming agriculture tied people to the river, and it was fraught with a serious danger. It is not by chance that in early monuments of writing the ancient Chinese word "misfortune" was recorded by the hieroglyph portraying the distinguished water element. Increasing the water level in the rivers was constantly threatened with destructive floods, to fight with which people have not worked not yet.

Significant changes occurred only from the mid-13th of the Millennium BC. e. When the wide distribution of iron tools allowed the ancient Chinese to go beyond the river floods. They learned how to cultivate solid soils, which created the conditions for a more even placement of the population and the development of the entire territory of modern North China. Paleo-anthropological finds belonging to the epochs of Neolithic and Bronze, witness: Tweet that Oriental Mongoloids prevailed in this territory.

At our disposal, there is no, it is necessary to believe that there will never be direct data on what languages \u200b\u200bpeople who inhabille Juanha Pool in Neolithic time said; One can only assume that the creators of the culture of the painted ceramics Yangshao (V-IV Millennium BC) were protoyotibettes who were crowded and partially assimiring the more ancient Paleoisian population. Another ethnic community (II millennium BC) emerged as a result of mixing one of the groups of protootibet-tsev with tribes of southern origin. Another, the more western group of Protosino-Tibetans has become the basis for the formation of a Zho-Ethnic community. On the basis of the interaction of hents and chsups in the I millennium BC. e. On average, Huanghe is the Ancient Chinese Ethnic. In the formation of him, the neighboring ethnic communities, who spoke on Paleo-Asian (in the north) and the Austro-Asian (southeast) languages \u200b\u200bwere also involved.

Chronology and periodization

As in other countries of the ancient world, China did not exist in China. Starting from the I millennium BC. e. Dates were denoted by the years of the Board of Van (Supreme Ruler), therefore, the establishment of absolute chronology is sometimes pushing at considerable difficulties. Thus, modern researchers donate the Zhousky conquest in different ways, which led to the fall of Yin's state: this coyody refers to one historians to 1122 BC. e., others - to 1066, 1050 or by 1027 BC. e. Only from 341 BC e. In the history of the ancient China, quite reliable chronology begins.

With i c. n. e. Ancient Chinese began to use special signs of a sixty-year cycle to designate years, before serving for the name of days. A sixty-year cycle, used since then in China continuously, completely eliminated the possibility of any serious mistakes in dates. To clarify the chronology of an earlier period, new methods for calculating absolute dates are currently used, in particular records of solar and lunar eclipses, etc.

For traditional Chinese historical science, the periodization of the ancient history of China on dynasties was characterized. So, for the epoch of the mythical "five emperors" was followed by the time of the reign of the "Three Dynasties" (Song-Yin and Zhou). According to the traditions of the era, Zhou is divided into two parts - Western Zhou (XI-VIII centuries. BC) and Eastern Zhou (VIII-W centuries, BC), including the periods of Chunzu and Zhango. To change the dynasty of Qin (III century BC), the Han dynasty comes, the reign of which is also divided into Western and oriental periods. Dynasty periodization cannot fully satisfy the requirements of a modern researcher. Therefore, we use archaeological periodization, the members of the Society for the development of the Company in terms of productive forces and the main material from which the tools have been manufactured. Consequently, the Epoch preceding the "three dynasties" should be attributed to the Neolithic, whereas with the Shan-Inisk Time, the Ancient Chinese Society enters into the Bronze era, at the end of the Cunzu period (VI - V centuries. BC) in ancient China receive The spread of iron tools - the era of iron begins.

For us, of course, the most essential periodization, the main criterion of which is the socio-economic development of society. We allocate the five main periods of the history of the Ancient Chinese Society: 1. The decomposition of the primitive community and the emergence of class society and the oldest states (II millennium BC). 2. Ancient China in the VIII-III century. BC e. 3. The first centralized state in China is Qin Empire (221-207 BC). 4. Han Empire (III-I centuries. BC). 5. Ancient China in the I-III century. n. e.

Sources of ancient Chinese history

The researcher of the ancient history of China has extremely numerous and mostly quite reliably dated writing monuments. This is very diverse in its content historical writings that have come down to our time in the form of books. They constitute the first and main category of sources of study of the ancient history of China.

The ancient Chinese chronicles are of great importance among written sources, primarily the chunksu chronicle, compiled in the kingdom of the LU, and illuminating the events of the VIII-V centuries. BC s. Around the text "Chunzu", the authorship of which tradition attributes to the ancient Chinese philosopher confusion, and later there was a significant commentation literature. One of these comments is "Tszozhuan" - is the actual independent chronicle of events that took place in the same chronological framework. From Chunzu, this chronicle is distinguished by incomparably greater detail of the narrative.

Another genre of the Ancient Chinese Historical Works, presented primarily by the book "Shanshi", is closely connected with the chronicles. This is the record of the speeches of the rulers and their approximate. Only part of the text "Shashu", preserved to our time, can be recognized as genuine (some chapters of this work are later interpolation).

A special place among sources on the ancient history of China is "Schits-Zin" - the arch of the songs, most of its folk origin. Not being a historical composition in the narrow sense of the word, Schizin contains a variety of materials for the characteristics of many important parties to the life of the Ancient Chinese Society of the First Half I Millennium BC. e.

In the same terms, the works of the Ancient Chinese philosophers V - III centuries represent the greatest value. BC er, which in the controversy with their ideological opponents is constantly appealing to the events of the historical past.

In i century BC e. In ancient China, a historical essay appears, which provided a decisive impact on the further development of historiography not only in China, but also in a number of other countries of the Far East. "Historical Notes" Sum Qian (145-90 BC) is the general history of the country from ancient times to I in. BC e. Csyan's Sum used a new principle of presenting historical events - life ways. "Historical Notes" consist of five sections, three of them are built on this principle: "The main records" - the narrative of the most important acts of rulers of various dynasties; "Stories of hereditary houses" - biographies of the largest representatives of the hereditary aristocracy: "Besties" - biographies of historical personalities. Qian's Suma included in his work also "treatises" dedicated to individuals of social life, culture, science, and "tables", in which the problems of chronology are considered.

The historiographic method of Cyan's son was used by the Ban GU (32-92), the author of the "Hanskaya history". However, the essay of Ban BT is devoted to the history of one dynasty - Han, or rather Western Han (206 BC). Ban the GU, thus, is the founder of the new genre of Chinese historiography, which called "dynasty stories." It belongs to their number, in particular, the "History of the Late Dynasty of Han", written at the beginning of the V c. and illuminating the events of the I-III centuries.

At the beginning of the XX century. In historiography, China gets the spread of a hypercritical approach to written ancient Chinese historical sources. Stressing the need to identify the authenticity of the ancient monuments and later distortion and inserts in them, supporters of this area were considered unreliable, for example, all the information about the era of Shan-Yin, reported by the Suma tsyan, and claimed, "that China's history begins with the era of Zhou. The decisive argument has broken down The positions of the hypercritical school were the results of archaeological studies initiated in China in the second decade of the XX century. In 1921, the Swedish scientist I. G. Anderson discovered the traces of neolithic culture on average Huanhe, which Bala named January. In 1928 began " Excavations of the capital Shan-Yin near Anyan, which allowed to obtain an idea of \u200b\u200bthe level of productive forces, social organization and the material culture of ancient China in the XIV-XI centuries. BC uh

A significant step forward in the archaeological study of the territory of modern China was made after the victory of the Chinese revolution, especially in the 50s and 1980s. The use of the latest methods of excavations (in particular, the opening of ancient settlements on large areas) made it possible to enrich the sources of the ancient history of China with the most valuable data relating to all periods of the Ancient Chinese society from Neolith to the Han era. Among the most important achievements of the Chinese archeology of recent years should be noted the excavations of the Rannshan city in Erlitou; finding a large number of Zhou bronze vessels with inscriptions on them; Opening near Changsha rich burials III century. BC E. In which, in view of the specific conditions of the external environment, a set of clothing, utensils, decorations and works of art, as well as numerous inscriptions on wooden tablets and silk, is fully preserved.

To explore the ancient Chinese society, the Epoch of Shan-Yin is exceptional importance to epigraphic sources, and among them, first of all, the so-called gadaval inscriptions of the XIV - XI centuries. BC e. For the first time they were discovered by Chinese scientists in 1899. During the excavations of the Ntan-Yin Capital near Anyan, a large number of new words were found. Studying them, the researchers found in the epigraphic texts mention of names and facts known from the "historical notes" of Qian's Sum. In terms of its content, gadal inscriptions reflect the social and political history of the Shang-Yin era.

No less valuable information is contained in the epigraphic sources of the X - VII centuries. BC e. - Zho inscriptions on ritual bronze vessels. The study of these monuments made it possible to establish the authenticity and accuracy of a number of chapters "Shash", the text of which detects the stylistic similarity with the inscriptions on the vessels.

To III h BC E.-W in. n. e. are very diverse in nature and content of the inscription (mainly on wooden planks), among which various categories of official documents are presented (residential lists, statements, interest, etc.)

Historiography

For traditional Chinese historical science, two features are characterized: first, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe eternal and absolute superiority of Chinese culture over the culture of neighboring peoples; Secondly, the identification of the myth with a historical fact, the consequence of which was an unlawful exposure of the origins of statehood in China.

The hypercritical direction of Chinese historiography arose as a reaction to the disadvantages of traditional science, but his vice was the opposite extreme of judgment about the past. Only in the late 20s of the 20th century, as Marxist ideas are distributed in China, the prerequisites are gradually the prerequisites for deploying a truly scientific study of the ancient history of China from the standpoint of historical materialism. However, the discussions on the nature of the ancient Chinese society, held in China in the 1930s, showed that Dogmatism in the interpretation of the individual provisions of the Marxist-Leninist theory were characterized in the interpretation of individual provisions of the Marxist-Leninist theory. Characteristic and this respect, the earliest works of GO MOZO, absoluting the theses of the unity of the world-historical process and denying, therefore, whatever the specifics of the Ancient East Societies.

In the 40--50s, Chinese scientists successfully developed the problems of the socio-economic history of ancient China. The events of the "cultural revolution" interrupted these studies. Only E the end of the 70s were resumed discussions about the nature of the ancient Chinese society, the publication of sources, the creation of university courses on the ancient history of China.

The beginning of the study of China by Japanese scientists is still to the Epoch of the Middle Ages. Over the past decades, all periods of the ancient history of China are equally studied in Japan. One of the most prominent specialists in this area of \u200b\u200bKaizz-Ka Sigayki is the author of capital research concerning the formation and development of the Ancient Chinese state. A large group of Japanese historians is working on the study of socio-economic relations in the era of Han.

In Europe, a great contribution to the study of the history of ancient China is made by the French Synological School. At the beginning of our century, E. Shavann launched a translation (the remaining, unfortunately, unfinished) "historical notes" of Qian's Sum, and also published the hijacker of the stone bas-reliefs of the Han Time, collected and studied at the time of stay in China. It should also be noted the research of one of the largest French siologists A. Maspero, whose capital work "Ancient China" had a noticeable impact on modern historiography. Billenstein in the 50s one of the first drew serious attention to the problems of demographics in ancient China.

In the US, the study of ancient China has received significant development only in recent decades, and leading positions here are occupied by scientists of Chinese origin living in the United States. In the late 1960s, an international "Society for the study of Ancient China" was created in the United States, publishing his magazine since 1975.

Russian Chinese studies have a long tradition, his origins stood in the first half of the XIX century. Such a well-known connoisseur of the ancient history of China as N. Ya. Bichu-Rin. For Russian researchers, interest was characterized primarily to the culture and ideology of the ancient Chinese, as well as excellent knowledge of primary sources.

In the Soviet historiography of the ancient history of China, three periods can be distinguished.

The first one refers to the end of the 20s - the beginning of the 30s, when, in the course of discussions about the problems of the social system, China was widely attracted by materials in the ancient Chinese society. The weak point in these works was the insufficient understanding of the original sources.

The second period (40-50s) may be called essay. It is marked by creating first summary works and university courses on the history of the ancient China.

During this period, the foundations were laid for the development of the Marxist concept of the history of the Ancient Chinese Society. In particular, L. V. Simonovskaya proposed the periodization of the history of the ancient China, which stimulated further research in this area.

In the 1960s, a qualitatively new stage of study by the Soviet historians of the Ancient Chinese Society begins. It is characterized by the emergence of a number of monographic studies devoted to individual periods of the history of the ancient China, as well as in-depth analysis of specific aspects of the economy, social system, ideology.

Soviet historians pay great attention to the study and translation into Russian of the ancient Chinese written monuments. Here, first of all, it should be noted a multi-volume translation of the "historical notes" of Qian's Sum.

Neolithic origins of the ancient Chinese civilization

In the V-III millenniums BC e. On average, Huanghe develops developed nonolithic cultures, the earliest of which was the culture of Yangshao. Jan-Chaos Tribes, inhabited by the Valley of one of the tributaries of Juanhe, and then spread in the Western and Eastern Directions, lived in small villages in close proximity to the river floodplains. On the fertile alluvial soils, Jan-Shahovans cultivated a chumise. They diluted pigs and live mastery of Yang Shahosov reached in the technique of making ceramics, hacked in special stoves and decorated with a bright painted geometric or zoomorphic ornament.

In the second half of the III millennium BC. e. There are noticeable changes in the spread of yumshoshak-type crops. He gradually disappears painted ceramics, her place is taken by gray and black dishes made with a pottery circle.

Cultures of this type, usually referred to as Longshan, are characterized by further progress in agriculture. Stone tools are improving, in particular, more productive types of harvested knives and sickles appear. Changes occur in social relations: traces of property differentiation are first discovered in Lunshan burials.

Traditions about events of political history II millennia BC. e.

According to the legends that came to us about the committed rulers of antiquity, once in the subwayless rules of Wise Yao. Together, he elected the successor of a capable and energetic shower. At the same time, the ruler on the subway was sent a flood. Shun announced that she would transfer the reign of the board to someone who could save people from the flood. It managed to do the great Yuu: he deepened the river bed and the water went to the sea on them. So Yu became the ruler. The place of Yui occupied, contrary to tradition, not some kind of outsider who had proven himself to the work for the benefit of people, and Qi, Son Yuya. After that, the Supreme Power began to be transmitted to the inheritance inheritance. In this legend, it is necessary to believe that certain historical facts were reflected: hereditary authorities gradually come to replace elected posts. Qi, the Son of the Great Yui, is considered the founder of the first Ancient Dynasty of the Sia. In the "historical notes", Qian's Sums are given the names of the rulers of this dynasty and the sequence of their throne. However, the lack of reliable written sources does not allow to solve the question of what was an ancient Chinese society at this time.

According to legend, the last ruler of the dynasty was distinguished by an extraordinary cruelty than he had restored the leaders of the subordinate tribes against himself. The leader of one of these tribes - Shang [named Tang] rebelled against Tirana, overthrew him and united himself under his power. [He was called Cheng Tang ("Tan-Creator").] He was the first representative of the new Shan dynasty, subsequently called Yin (XVII century. BC). According to the testimony of Qian's Sum, the Shan tribe has repeatedly moved on the Nekitai Plain environments. The last resettlement of the Shantians occurred under the ruler Pan Han in the XIV century. BC E., the center of the Shan territory became the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Anla Yana. The capital was founded - the Great City of Shan. From this second period of the history of the Shan-Yin dated to the XIV-XI centuries BC. e., Not only archaeological monuments reached us, but also numerous epigraphic sources.

Development of productive forces in the II millennium BC. e.

Many features of the Shan-Inisk Time Material Culture indicate its genetic ties with the Neolithic tribes inhabited by the Juanhe Pool in the III Millennium BC. e. A lot of similarities in Ceramics Yin and Longshan. The character of agriculture and agricultural instruments have changed little over several centuries. The main cash instrument in the second half of the II millennium BC. e. It remained a wooden intercess - a double stick with a transverse crossbar. However, at least three of the most important achievements are inherent in the Epoch Shang-Yin: the use of bronze, the occurrence of cities and the appearance of writing. . The most ancient traces of the bronze-zoom production are currently traced in Erlitou type settlements (first half of the II millennium BC). In Late Yin, the intake of copper ore enrichment, recipes of copper and tin alloys, and high-quality clay forms were used for casting. However, the achievements of the technique of that time almost did not affect the main sphere of social production - agriculture. Bronze was used in Yin's era predominantly in two areas - for the production of weapons and ritual vessels for sacrifices.

In the Inisk time began to build globitate walls, which surrounded all major settlements - places of concentration of crafts; They can be considered cities. The urban wall of the Rannejn capital had a base of at least 6 m thick. Such a wall reliably defended the population of the city during hostilities. As shown by the excavations of the June capital near the city of Anyana, the territory of the city housed numerous palace and temple buildings, which were erected into global platforms. These buildings were supported by powerful columns that were installed on stone or bronze grounds. The network of discharge channels served for draining excess moisture in case of rain or floods. Within the urban wall, workshops - foundries, costelles, pottery, etc. were placed.

Thus, many specialized industries appeared, the craft separated from agriculture.

Finally, an indication of the Company's accession to a qualitatively new era is the appearance of writing.

Recessed to us samples of yin writing are the most ancient inscriptions in East Asia. They are represented by fortuneful texts on the bones of animals and shells of turtles. However, there is no doubt that other materials for the letter, b singing wooden planks were widely used in the Inj's time. At the yard of the Yinsky ruler, there existed, for example, the position of "Tszo" (letters, "manufacturing wooden planks for the letter"). Due to the decryption of the XIV-XI centuries. BC e. You can judge the many important sides of the life of the Yin Society.

Society and State in Yin Epoch

Based on the study of all types of sources, a picture of the complex social structure of the Ancient Chinese society is evaporated.

About the far-closed social bundle of society in the XIV-XI centuries. BC e. And the formation of class relations is evidenced by Yin burials. You can select at least four categories of burials: clearly distinguished by external signs: sizes, nature and number of inventory, etc.

The first category is the largest tombs, excavated in the Anyana area. In the central burial chamber of 400-500 square meters. M and a depth of 10 or more meters were placed an outer coffin, in which another one was enclosed - internal. In the grave together with the departed, bronze ritual vessels, decorations made of gold and jasper, weapons, musical instruments, vessels from white kaolin clay. There are in tombs and carts, harnessed by horses. In the burials of this category, the bone remains of people are always found, most likely servants or courtiers, which were raging forcibly with the departed.

The second category is the burial of 20-25 square meters. M at a depth of 5-7 m. There are usually no human compounds here, but the inventory is rich enough and varied: bronze vessels, yashmovy decorations, weapons. The third category is burial in the ground pits, barely accommodate the body of the deceased. In the inventory, as a rule, there are rude clay vessels, sometimes. The expectation of labor. Finally, the fourth category includes burials under the foundations of buildings or around large burials. According to the nature of the skeletons and their location, it is possible to judge that people who died violent death were accumulated in the graves of this category: decapitated or bother alive.

The graves of the first category obviously belonged to the Ying rulers or their closest relatives. Having a lot in common with the royal graves of the Sumerian Hurray, these tombs brightly characterize the opposition of rulers the main mass of the population. The rich burial of the second category is the graves of representatives of the dominant layer of the Yinsky society, which in their property position, knowledge and social weight occupy a special place in the public structure. Modest burial sizes and inventory belong to free communities. As for the burials of the last, fourth category, they were buried in them who did not have equal rights even with commoners, subane workers, servants or slaves.

According to the ideas that dominate the ancient. Citai, "the main affairs in the state is sacrifices and war." Both have found a sufficiently detailed reflection in the texts of the Inisk inscriptions on asshole bones.

One of the most important results of any military campaign was captured prisoners. The victorious commander returned to the Great City of Shan, leading the crowd of captives. A special fortunetel usually asked the Divine a whole series of questions related to the further fate of captured prisoners. He was interested in how many prisoners when, in which of the ruler's deeds, the ruler should be sacrificed. During religious ceremonies, in honor of one or another ancestor, to sacrifice to several hundred prisoners. There were many different ways to sacrifice - cut off the head, drowning, burning at the fire, etc. This phenomenon is relatively widely distributed in archaic early-grade societies who have not learned to fully appreciate the slave labor and fearful to leave in live prisoners of war. Long-term study of gadetting texts showed that they do not have any specific terms used to designate slaves.

The representations of the hents of the world around the world and its population were distinctly expressed ethnocentric character. They believed that in the center of the subway, the Great City of Shan is the residence of the ruler. Around it extend the territories included in the inin state. They differ in the country of light: Western lands, southern lands, etc. Outside the lands live tribes that are not recognizing the authorities of the Yinsky ruler and therefore hostile to him. However, the clear boundary between the lands and tribes did not actually exist. Any tribe that spoke on the side of the ruler Yin automatically became part of the appropriate lands, and vice versa. The Inisk State did not have any other system of territorial division, except Rhodople-change. It appeared most likely as an union tribes, one of which was raised over the rest and subjugated them to its influence.

The political unity of the Initians personified the ruler - Woman. The tendency to approval of the sole power of the sovereign is clearly acting. Speaking about yourself, the Inin Vanya used the solemn formula: "I am the only one among people *. Wan's power found an expression in his right to give orders to anyone who was on his lands. Often Wang personally headed punitive trips against hostile tribes. If the tribe recognized the power of Wan, he kicked him the leader of the title, which indicated that this tribe became a member of the Yin Coalition. From now on, it could count on the patronage and protection from Van, who had to take care of all his subordinates. The leader of the tribe, who received from Wan title, was obliged to regularly be to the Great City of Shan, send there to tribute, and if necessary, to provide its militia to the ruler. If their territory was attacked, subordinate leaders immediately reported Wanu. Wang was both the Supreme Priest. Only he could crack the will of the Deity on the cracks on the assty bone.

The greatest power of the Inisk State reached at Vane in Dene, which was right in the second half of the XIII century. BC e. Under it, new palaces and temples were built in the Great City. DIN has significantly expanded the yin territory. In the memory of the descendants, he remained a powerful conqueror.

After Dina's death, Yin came to decline. The last ruler Yin is drawn in written sources as an immoral tyrant, which "has spread and saturated, not knowing it." These messages are most likely an attempt to substantiate and historically justify events related to the last third of the XI century. BC e. And entered in historiography as "Zhouskoy conquest".

The emergence of the state Zhou

The first information about the Zhou tribe appears in the Ying epigraphic monuments of the period of the Board of Dina. At this time, Zhou was part of the political influence of Yin as a subordinate territory. The enhancement of the Zhusutsev was marked by the fact that Yinsky Wang officially assigned the leader of this tribe and his son of the title "Zhowsky Hou" (dependent ruler). But by this time there are reports of military clashes between Yin and Zhou.

The powerful coalition of the Western tribes, headed by Juscs, is gradually folded. Having embarked on the East, U-Van ("Military Ruler") defeated by the Inisk Forces (1027 BC). Zhoz "SCHCs pretty quickly learned the most important technical and cultural achievements of the defeated, undergoing the technique of bronze-oil production. Before the conquest, Zhusztsi practically did not know bronze. Now, by seizing the Yinsky masters, they attracted them to their service. It's not by chance that in appearance Weapons, ritual vessels, the metal jewelery of Jusustsev are difficult to distinguish from the Ying articles. Zhuusz citizens learned from the turbors to manufacture and use battle chariots - the main shock power of the army of that time. Light chariots with a breath, blamed by a couple of horses, did not know the obstacles on flat leashed plains in the Juanhe basin And its tributaries. At such a chariot usually three warrigs were located: the Horse Manager; archer, hitting the enemy Arrelas; A Kopeist, armed with a spear or alabard - Middle and Middle Battle Weapons. Up to the invention of Crossbow, the Ancient Chinese Insk Type Wheel remained a powerful means of attacking the enemy .

One of the most important borrowings of Jusustsev was a Yin writing. There is a reason to assume that before the conquest, Joussets used their writing system. She, apparently, was imperfect, and Zhusztsi took the Yin-Sky letter. Zho epigraphic monuments of XI-IX centuries. BC e. Ininic hieroglyphs are written, over time only partially modified.

After the final defeat of the Initians, Zhusztsi carried out a number of events known as "hereditary sunsunities". The essence of them was that the relatives of U-Van and some representatives of the nobility received for the possession of the Earth along with their population, and, depending on the size of the awards, the corresponding title was assigned to new hereditary ordinances. In addition, many leaders of the tribes that previously entering the Yin Coalition were recognized as providers (Zhuhou), but during the conquest of Yin who supported Jusussev. The population, "complained" of this or another Zhuhou, was calculated by the amount of CZU, i.e., tribal groups living in the relevant territory in the Inisk time. The total number of newly created or previously recognized workers was in the XI century. BC e. Not less than 200-300.

In general, Zhowa conquest did not cause fundamental changes in the system of management subordinate to the territories.

Socio-economic relations in the X-VIII centuries. BC e.

The social differentiation of the Yin Society, which can be traced on the burial materials of the XSV - XI centuries. BC e., was fixed after Zhousky conquest in the system of social ranks.

All the free population of Zhou was divided into five social groups related to each other on the principle of the hierarchy, which in ancient China was more clearly pronounced than in other ancient Women's societies. The group that occupied the highest step in the hierarchical staircase was represented by the identity of the despotic ruler, "the only among people" - so, following the tradition, Zhousky Vanya continued to call themselves. The second group is Zhuhou, the rulers of hereditary possessions, representatives of the highest Zho-UK-UK aristocracy. The third - Dafa, the chapters of those CDU (RO to tribal groups), which in their totality constituted the population of hereditary ownership of Zhuhou. The fourth group - Shi, the heads of large families who were part of that or another CDU. Finally, the fifth group is commoner.

Social rank, being an external manifestation of belonging to one of the five public groups, determined the combination of those material benefits that this person could use. "Clothing depends on the rank, and the consumption of wealth - on the size of the remuneration corresponding to the rank, we read in. One of the sources of Zhowsky time. - Different amounts of drinking and food, cutting clothes, the number of livestock and slaves, there are prohibitions for the use of certain forms of boats, chariots and homemade utensils. During the lifetime of a person, differences in the headdress, clothing, the number of fields and dwellings are observed; After death, in the sizes of the inner and external tomb, the Savana and the grave pit. " The dimensions of the home and its decoration were strictly regulated: "Beams in the palace of the Son of the Sky (Vana) are peeled, polished, embedded by stones: in the Palace of Zhuhou - Taucan, Polished; In the house of the Dafa - just trees, "etc. The same thing concerned and food: It was believed that Wang could eat the meat of the bull, ram and pigs, Zhuhou - only beef, dof - pork, shi - fish, and no longer had no one The rights have meat. Social differences found reflections and in the vocabulary of the ancient Chinese language - to denote one. And the same concepts existed various words that were used depending on the belonging to a certain rank.

The person's belonging to the highest social groups was established depending on the relationship: who was the father of a person, what the Son in the family he was born. The eldest son inherited his father's rank, and all the other sons descended one step below.

The structure of social ranks was closely connected in a chezewoman society with land tenure and land use system. All lands in the Middle Kingdom were considered belonging to Vanu.

Wang was the supreme owner of the word in the same sense, in which all people in the Middle Kingdom were his servants. But at the same time, "Van considers Zhuhou, Zhuhow considers Dafa himself with his servant, Dafa considers Shi servant," etc. Therefore, the land tenure system in Zhousk society was the same hierarchical as the structure of social ranks. Thus, the Supreme Owner of the entire Earth in the Middle Kingdom, Wang "killed" the highest aristocrats (Zhuhou) the right of hereditary possession of the part of the land of the Middle Kingdom. Chuchow, in turn, recognized the rights of Dafa to own a part of the territory belonging to them. Dafa themselves did not handle the land, but transferred it to the possession of Shi. Ultimately, the Earth was processed by commoners. Although the despotic ruler - Wang considers the Supreme Owner of the Earth, actually the well-known rights to it had representatives of various social groups, and there was no private property in the modern sense of the word in Zhousk society.

In the XI-X centuries. BC e. A significant part of the prisoners turned into slaves.

Ancient China in the VIII-III century. BC.

Ethnopolitical situation in the countries of the Republic of Mainy Plain

At the beginning of the VIII century. BC e. The clashes of Joussians with the tribes of Zhukov, who inhabited the area of \u200b\u200bthe upper current of the Juanhe River. By the origin of the heads were related to Justsians, but differed from them in the way of life and forms of farming. The decisive collisions with the Hedicoral tribes of Junov occur at the Board of Yu-Van (781-771 BC).

In 770 BC e. I had to transfer the capital to the east, to the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Luoyang. Period of the VIII-III century. BC e. They are called Eastern Zhou.

In the VIII century BC e. Consolidated nomadic tribes, referred to in the ancient Chinese sources of di; They make raids on the ownership of Zhuhou north of Juanhe. At the beginning of the VII century. BC e. Di moved to the south, devastating the land on the left bank of Juanhe in its middle course. Di is forcing Juanhe and attack the possession of Zhuhou in close proximity to the Zhousk capital.

Even the strongest kingdoms have to be reckoned with di. Some of the Chinese dominors prefer the Union with Di, others are trying to use them in the fight with their opponents. So, in 636 BC e. Zhowsky Xiang Van intended to provoke the attack on the kingdom of Zheng, who refused to obey him. But Di took the side of Zheng and defeated Vana's troop, which was forced to temporarily leave the capital.

In the relationship between the population of ancient China with neighboring tribes, the incompatibility of political relations with ethnic is clearly manifested. If in the Inin and Earrudy Time, the opposition "We - they" was based exclusively on political criteria (the Power of Wan was included in the "Our" community, the unnecessary power automatically became "alien"), then in the VIII - VII centuries. BC e. There is an idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of a certain cultural and genetic community of all "barbarians". Ancient Chinese begin to oppose themselves "Varvaram", denoting their community by the term Huyasya (or Zhuya).

According to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, the relationship of kinship was at the heart of such a distinction. It was believed that residents of kingdoms located in the middle course of Juanhe are related to the relationship between themselves, therefore, even if any of them opposed the Zhouus, who didn't cease to be Huyasya. Accordingly, the political alliance with "barbarians" did not mean that they stopped being such.

After transferring the capital to the East, the power of Vana is noticeably weakened. He still personifies the unity of the Middle Kingdom, but practically often does not interfere with the relationship between Zhuhou, which is becoming more and more independent. The territory of the "metropolitan region" is sharply reduced - the ownership of the Zhousky ruler. Part of it was treated with neighboring kingdoms - Zheng, Jin et al., And some regions were captured by the kingdom of Chu. Scarettes the treasury Vana. Traditional tribute from Zhuhou begins to flow increasingly irregularly. The moment occurs when, after the death of one of the Zhousk Vanov, his heir does not turn out to be fundamental to the fulfillment of the customs required by the usual rites and the funeral is postponed for seven years.

On the authority of the ruling house, Zhou had a detrimental to the internal distribution, repeatedly flashed in the VII-VI centuries. BC e. Wang did not have the opportunity to prevent the violations of the consecrated procedure for the inheritance of power and was forced to seek the help of Zhukhou dependent on him.

The invasion of nomads on the mid-year-whicing plain and changes in the relationship between BAN and the rulers dependent on it largely predetermined the essence of the new political situation arising in the VII century. BC e. and impossible in the preceding time. One of the largest Zhukhou seeks the main position and becomes Hegemon. To achieve this goal, the raised ruler used two standard slogans: "Make everyone to respect Wan" and "reflect the threat from the barbarians."

Fight for hegemony

The first Ancient Chinese kingdom, who had achieved hegemony on the Middle-old plain, was qi, located in the lower reaches of Juanhe. The ruler of Qi was officially proclaimed by Gegemon in 650 BC. e. At the congress of the rulers (Zhuhou).

After his death, the kingdom of qi lost the position of hegemon. They soon become another major kingdom - Jin. The years of the highest power of the Kingdom of Jin - the period of the Board of Wen-Gun (636-628 BC. E.).

Wen-Gun's fate is unusual. His mother was a woman from the Rook tribe. Leaving the limits of his native kingdom due to rivalry with the brothers, the young Wen-Gong fled to the di nomads, among whom spent many years. So, at the head of the unification of the Ancient Chinese kingdoms, a person was, who, by origin and upbringing, was rather "Varvar" rather than Hu-Asya. So Wen-Gong, in essence, and remained in the memory of the descendants: he "walked in a coarse material in a coarse, in a sheepskin turpentine, tied the sword with a raw strap and nevertheless distributed his power to all lands in the middle of the four seas."

At the end of the VII century. BC e. There is a split among the di nomads who captured the average flow of Juanhe. This served as Jin the reason for interference. In the spring of 594 BC. e. In the 8-day battle, the main forces di were defeated. Captured nomads were partially included in the Jin army, partially turned into slaves. With the domination of "Varvarov" at the significant territory of the Juanhe basin, near the Zhouus-Koi of the capital, was finished.

The rivalry between Jin and the southern kingdom of Choshu was the main line of political history in the VII-VI centuries. BC e. Expanding its territory at the expense of the small kingdoms of Mezzani Mezzani and Juanhe, Chu begins to interfere with the relationship between the main hereditary possessions in the Midthinese plain. At the end of the VII century. BC e. The ruler of Chu received the title of Wan - it was an open challenge to those kingdoms who fought for hegemony under the slogan of "respect" to the Zhousky Son of the sky. Chu Wang becomes the first hegemon that does not recognize the Supreme Neighborhood of Zhou.

After breaking Jin, Chu begins to dictate its conditions to the ancient Chinese kingdoms. Jin managed to achieve revenge only in 575 BC. e.

At the beginning of the V c. BC e. The struggle for hegemony between the two kingdoms, which previously not participating in political events, who previously not participated in political events were exacerbated: the kingdoms of U and Yue, who occupied the Earth in the Lower Town of Yangtze. The majority of the population here was significantly different from the people of Huyasya. The inhabitants of U and Yue had the custom tattooing the body and briefly cut their hair than sharply different from the ancient Chinese. Fisheries and marine crafts played a major role in their life. In an effort to get an additional chance in the fight against Chu, the ruler Jin concluded a union with y and sent her military advisers there. However, after that, residents preferred to chariots the tactics of battle on the water, where they felt more confident than on land.

In 493 BC e. The ruler was defeated by Yue, after which she took a number of campaigns to the north. Having won the army of Qi and defeating Lou and Song, he was in 482 BC. e. Hegemony achieved the recognition of HEGEMONIY U. In about ten years after that, it was the turn of Yue, who broke the troops of the opponent and subordinate to the majority of northern kingdoms. Hegemony Yue completes the Chunzu period; With the division of the kingdom of Jin for three independent states Zhao, Wei, Han (403 BC) in the history of the Ancient Chinese Society begins the period of Zhango ("Warring Kings").

Shifts in socio-economic

Zhango - era of stormy social shocks, indigenous changes in many areas of public life of ancient China. The prerequisite for this was important shifts in the development of the productive forces: the propagation of iron, the appearance of arable guns and the corrugated cattle, the development of irrigation.

The first mentions of the gland are found in the ancient Chinese texts of the end of the VI century. BC e. In particular, in the chronicles "Tszozhu-Anh" it is reported that in the kingdom of Jin in 513 BC. e. A railway tripod with text of laws was cast.

Capless cattle strength has sharply increased labor productivity. "Animals that served for sacrifices in the temples are now working on the fields" - this is characterized by this important change in the state of the productive forces by the author of one of the ancient Chinese writings. If earlier irrigation work was carried out almost exclusively in order to combat floods (traces of drainage channels were preserved in the Ying settlements in Zhengzhou and Vyagyan), as the channels expand the channels in an all broader scale begin to be used for artificial irrigation.

Expansion of the area of \u200b\u200barable land, an increase in yield, a sharp increase in the total social product predetermined the crisis of land tenure and land use system that existed in Zhousky China.XI-VI centuries. BC e. The former forms of land tenure, based on hierarchy of social ranks, gradually survive themselves.

In the middle of the 11th millennium BC. e. The new ownership system is drawn up. The decay of the former land tenure system was associated with the advent of private ownership based on the right to alienate the land by selling. In this regard, in the VI century. BC e. In a number of Oldeyekaya kingdoms, the transition to a completely new form of the alienation of the product produced is to the post-place tax. According to Qian's Sum, first, calculated, calculated depending on the area of \u200b\u200bthe land being processed, was introduced in the kingdom of Lou in 594 BC. e. Then such tax began to charge in Chu and in Zheng.

Qualitative changes undergoes craft and trade at this time. In the social system of the Zhou Society of the beginning of the I millennium BC. e. Craftsmen were equated in their status for commoners. The same was the situation and the crossing of the exchange between individual related groups. These professions were hereditary: "Children of artisans become artisans, children of merchants - merchants, children of farmers - farmers." The spread of iron tools and the general progress of the technique stimulated the individualization of handicraft production, the growth of the welfare of individual artisans. This contributed to the use on a wide scale in the craft and trading of slaves as a productive force. As a result, individual artisans and merchants, nominally belonged to the lowest layer of the social hierarchy, could actually be more consistent than some representatives of the nobility. Thus, the basic rule of the traditional social system was violated: who is impressed, he is rich; Who is languishing, that poor.

Ideological struggle in ancient China in the VI - III century. BC e.

What methods and methods to control the subnet metering in conditions when "can be notable, but poor"? This question was worried about many thinkers of that time. Differences in the approach to solving this problem and predetermined the emergence of several philosophical schools. Ancient Chinese philosophers were interested in not so much patterns of nature as a whole, how much socio-political and socio-ethical issues. It is not by chance that a rapid rise of philosophical thought in ancient China is associated with the VI-III centuries. BC e. When changes in social strictly strongly demanded the understanding of the most important principles that were at the heart of the relationship between people in society. In the VI-V centuries. BC e. The greatest discrepancies in the approach to solving these problems were found in the teachings of the two philosophical schools - Confucianians and Moist.

The emergence of the Confucian teaching has played an exceptional role in the history of ideology not only ancient China, but also many neighboring countries of East Asia.

Central place in the etio-political doctrine of Confucius (Kun Tsyu, 551-479 BC) takes the doctrine of a "noble man" (Jun Tzu). Confucius were alien to the ideals of the new social layer of immaneous seeking to benefit and enrichment. Contracting the principles of morality and debt, Confucius appeals to idealized the orders of the past. In this deep contradiction in the system of views of an ancient philosopher. Confucian concepts of humanity (Zhen), loyalty (Zhong), respect for the elder (Xiao), compliance with the norms of relationship between people (Li) are positive universal values, expressed. Categories of the historically doomed social system. By no means striving for a personal well-being ("eat rude food and drink only waters;", sleeping under the head of the elbow - joy in this! And the wealth and knowledge taken by a dishonest way - for me it is like soaring clouds "), finding me The very process of knowing reality ("Learn and constantly repeating the studied - isn't it joyful?"), Confucius at the same time expresses the thoughts, which are a call to the restoration of the lifestyle who went to the past. It is characteristic that without making the political problems of Confucius. Differences between the state and family. Application to the state of the relationship of relationships between family members and meant the requirement to preserve in the inviolability of those orders when "the ruler is a ruler, subjects are a subject, father is a father, the son is a son."

From other positions, another outstanding Ancient Chinese Myste-Mo-Czu (MO Di, the bonds of the V-IV centuries were approaching the contradictions of the modern society (MO. E.\u003e. All social misfortunes, in his opinion, originate from "separate Confucians. "Now," wrote Mo Di, "the rulers of the kingdoms know only about love for their kingdom and do not like other kingdoms ... Now the heads of families know only about love for their family, but they do not like other families ... if there is no mutual love There is no mutual hatred between people, then mutual hatred appears. " Therefore, MO and put forward the thesis of the need for "universal love", which will allow us to clean up in the subnet.

Speaking against families of the but-related separateness of members of society, MO Di sharply criticized the custom of transmitting privileges and inheritance posts. Calling to "read wise", Mo Di fell on hereditary to know and considered it useful such a state of affairs when "the initially low person was elevated and became noble, and the initial beggar would be elevated and became rich."

At the same time, in contrast to the Confucians who attached great importance to the ritual side of human culture, the MO argued that culture is necessary only in order to provide a person with clothes, food and housing. All that goes beyond the satisfaction of the elementary needs of a person is optional and even harmful. Therefore, in particular, the MO considered it necessary to cancel the music, distracting people from creating material values.

A number of important provisions of Mustic teachings were borrowed by philosophers IV - III centuries. BC er.,. created by the "legist" school. If the Confucians saw the means of condescending the consecration in the improvement of the socio-ethical side of the relationship between people, the legists considered the law (hence the name of this philosophical school). Only the law manifested in awards and punishments is able to provide order and prevent troubles. The law is compared with legists with a tool with which the artisan manufactures the product. The law is necessary primarily to submit the ruler's authorities. It was not by chance that the legists emphasized, "only one who saw his first task in establishing the order in his own peoples could have been established in the one who saw his first task in establishing the order in his own people, and won the mighty enemies, who considered it necessary to first defeat his people." The final goal of the application of the law, the legists were seen in ensuring the absolute power of the ruler.

If the Confucians ratified for returning to the ideal orders of the past, and coins and legists are for the consistent destruction of the old system of public and government, the representatives of the school of the school occupied a special and very peculiar position in this matter. Lao Tzu is considered the founder of this philosophical school, but we do not have reliable information. Authority of Lao Tzu, who was supposedly senior contemporaries Confucius attributed "Treatise on" Tao and DE "(" Dadetjin "). Propertiles of this teaching believed that everything in the world is determined by the existence of a certain" path "(Dao), in addition to the will of people . A person is not able to comprehend this path ("Dao, which can be expressed by words, is not true Dao"). Therefore, the best way to make mistakes in government management is, from the point of view of Taois-Tov, the "notation" of the ruler, its refusal of the active interventions in a predetermined course of historical events.

Reforms Shang Yana.

In IV century BC e. In many of the Ancient Chinese kingdoms, socio-political reforms were held, aimed at the final layer of the system of public relations. The initiators of these reforms were representatives of the Le Hist school, most of which were striving not only to formulate their point of view on the methods of solving social problems of modernity, but also to implement it in practice. About one of them - Shang Yane, who achieved reforms in the kingdom of Qin, was preserved quite a lot of information (mainly from the "historical notes" of Qian and the Treaty "Book of the Ruler's Government" attributed to Shan Yana).

Qin, the most western of all the ancient Chinese kingdoms, has not played a significant role in the struggle for the primacy in the Middle Town Plain. Qin was this. Nomically weak kingdom and did not have a strong army. His ruler adopted the proposal Shang Yana on the conduct of reforms that should have resulted in strengthening the state. By 359 BC e. The first decrees about reforms prepared by the Shang Yan. They envisaged: 1) the introduction of a new territorial division of the population to the "heels" and "dozens" of families related to the circular order; 2) the punishment of those who had more than two adult sons continuing to live under one roof with their parents; 3) the promotion of military merit and prohibition of blood revenge; 4) promoting exercising agriculture and weaving; 5) eliminating the privileges of representatives of the hereditary nobility who did not have military merit.

The second series of reforms in Qin refers to 350 BC. e. Administrative division on the counties was introduced; Residents of the kingdom of Qin were allowed to freely sell and buy land; Unified system of measures and weights was carried out.

Legalization of the sale and sale of land, cancellation of the privileges of the hereditary aristocracy, the forced crushing of large families, the introduction of a single administrative division - all these events applied a decisive blow to the traditional social hierarchy system. To change, Shanan Yang introduced a rank system, which was not appropriated on the basis of hereditary right, but for military merit. Later was allowed to purchase ranks for money.

Although Shanan Yang himself paid for his activity with life, his reforms were successfully implemented. They not only contributed to the strengthening of the King Kingdom, which is gradually nominated among the leading Ancient Chinese states, but were essential for the development of the entire Ancient Chinese society.

Reforms Shang Yana undoubtedly answered the needs of the progressive development of society. Finally undermining the domination of the old aristocracy, they opened the way to overcome the contradiction between the knowledge and wealth: from now on, any member of the Company, who had wealth, had the opportunity to achieve the relevant social situation in society. Tv reforms. BC e. were a powerful impetus in the development of private property and commodity-money relations. The majority of farmers processing land became minimal land owners after these reforms. At the same time, the reform Shang Yana stimulated the development of slavement.

Han Empire in III V. BC E.-I V.N. E.

The internal policy of the first Han emperors

One of the urgent problems faced by Gao-Tzu was the problem of restoring the country's economy. Qin Shihuana, uprisings and punitive expeditions of the Qin authorities, finally, a five-year-old devastating war between applicants for the throne caused ambitious damage to the Economy. Irrigation facilities were abandoned., The fertile land of the country's districts are catastrophically reduced. Hundreds of thousands of people died, even more ran from the spaced places and hidden from adversity of troubled time in the forests. Driving through the city of Quiini, Gao-TsUZ exclaimed: "This is the county! I crossed all the imminent, but only in Luyang saw so many people! " Meanwhile, there were no more than 5 thousand courtyards at that time, although there were once 30 thousand there were already there.

The exit from the created position of Gao-TsUZ saw in the policy of assignments to nizam and weakening the tax burden. In one of its first rescripts, the new emperor established that the warriors who came with him in the metropolitan area and wishing to stay there, received landings of the Earth and were released from labor duties for 12 years. The families were also exempted from the duties, in which there were newborns. Residents who left earlier native places returned their fields and dwellings. Free were announced all who had to sell themselves in slavery during hunger. The loyal tax was significantly reduced - now it was "/ IS part of the crop. The successors of Gao-CzU continued this policy, the tax tax was established in the amount of" / IS harvest, and in the case of natural disasters, taxes were not charged at all.

Another important problem of the first decades II century. BC e. There was a question about the country management methods. Dreaming to see himself at the head of the Unified Empire, Gao-Zu, nevertheless could not but reckon with a real situation in the country, who had just dropped the dynastic dynasty of Qin. Therefore, he did not decide to fully restore the Qin administrative system. The seven largest military leaders who settled on the territory of some former kingdoms were granted by the titles of Vanov, and after this, more than 130 grants Gao-Tzu received hereditary possessions and became known as Hou. Thus, the county and counties created by Qin can only be restored only to parts of the Empire. Come on the compromise, Gao-TsUu was able to soften the contradiction between the warlords of the Antice Coalition and to achieve the association of the country.

The result of the conclusion of the "horizontal from the Oyu" was, in particular, that in 288 BC. e. The rulers of Qin and Qi agreed on a kind of section of the spheres of influence: after the victory over the opponents, the Cincian ruler should have taken the title of "Western Emperor", and the Tsiski-East.

Some time, success accompanied the kingdom of Chu. Defeating a number of small and medium neighbors (YUE, LU, etc.), Chu greatly expanded its territory. However, the last word remained for Qin. In 246 BC e. The throne joined thirteen years old. In 238 BC e. He suppressed a plot against his power and strengthened his position. Soon after that, In Zheng began active hostilities against his neighbors. In 230 BC e. The king of Qin shall cause a decisive defeat of Han and captures all its territory. In 228-221 BC e. Other kingdoms were defeated (Zhao, Wei, Chu, Qi, Yang). By 221 BC e. The process of unification of the country ended.

Creating a centralized state. Empire Qin

Taking the title of Qin Shihuana ("First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty"), in Zheng solemnly announced in its highest rescript: "Our descendants will be called in accordance with the order of inheritance - Ershi (" Second "), Sanny (" Third "), and so right up to Tens of thousands of generations will be inherited infinitely. "

Qin Shihuan's ambitious dreams was not destined: existed only 14 years, created by him the empire fell under the blows of a popular uprising. Nevertheless, a half of the decade of the existence of the Empire Qin is a whole epoch in China's history. It was at that time that the centralized despotic state was created, which was the prototype of the subsequent Chinese Empires of antiquity and Middle Ages.

The defeat of six kingdoms and the association of the country was only the first step towards creating a single state. No less important was the event of Qin Shhuana, aimed at eliminating the consequences of political and economic fragmentation.

The territory of the country was divided into 36 major administrative districts. Their boundaries were conducted in such a way that they did not coincide with the natural geographical over the borders and the boundaries of the previous kingdoms. Each district consisted of counties, which, in turn, were shared on parish, which included several communities.

At the head of the districts stood the bosses appointed directly by the emperor. With the head of the district, the district governments were essential, which included officials subordinate to the central departments. The second person in the district was the commander of the troops quartered in the territory of the district. He received the same salary as the head of the district, which indicates its high position. The head of the district appointed chiefs of counties and their deputies.

Administrative power in the lower units of territorial division of the country belonged to elected elders. Thus, at this level of the administrative system in the Empire, the Qin continued to exist community self-government.

The emperor was the full hereditary ruler of the country. Only he had the right to call himself "we" and declare their will in the highest rescripts.

The Assistants of the Emperor were the two advisers who were to be directly responsible for carrying out all the imperial decrees. Advisors submitted the central departments.

The military department was headed by the commander of all the army of the Empire. He was obeyed by the heads of the district military departments. There were also judicial and financial departments. It is characteristic that in the central office of state power, the Special Office served the personal needs of the emperor and his family.

Officials of a special department were provided with the storage of the state archive, and also carried out inspection of districts.

Thanks to this, the emperor could follow how much representatives of local authorities fulfill his duties.

Simultaneously with the reform of the state-owned device, Qin Shihuan carried out some other measures to strengthen the empire. These include the introduction of unified legislation. The criminal legislation of the Qinsky time was the system of guarantee. In its most general form, it was first made yet Shankaya Yan. However, in the Qin Empire, the responsibilities of the guarantee were made not to the "heels" or "dozens", but on family members: "If one person commits a crime, then his whole family is exposed to punishment." Such a punishment for the crime of a relative in the Empire Qin was usually the transformation into state slaves. The system of guarantee was distributed in Qin Shihuana only for commoners.

As for punishments for crimes, the provisions on them were mainly borrowed from the laws of Shang Yana and differed extreme cruelty. Different types of death penalty were used: quarters, destroying in half, decapitation, stroke, burning alive, cooking in the boiler, penetration of the pattern. The death penalty relied, for example, for theft of horse. In addition, lighter punishments were also practiced - cutting the knee cups, cutting off the nose, castration, beating in heels. Finally, convicted for a crime could be sledding.

In the first years of its reign, Qin Shihuan carried out the unification of coins, measures and scales, as well as writing. The introduction of a unified system of measures and weights was necessary to establish the taxation of the population. The monetary reform of Qin Shihuana served the same purpose, as a result of which all coins of non-citin-like samples were seized from the appeal. These events Qin Shihuana finally broke obstacles that prevented the establishment of permanent economic ties between the individual areas of the country.

Foreign policy Qin Shihuana

At the end of the V- beginning of the IV century. BC e. In the forest-steppe zone in the territory of modern inner Mongolia, the nomads tribes are consolidated, which the ancient Chinese called Syunnu.

Having completed internal reforms, Qin Shhupag starts hostilities against Syunna. In 215 BC e. The 300 thousandth army attacks Syunna and wins an important victory. After the year of the army, it is possible to entrenched in the north shore of Juanhe. The result of hiking was the restoration of the previous border along the old wall, constructed by the kingdom of Zhao. After that, Qin Shihuan makes the decision to build a great wall to protect the boundaries of the empire from the nomad attack. He moves to the affiliates of the inland districts of the country. Along the Great Wall, a total of 44 new counties were created. Many years later, traveling to these places, Qian's Suma visited the Great Wall. He was struck by the scale of the works carried out by the hands of a sub-millioned people: "The mountains broke off, the gorges were filled off, the straight tract was paved. How cheaply they appreciated the work of the simple people "" In the memory of the people, the construction of the Great Wall remained as a memory of a terrible tragedy.

After the successful completion of operations against Eyunn, the emperor decides to begin a conquering campaign against the Yue tribe that inhabited southeastern seaside areas. War, started in 214 BC. e., demanded the colossal voltage of the strength and resources of the Empire. The beginning of the campaign brought defeat by the Qin Troops. Dynogo soldiers were poorly focused in the rainforest, suffered from fever, the locals had attacked them continuously, so "during the three years of war, the Qin's warriors did not shoot armor and did not weaken the theater of crossbows."

Tscn Shihuana had to declare additional mobilization. The cost of tremendous efforts the army of conquerors made a transition through the mountain ranges and seized the territory of the state formations of YUE - Naniue (navigating) and aulak. New districts were created on their lands, but the origin of this territory to the Qin Empire was only nominal.

The aggravation of socio-political contradictions and the People's War at the end of the III century. before. n. e.


In 227 BC If, when the future Qin Schihuan only started to exercise his plan for the defeat of six kingdoms, an attempt was organized for him, and only thanks to a happy coincidence, he managed to stay alive. Three years after the unification of the country, in 218 BC. e., a happy attempt was made at him, also unsuccessful. On the life of Shhuana attended and in 216 BC. e. Apparently, this explains the painful suspicion of a powerful monarch in the last years of his life. Starting from 212 BC. e. He did not stop for a long time in some of his numerous palaces, constantly changed the residence, not warning about it even the highest dignitaries. In an effort to become the owner of the Taoist elixir of immortality. Shihuan at the same time severely crawled with dissatisfied. In particular, he ordered to bury more than 400 Confucians suspected of incitement to Smoot.

Wars with neighbors, ambitious construction work (including the construction of a large number of imperial palaces) demanded additional income to the treasury. With Qin Shihuana sharply increases the tax on the peasants; Thus, the loamal tax was approximately 2 / s harvest time. The birth of a boy ceased to be a joyful event in the life of the peasant family; The future breadwinner had to achieve the majority to go into the army or for the construction of the Great Wall. The displeasure of the people was used by representatives of the old hereditary nobility who did not refuse to revive the orders of the past. Death Qin Shihuana in 210 BC. e. accelerated the brewing crisis of the empire.

The first impetus, shook the cynical empire, was the rebellion of the poor. The rebels, the natives of the former kingdom of Chu, put forward the slogan: "The Great Chu will be WE-1 becoming!" Capturing one city by one, they were laughed with Qin's officials. On the side of the rebels began to move entire divisions of government troops. Elders of local communities elected one of the leaders of the rebellion of the king. This completed the first stage of the People's War (209-208 BC. A).

At the second stage, significant changes occur in the social composition of the rebels and their leadership. At the head of the rebels become stuck to

rebellor Representatives of the old nobility, who sought to take advantage of the speech of the masses in order to restore their rights. One of the detachments of the Antiquin Army headed a small official Liu Ban. In 207 BC e. His detachment captured the key point on the way to the capital of the Empire Xianyan, and then, defeating the remnants of government troops, mastered the capital.

Fight Chu and Han

The goal of the Antizin uprising was achieved. The territory of the empire was divided between the largest leaders of individual rebel detachments. Liu Ban began to be called "Wan Han", and the head of the other army became "Van Chu." Soon there is a fierce struggle for power between the former allies.

At first, Xiang Yu had an incomparably large forces than its main opponent. However, then Liu Ban, seeking to attract the wide masses of the population to his side, invariably provided signs of respect for representatives of the local community administration, introducing some strict discipline in their army and punishing anyone who was seen in looting or violence. In contrast to this, his opponent severely straightened not only with the opponent's warriors taken by the warriors, but also with the civilian population of those cities that resist him.

A gradual advantage of Liu Bana begins to emerge increasingly distinctly, and on his side, many of the rebel detachment commanders are moving. In January 202, Liu Ban won a decisive victory.

Liu Ban proclaimed the beginning of the new Hakian dynasty and accepted the title of Emperor Gao-Tzu. In historiography, the wells of this dynasty dates back to two - in some cases 202, when Liu Ban won the "Van Chu", in the other 206, when he received the title "Vana Han". One way or another, in 202, a short-term period of fragmentation of the country, which followed the fall of the Empire of Qin, was completed. In the territory of the ancient China, the Han Empire emerged.

The first centralized state in China is Qin Empire (221-207 to N. E.)

Background of uniting the ancient Chinese kingdoms. Development of economic relations

In IV century BC e. The objective prerequisites are gradually being folded for the creation of a single ancient Chinese state and are increasingly expressed by the arguments about the need to overcome the internecine distribution and unite the ancient Chinese states under the rule of one ruler.

One of these prerequisites was the development of intensity relations and the establishment of permanent economic relations between individual kingdoms.

In the IV-III centuries. BC e. The metallic coin was already widespread - an indicator of a high level of development of private property and commodity economy. At the same time, in the territory of several large regions, the boundaries of which did not coincide with the boundaries of individual kingdoms, there is a spontaneous unification of the coin. So, in the eastern kingdoms, the coin is distributed in the form of a knife, in the northern - in the form of a dress. However, the availability of customs barriers restrained the development of trade relations between individual kingdoms.

An extremely important prerequisite for overcoming political fragmentation was the further consolidation of the ethnic community of the ancient Chinese

As a result of the gradual assimilation of the "barbarian" population, which was in the VII-VI centuries. BC e. On the Middle Chinese Plain, the ethnic self-awareness of Huyasya more and more begins to communicate with the idea that the territory inhabited is in the center of Middle Kingdom. Such ethnocentric ideas were widespread among many antiquities; In ancient China, they led to the emergence of the concept of "median kingdoms", around which "barbarians of four countries" live. At the beginning of the Zhango period, such kingdoms, as Chu, Qin, Yan, have not yet included in the number of "median". Gradually, the process of consolidating the ethnic community of ancient Chinese leads to the creation of a cultural stereotype, spreading to all major kingdoms of ancient China. The reflection of this was, in particular, the formation of an overhangivers Ancient Chinese language, although numerous dialects continued to exist along with him.

The association of the Ancient Chinese kingdoms was prepared by the logical of the political situation of that time. The desire to eliminate the independence of hostile kingdoms and the absorption of their territory meant in the future a further reduction in the number of independent political entities.

After the death of Gao-Tzu (195 BC. E.) The seperentist trends of the rulers of hereditary possessions began to appear more noticeable. "Middle beloved," the eyewitnesses wrote, "now the sick person is reminded, whose legs swollen so that they became thicker of the lower back, and the fingers are like hips. They cannot be moved, because every movement causes terrible pain ... If you lose moment and do not treat treatment, the disease will be launched and then even the famous doctor will not be able to do nothing with it. "

Among all Vanov, Liu Bi, the ruler of the kingdom of the kingdom was distinguished. In his possessions there were more than fifty cities, he minted his own coin, he had rich stenus on the seashore. In an effort to enlist the support of the population, Liu BN canceled taxes in his kingdom. In 154 BC E., uniting with six other hereditary dominates, Liu Bi collected a 200,000th army and moved it to the capital of the Empire.

The "rebellion of seven Vanov" ended with a complete defeat of the separatists. Taking advantage of a convenient point, the Han Emperor deprived the rulers of the kingdoms of the right to appoint officials and forbade them to have their own army. But the most decisive step towards the elimination of duality in the country management system and the strengthening of the centralized power was made by W-di, whose rule was (140-87. BC) was a period of the highest flourishing of the Han Empire.

"Golden Age of U-di"

In an effort once and permanently solve the problem of hereditary possessions, U-Di introduced a new order of inheritance of the status of Vanov and Hou. From now on, it was forbidden to transfer his own to the eldest son and was prescribed to divide him between all sons. The results of this reform were very quickly affected. A sharp decrease in the size of hereditary possessions led to the fact that Vanya practically lost the real power and the existence of their kingdoms did not constitute a more threat to the Empire.

At the same time, the U-di conducted a number of reforms aimed at the further centralization of the state apparatus. They were restored to the inspection department introduced with Qin Shihuana and canceled at the beginning of Han. The task of inspectors was direct control over the activities of circumferential officials. He has undergone significant changes and the system of destination of officials for positions. The duties of the chiefs of districts now was charged to systematically recommend candidates for the replacement of official posts from among the most capable young people. The Academy was created in the capital, whose graduates, as a rule, became officials. Changes affected the competence of the highest people in the state apparatus. The rights of the first adviser were limited. The newly created Imperial Office allowed the W-di to personally control the position in the field and the activities of various links of the administrative system in the country.

The overall spirit of measures, with the help of which U-di, sought the centralization of power in the empire, corresponded to the attempt to unify ideology. The purpose of this step is extremely clearly formulated by the largest representative of the Confucian school of the time of the Dong Zhong-Shu: "Nowadays are preached differently, and people are internally interpreting their teachings. Methods of the wise men are different, noodynaks and the meaning of their teachings, "the emperor does not have anything than he could support unity ... All that does not correspond to the" six arts ", set forth in the teaching of Confucius, must be eradicated. The heresy must be destroyed. Only after that, the Office will become united, laws - clear, and the people will know what he should follow.

The adoption of Confucianism as a unified state ideology meant a refusal to the policy of the first Chang emperors, the ideological banner of which was Taoism with his appeal to the "notion" of the ruler. But the Confucianism of Han-time was significantly different from the proclaimed by the founder of this teaching. Dong Zhong-Shu and his like-minded people borrowed some of the provisions of Legia, primarily the thesis about the meaning of the law as a country management tools. Nevertheless, in many ways, the internal and foreign policy of the empire, the views of Confucianians and Legists still diverged. Confucians sought to keep U-di from the policies of territorial seizures: they believed that "barbarians" could not be real subjects, and their land are unsuitable for cultivation. However, these arguments did not convince the emperor. Having achieved stabilization within the country, U-di draws out of sights beyond its state.

Nomads of Central Asia and the emergence of the powers of Syunna

In the middle of the i millennium BC. e. In the steppe zone to the north of the main ethnic territory of the ancient Chinese, the pool of the Juanhe River - there is a community of community, which was "Hong-Well", or "Syunna". At the heart of the economic activity of Syunnu lay nomadic cattle breeding, which determined the features of their culture and life. The need to constantly move over long distances together with cattle, "looking to the sufficiency of grass and water," led to the formation of a kind of material culture Syun. The main element of the costume they had pants needed with horseback riding, but until the middle of the 11th millennium BC. e. absolutely not known to the ancient Chinese. The housing Syunna served the collapsible slag, covered with felt. The diet consisted mainly of boiled meat and sour milk. With the development of public inequality and the allocation of nomads, SONNU is beginning to experience the need for some subjects of prestigious consumption, which they themselves did not produce. This circumstance was the main reason that Kochyev-Nikov Syunnu society turns out to exchange with the farmers of the Juanhe basin. Sometimes such an exchange was a peaceful character, it most often acquired the form of robbery and military raids.

To the III century. BC e. Gradually develops the structure of the Sunnogo association, who has grown into primitive state education. He headed his ruler - Shanui, whose power was hereditary for this time. Shanueu was obeyed by 24 leaders who owned a certain territory. There was a system of duties, the main among which was the duty of each man to bear military service. The Shanviy Army consisted almost exclusively from the horse detachments, who had the advantage of the heavy infantry of the ancient Chinese: evading the decisive battle, Syunna applied to her unexpected strikes and instantly hid, leading to prisoners and thoroughly.

Han's accession coincided with the nomination of Shangya Modemia, who had a powerful nomadic power of Syunna, which, despite the relative small number of the population, becomes power capable of opposing the Ancient Chinese Empire. In 200 BC e. Gao-Tzu tried to attack Susan, but was surrounded and only a miracle escaped captivity. The Han emperors were forced to go on the conclusion of the humiliating "Union of Peace and Rodance" for them, bought off from the raids of nomads with rich gifts and giving them to the Shanyians of girls from noble families.

Foreign policy of the Han Empire in II-I centuries. BC E "


Having strengthened its position, U-di decides to end with such a situation. He creates mobile equestrian units that have become the main force in the fight against Syunna. Against nomads applied their own tactics of sudden attacks. Military campaigns 127-119. BC e. Brought the first victories to the Chano troops. Using the "Border County" as a military bridgehead, the U-di deploys active actions against Syunna. So gradually changes the nature of the war: defensive at first, it becomes for Han a means of seizing all new and new territories.

The first contacts of Han with the countries of the "Western Territory" were associated with military actions against Syunnu (the territory of modern Xinjiang and Central Asia) was connected with the Zhun.

Preparing for war with Syunnu, U-di sent in 139 to n. e. His ambassador Zhang Qian in search of the Massagetti tribes, broken Syunnu and moved to the West. Zhang Tsyan returned to the capital after 13 years. without achieving its main goal. But the consequences of his journey were nevertheless very significant. Thanks to Zhang Tsyany, the ancient Chinese discovered the unknown Dotolo world for themselves: they first received reliable information about Bactria, Parphy, Fergana and other states of Central Asia. After the secondary trip, Zhang Qian, the Han Empire established relations with many of these states. These links had not only political importance. They contributed to the intensive exchange of cultural achievements. It was at this time that in China penetrate from Central Asia, some not known to agricultural crops (grapes, Bakhchyeva), musical instruments, objects of utensils. Later through the "West Edge" in China from India entered Buddhism.

A large voltage of the forces requested war of the Han Empire with Yue tribes, inhabited by southeastern seaside areas. Using the internal contradictions between Yue tribes, U-di in 111 BC. e. Threw his troops against them. The Han Empire managed to win over Nanyu and most of their lands were attached to the Empire.

Expansion of the territory of Han in the southwest was associated with attempts to find a way to India. While traveling to the "Western Territory" Zhang Tsyan learned about the existence of this big and rich country. From the stories of the merchants, he concluded that the state Hinda is located next to the lands of the "South-Western Varvarov". So ancient Chinese called the tribes that inhabited most of the modern Yunnani and South Sichuani. In the IV-III centuries. BC e. There are several major unions of the tribes, the most significant among which was the Ranne-state Union of Dyan. In 130 and 111 BC e. U-Di twice takes hiking against the "south-western barbarians". And although the path to India and was not found, large territories were attached to the Han Empire.

Finally, another object of the Han expansion becomes during the reign of U-di Korean Peninsula. In 109 BC e. Han is hit by the state of Choson on both sides: one army moves through Lyodong, the other - through the Bahaky Bay. On the captured lands are created by the Han District.

So for the second half of the II century. BC e. The Han state significantly expanded its borders. The Han Empire becomes one of the powerful states of the ancient world, along with Parfia and Rome.

The beginning of the crisis of the Empire

Long wars with neighbors, especially with Syunn, significantly affected the state of the country's economy. The need for constant replenishment of the army distracted the most active part of the population from classes in the main sphere of social production - in agriculture. The imperial treasury, significantly replenished by the end of the II century. BC er, could not compensate for the cost of war.

In order to obtain an additional source of income, U-di takes in 120 BC. e. Proposal to introduce a state monopoly on salt mining and the production of iron guns. Salt was along with grain of the most important subject of consumption in the widest layers of society; The demand for iron continuously increased due to the wider use of iron tools 8 agriculture. Therefore, salt cop and metallurgical workshops gave significant income. After the introduction of a monopoly in most of the Empire districts, special departments were created, which gave these enterprises to the spontaneous merchants and artisans. The costs of extraction and processing of raw materials took over the depository; The state provided its necessary equipment and purchased the finished products in solid prices. This kind of monopoly gave the income of the treasury, but adversely affected the assortment and quality of iron tools, from which, according to the contemporary, the life and death of the agriculture depended on the life. Therefore, soon after the introduction of a monopoly against it, many state figures began to speak. In 81 BC e. This question became the subject of a fierce discussion at the court. The result was the abolition of a monopoly on the production and sale of wine introduced before that in 98 BC. e.

One of the manifestations of the expansionist policy of U-Di in the first decades of his rule was to create on newly attached lands of the system of military settlements. The soldiers who carry the guard at the border should have been simultaneously engaged in agriculture to provide themselves with a provinet. Documents discovered in the excavations of one such military settlement [near Jiushany (the pool of the Ezinegol River)], indicate the deprivation and difficulties that settlers had to face. "It's very hot here, with a circle of sand, and in winter strong frosts," wrote one of them. In the elevations of the state property of the settlers, the business appear the boilers that have become unsuitable for cooking food, and crossbows, the leading of which is constantly torn; The supply of border areas with weapons and inventory was extremely difficult.

In 89 BC e. The proposal was discussed to organize new military settlements in the West. Rescipt, published on this, U-di represents a kind of result of all the activities of this emperor for half a century. Rejecting a proposal for the removal of military settlements, U-Di acknowledges that its gaining policy did not bring the desired results, but only the "tired of the subwayen" .. Wanting "Show your intention to leisure a country", U-Di proclaims the refusal of further hostilities against Syun -Well, "deeply repents in past actions."

This ended the "Golden Age of U-di", when the Han Empire experienced the apogee of his political and economic power and again turned out to be in the second half of the I century. BC e. In a state of a deep inner crisis. Evaluating the current situation, Qian's Suma emphasized that the prosperity of the first years of the reign of U-di, when "barns of the Etituary and on the periphery were full of grain", inevitably and inevitably went to their opposite, to decline and unstores: "Country is tired of continuous wars , people are embraced sadness, stocks have been exhausted and cannot provide expenses. " Qian's Suma gives this an explanation in the spirit of ideas about the cyclicality of history: "Things, reaching their limit, begin to decline, and the change in their inevitable."

Socio-economic relations at the turn of our era

The highest layer of the dominant class of the Han Society was titled to know. In the era of Han, a total of 20 ranks of meaningfulness existed. The owners of the nineteenth and twentieth rank received a certain number of courtyards for feeding, from which they had the right to collect tax in their favor. Persons who had ninth or higher rank of meaningful, used a number of privileges (they, in particular, were not serving duties). Configuration title could be granted to the emperor for services, it could be bought (in 18 g. BC, E. It was found that each subsequent rank of knowledge cost 1000 coins; before that, the price of ranks was calculated in nature, grain).

The most numerous and sophisticated social composition was the class of free simplicity. These are primarily direct farmers producers, in whose environments in the III - I centuries. BC. There was a process of social differentiation. Simplers were also ranked small and medium craftsmen and merchants.

Special place in the Han society occupied slaves. Along with private, state slaves existed. If the main source of slaves of the first category was divided by commoners who sold themselves or their children for the sake of debt, then state slaves were replenished mainly at the expense of relatives of those convicted of crimes. According to Chan's laws, "The wife and children of the criminal turn into slaves and are subject to markings." Kids slaves are considered slaves.

At the same time, in the Han society, it was relatively easy to go from one social layer to another. Raised commoner had the right under favorable conditions to buy knowledge rank and thereby joining the privileged segments of society. Representatives of the nobility, causing the displeasure of the emperor, together with their relatives could be addressed to slaves. Finally, the slave could count on returning to the number of free, which at least theoretically discovered the opportunity to achieve wealth and knowing. The most indicative in this regard is an example of a career of the famous Han-Skivodka Wei Qina and his sisters. Their mother was a slave. However, the Qing for his military merit got the highest rank of knowledge; His older sister fell into a harem to U-di and then became an empress; The second sister of Wei Qina became the mother of the commander, also honored the highest rank of adequacy; The third sister married one of the dignitaries.

Total number of slaves in ancient China II-I centuries. BC e. It is not known exactly, however, the slaves in the sources speak quite often. It is reported that during the U-di, major merchants were confiscated several tens of thousands of private slaves. Some noble dignitaries of that time had several hundred slaves. At some kind of Zhang Anh, for example, there were 700 slaves, which operating which he was "able to accumulate wealth."

In i century BC e. The slave trade was widespread. "Now," the source says, "there are markets where slaves traded, putting them in a single chart with livestock." The transaction on the purchase and sale of slaves was drawn up by the official document, in shape similar to the deposit on real estate. The text of one knob on the slave dated 59 a year BC was preserved. E.: "In the third year of the period of the Board of Shen-Jue, in the first moon, the fifteenth day, Wang Tzu-Yuan, a man from Zi-Zhong district, bought from the woman Yang Hoy from Anshihili County Chengdu acquired during her husband's husband Rab Bian-Liao . Agreed about the price of 15 thousand coins. The slave must unintently fulfill all the types of work ... In case of hearing, the slave can be punished by stroke ... "

It should be noted that the prices for slaves at this time were very high. The elderly Bian-Liao was sold for 15 thousand coins; So much cost a young slave. An adult slave cost 20 thousand coins, and an adult slave -40 thousand (a horse at about the same time could be bought for 4 thousand, bull - for 1.5-4 thousand coins).

In the Han Empire, there were two main taxes - Poskomel and Peel. The decrease in the size of the taxime tax at the beginning of Han played a positive role in restoring the country's economy. However, in I c. BC s. The position has changed. As the land ownership concentrated in the hands of large landowners, a relatively low passenger tax turned out to be beneficial primarily for rich owners. On the contrary, the pile tax, the main severity of which fell on the ordinary farmer, was continuously increased. In contrast, the pile tax was paid not to grain, but money. The patient tax was usually entrusted with all the population of the Empire aged 7 to 56 years. However, when I-di began to charge him since three years old. For the poorest part of the population, it was an unbearable burden.

Simparishes not only paid taxes, but also had to serve military and labor subsidity aged 20 to 56 years. Officials and know freed from the duties, it was possible to pay off from them. The same who did not have enough funds for the sputter, serving the labor service often led to ruin.

Legalization of the sale of land in the IV century. BC e. He led to the fact that community members turned most in small land owners. In Han-time, the community has already ceased to be a subject of land ownership, although continued to impose well-known restrictions on the free alienation of the Earth. As the Han borrowing to earth shows, the seller and the buyer should have enlisted consent to the deal from the community members, which was expressed in the custom of "treats" witnesses.

Property bundle in the environment of small land owners led to the confounded of a significant part of the peasants. Having lost his own land, the peasant was forced to rent it in large landowners on extremely unfavorable conditions: the rent was in the era of Han half of the harvest. Extremely distribution and hired work gets. The ruined farmers often fell into a slave dependence. At the same time, it was the process of the concentration of land ownership of the hands of large rich. Another Dong Zhong-Shu in his report to Emperor U-Di strongly advised to limit private ownership lands to give them to those who have enough land, and thereby prevent land accumulation. Similar proposals were repeatedly entered later. In 6 g. BC E. For example, it was proposed to introduce restrictions on the private ownership of land and slaves. The limit value of the area of \u200b\u200bthe private land was established in 30 QINs per person (1 QIN \u003d 4.7 hectares); The number of slaves should not be exceeded by commoners 30, representativeists know --100, at the highest aristocracy -200. This project was not carried out, as it came across the resistance of large land owners. By the beginning of the i century. n. e. The growth of large land ownership continues to be one of the most burning social problems.

Ancient China in the I-III centuries. N, E.

The aggravation of social contradictions and folk uprisings in the I c.


At the end of the i century. BC e. Social contradictions in the country sharply aggravated. For the first time in all the time the existence of the Han Empire in certain areas of the country began performances of peasants against the dominant class. The detachments of the robbers with a number of up to several thousand people attacked the county cities, captured the arsenals, killed local officials.

In the situation of the enhancing inner crisis of the Empire Van Man, the relative of the emperor on the female lines, captured, in 9 n. e. Trone and announced the beginning of a new dynasty. Following this, he conducted a series of reforms, the main of which was the reform of land and slavery.

In an effort to resolve the contradiction between the accumulation of lands in the hands of individual owners and the ruin of the poorest peasantry, Van Mans announced all the land in the country property of the emperor and forbade them buy-sell. According to the van Man's rescript, the system of "pillar of the city" was introduced in the empire, allegedly existed in distant antiquity: each family was supposed to be held from now on with a small land. Prohibited slave trade. Purchase and sale of people, said in rescript, is an action that "contradicts the heavenly virtue and human morality, violates the establishment of the sky and land, insults human dignity ... Therefore, the slaves will be referred to in private andasima; It is forbidden to trade them. "

The reforms of Van Mana, designed, on the thoughts of their initiator, resolve the pressing problems of the modern society to him, were doomed from the very beginning to fail. They were utopia, completely not taking into account reality. Stripping with the help of one legislative act all the way, passed by the Ancient Chinese society for half a thousandth, and return to the idealized Chany Confucians, the arches of Zhou's era in I in. n. e. It was impossible.

Three years after the start of the reform, Van MAN was forced to give way to the rich landowners who had desperate resistance to him, and resolve the sale of land and slaves. But this could no longer strengthen his shaking position. Van Mana made wide sections of the population, embossed abuses of officials and instability of the economic situation in the country.

The environment of the political crisis of the Empire was aggravated by natural disasters that fell into the country at 14 g. - First, an unprecedented drought, and then a locust that destroyed the rest of the crops. He began hunger. In a number of areas of the country, huge crowds of starving moved along the roads in search of food. Peasant uprisings broke out one after another.

In 18, someone Fan Chun headed in Shandong (Tishan district) a group of starving peasants, which soon grew up in a ten-thousand army, called "redobrov". Fan Chun introduced a rigorous discipline: the man who killed himself was sentenced to death, and wounded anyone had to pay the victim. Gradually, Fan Chung's peasant army becomes the owner of the situation in several counties of the country.

In 22, Wang Mans was forced to quit the rebellion of the "Redsobro-out" rising army. But in the decisive battle, government troops were broken. After that, the "Red-Brovine" army significantly expanded the territory of its actions, seizing a number of areas on average the River Juanhe.

At the same time, another focus of the national uprising arises in the south of the country. The rebels settled in the mountains of Lui Linshhan (Sovr. Hubei Province), so they began to call the "Army of Lui-Lin", literally "the army of green forest." In 23, the rebels won the troops of Van Mana and moved to the West. Soon the capital was captured, and Van Man killed.

In 24, one of the leaders of the uprising "Green Forest" Liu Xuan declared himself the emperor and settled in Chang Anii. The army of "redobrov" at this time also moved to the capital. In 25, "Krasnobrovaya" captured Changan and Liu Xuan committed suicide. Then the capital moved to the capital, who commanded the "Army of Green Forest" squad. "Redobrov" were forced to leave the capital and return to Shandong. On the way, they were surrounded by people Liu X and suffered large losses. Fan Chun and his colleagues fell in battle. In the same 25 year, Liu Xu declared himself the emperor and suffered the capital to the East, in Luoyang. So the late or Eastern, Han dynasty appeared.

Internal policy of Eastern Han in the I-II centuries.

Comparing the character, driving forces and the consequences of the first major peasant wars, shaking China on the threshold of the early Middle Ages, it can be found that if they have developed successfully, they ended with the overthrow of the existing dynasty and the topics of the new Predecessors. But it would be a mistake to deny the historical significance of these uprisings. Their most important direct impact on the development of ancient Chinese society was that the new rulers who came to power on the ridge of the national uprising were forced at least at first to make concessions to the people, reducing taxes and facilitating the burden of duties. The direct consequence of this was the restoration and development of productive forces in agriculture, which was the basis of the country's economy. The history of the East-Khan Empire was no exception in this sense. The first emperor of the new dynasty of Liu, who accepted the title Guan U-di began his reign from events, very reminiscent of Gao-Tzu activities in two centuries before.

During the reign of Guang U-di (25-57), new irrigation channels are restored and begin to build, which leads to an increase in yield and makes it possible to master the previously defined land. In the south of the country, where high-firing agriculture was recently used, heavy arable guns with iron tips begin to be used. The intensive development of the areas of the jansers basin is one of the important new features in the economy of the country of 1-centuries.

The period of the Board of Guang U-di was marked by a number of events aimed at reducing slavery in the Empire. In 31 G. Guan U-Di publishes the rescript, according to which everyone addressed to the slaves during the period, directly preceding the restoration of Han, was announced free and had the right at their discretion to stay at the owner or escape from him. If the slave owner prevented this, he was attracted to the "law on the sale of people in slavery." In 37, it was announced the release of all who was sold to slavery during the previous five years.

As applied from the text of these rescripts, at that time there was a law prohibiting the sale of people into slavery. In addition, with Guan U-di, those slave owners who branded their slaves were attracted to the responsibility, and the brave slaves were released and became commoners. In 35, the law was canceled, for which the slave wounded by free, was subject to death.

Even in the II century. BC e. Dong Zhong-Shu offered to deprive the slave owners of the right to kill their slaves on their own arbitrariness. Apparently, this proposal was made. In any case, in 35 G. Guan U-di commanded not to reduce the measure of punishment by killing slave.

Empire foreign policy

The first period of the Board of the Eashero-Han dynasty was noted by the restoration of existed before, but then interrupted relations with neighboring countries. Trading with the "Western Territory", which had great importance for the economy of the country, almost ceased at the beginning of the I century, when many states located on the territory of modern Xinjiang again fell under the political influence of Syunna.

In the middle of the i century Syunna is experiencing a serious internal crisis, as a result of which they turn out to be divided into two parts. Southern Syunna recognize the power of the Han Empire; Northern continue to resist her as a significant hostile force.

In 73, a defeat was defeated by the North Synne and thereby weakened their influence on the states of the West Territory. It is by this period that the beginning of military and diplomatic activities in the "Western Territory" includes one of the outstanding politicians of the Hakjsky era - Ban Chao. Being appointed by the governor of the emperor in the areas recognizing dependence on Han, Ban Chao establishes links with many major states of Central Asia. In 98, Ban Chao sends his subordinate to the Embassy to Rome. This expedition ended in failure: Parfyan merchants, not interested in the establishment of direct trading relations between the Han and Roman empires, deceived the ambassadors, intimidating them with the difficulties of swimming in the Persian Bay.

In I-II centuries. The Han Empire had permanent diplomatic and trade relations with Parfia. By occupying important trading paths, Parfia acted as an intermediary in China's trade with the countries of the West. Through the Parphy in Rome fell Chinese goods, primarily silk. From the country of Arshak, as a parphy called the ancient Chinese, the capital of the Han Empire Luoyang constantly arrived a lot of merchants.

The defeat of the Northern Xune, after which they, according to the chronicler, "disappeared unknown where" (in fact, at the end of the first I century Known as Gunns), did not bring the desired calm of the Han Empire. Syunna lands turned out to be captured by the tribes of Syanki. These protianongol tribes make devastating raids on the border areas of the Empire. By mid II century. The territory of a number of northern districts was part of the possessions of the Xian Biyan ruler. Xianby was attacked on the Western borders of the Han Empire.

In II century A new dangerous enemy appears in the north-western borders of the country - the Ziang tribes, originally dwelling between Juanhe and Lake Kokoung, and then moved to the east. Qiana attack a number of Chancies, and in 140, the suburbs of Changanyan are burned. Wars with the Qiu, we continued with varying success for many decades were very heavy. The fracture during military operations occurred only in the 60s of II century., When large caotious-ngents submitted to Qian were resettled into the internal areas of the empire.

Demographic and ethnic processes in the I-II centuries.

As evidenced by the most early cops of the Population of the Population of the Empire Han, in 2 N. e. The total number was about 60 million people. Particularly densely selected was the Middle Chinese Plain (the population density was approaching here to modern). At the same time, on the territory of Fujian Province and for the most part of the GUY-Zhou of the Ancient-China population, there was no one: local tribes who retained their traditional culture were inhabited. The population of the empire was distributed on its territory very unevenly not only in numbers, but also in its composition. "Internal districts", i.e. the lands of the former kingdoms of the era of Zhango, corresponding to the territory of the Han Empire before the start of conquering campaigns of U-di, were inherent in the ancient Chinese. As a result of the creation of "border districts", the newly attached lands were resettled by the number of the Group of An Ancient Chinese population. Nevertheless, they did not make a solid massif here, but were placed mainly around administrative centers. Finally, the Han Empire nominally included territories recognized dependence on it; None either did not even have an ancient population, or it was represented only by soldiers quartered military units there.

After a sharp reduction in the number of the country's population at the beginning of the I century. It reached the end of the era of West Han only in II century. Population census data related to 140, indicate significant shifts in the demographic structure of the Empire. First, the population of the North-Western regions of the country decreased by about 6.5 million people, northeastern - by almost 11 million. At the same time, the total population in the Yangtze basin increased by about 9 million people. Over the past and a half century, there has been a significant movement of the population in Sichuan and the northern part of Yunani, where at this time there are already about 2 million ancient Chinese. The density of the ancient Chinese population has sharply increased along the paths connected to the modern province of Hunan with Guangdong. However, in the coastal areas in the south of the Empire, an increase in the ancient Chinese population is not registered. Still remained a "white stain" on the map of the East-Khan Empire, the territory of Fujiani.

The increase in the number of ancient Chinese in the south of the Empire was accompanied by the strengthening of their cultural influence on the local population. At the same time, mastering the southern regions, the ancient Chinese inevitably perceived many traits of the culture of local tribes. It is not by chance, for example, in the housing of the Chang population in the south of Guangdun, we can trace the features that are absolutely not peculiar to the original Ancient Type (for example, pile buildings).

Otherwise, there was a situation in the northern regions of the empire. For the policy of Eastern Han in relation to its northern neighbors, the resettlement of certain groups of nomads, which recognized the power of the Han Emperor, in the border areas were characterized.

After the South Syunna recognized the power of Han, their large groups were resettled to the border districts in order to protect the borders of the empire from the outside. In II century Syunna has already made up the majority of the population of some of these districts.

The increase in the number of Syun and Qia-Nov, who lived alternately with the ancient Chinese, had their consequence the beginning of the process of "warbarization" of the population of the northern part of the Empire. At the end of the III century. Even on the territory of the former metropolitan region near Changanya from the total population, which was about 1 million people, Tsyanov and Syunna numbered more than half. The gradual assimilation of the ancient Chinese, who lived in the Juanhe basin, was reflected in the change in the lifestyle and the customs of this part of the population of the Han Empire. So in the II-w century. Soil was prepared for the court of the North of the country "Barbar", which later led to the division of China to the north and south, which lasted almost three centuries.

Social relations in the I-II centuries.

In I-II centuries. The process of the concentration of land ownership and the ruin of small landowners is becoming increasingly scales. Increased differentiation in the medium of the free peasantry was fraught with serious social consequences. The state gradually lost control over the peasant, which is the main taxpayer and the basis of the economic force of the Empire: having lost the land, yesterday's owner is increasingly more and more, depending on major landowners.

Having come to power, Guan U-di began with the audit of the residential lists of taxpayers. This measure was directed against the "strong houses" - powerful clans interested in the fact that the state can not control their tenants.

Rental relations that have been widespread already in the III - I centuries. BC E., Were was originally "free" character. The tenant was obliged to pay the owner of the Earth's high rent, but this did not affect his legal status: he remained personally free, paid the condition to the state and served state-of-state apens. But by the end of the i century. BC e. And especially in the first centuries of the new era, the situation begins to change. The landowners seek to "protect" tenants to "hide", prevent taxes in the treasury. By virtue of this, the social status of the tenant begins to change: it enters the way of personal dependence on the landlord. The process of forming personal relationships was closely related to the conservation of the Clan organization in the Hanskoy China. By tradition, the head of the clan, which was in most cases the head of the richest family, had to provide patronage to his relatives. It even more strengthened the dependence of the impoverished clan members from its powerful conifers, whom they had to rent land.

In this struggle, the top gradually gains "strong houses": in 280 g. The state was forced to recognize the right of landowners on the peasants dependent on them.

As the "strong houses" grows in Hanskaya China, a new type of rural settlement appears - the estate belonging to a large land owner and is a self-sustaining economic and to a certain extent social unit.

What was characterized by such an estate, it can be judged by the example of a rich landowner Fan Chung, who had a grandfather on the maternal line founder of the East-Khan dynasty. Fan's Family owned by the Tremystami of the Earth's cins (about 1500 hectares), and its property was estimated at many hundreds of thousands of coins. The case was delivered so that all costs paid off in a year. In the estate of Fan Chung was its own irrigation system. In addition to the bakery, he was engaged in the cultivation of a mulberry and a varnished tree, and also ran fish in ponds and kept cattle. Thanks to this, "any desire could be satisfied" due to his own farm. The owner of the estate was at the same time the head of the clan, which united three generations of relatives. The custom demanded from the younger members of the clan of unquestioning obedience, so "the children and grandchildren came daily in the morning and in the evening to express their respect" the owner of the estate. During the uprising of the "redobrov" manor, Fan's family was turned into a fortified camp, behind the walls of which the owners have survived the troubled time.

The daily life of the Great estate is described in detail in the composition of Tsui Shi, author II century. In the estate, he said, not only produce grain, but vegetables are also grown (onions, grams, garlic, ginger, pumpkin) and fruits. In the spring, all women are engaged in collecting a tute sheet and growing a silkworm. Then the slaves unwind cocoons, tkut, paint the fabrics, sew clothes. Under the supervision of the cook, slaves produce wine, vinegar, sharp coys, dried fruit. At various times the year in the vicinity of the estate collects medicinal herbs. The potential cattle and tools are owned by the owner of the estate, so late fall after the completion of the field work is collected and viewed by the rally, hoes and sickles, as well as choose the strongest bulls that can be used on the package next year. The estate not only provides the owner with everything necessary, but also gives him the opportunity to have mercy with younger relatives, which further enhances their dependence on the head of the clan. Finally, there is a private armed detachment in the estate capable of protecting the estate from the outside. The military training of guards is held regularly: in the second month, they learn to shoot "in case of unforeseen circumstances", in the third month they repair the external wall of the estate, "so that in the hungry spring has not grown up," in the ninth month they are preparing for the reflection of the attacks of the "Non-Fiction" attacks.

The uprising of the "yellow dressings" and the fall of the Han Empire

With the elevation of "strong houses", an acute political struggle that broke out at the court in II century. One of the public groups, called the "scientists", criticized the courtie to know from the standpoint of Confucianism. Against the "scientists", the eunuchs were approaching to the emperor. In 169, the struggle of two camps has reached apogee. Emperor Lin-di, incited by eunuchs, gave an order about the arrest of the most active "scientists." The repression fell on the students of the Metropolitan Academy, which was the stronghold of Confucianians. More than a hundred people were killed, and everything, who somehow turned out to be involved in the grouping of "scientists", was forbidden to enter public service. Only in 184, after the start of the uprising of "yellow dressings", Emperor Lin-Di announced an amnesty to all repressed "scientists."

In the conditions of the socio-economic and political crisis, experienced by the Han Empire in II, in the wide masses of the poorest peasantry found support for timing ideas. In I-II centuries. Taoism, which emerged as a philosophical teaching, gradually transformed into a religious and mystical system of views. In various parts of the country, secret sects arise, preaching the inevitability of the early implementation of the "path of great prosperity." The head of the largest of these sect was Zhang Jiao, who received the name of the "Great Wise and Good Teacher." Using the Folk Medicine, Zhang Jiao was engaged in healing, which he was largely obliged to be popular among the poor. Supporters Zhang Jiao preached that "the blue sky is already dead, the yellow sky should appear on shifting." In the Hanskaya time, the chosings were conducted in sixty-year-old cycles, and the next cycle was to begin in the 17th year of the rule of Emperor Lin-di (184). By this time, the beginning of the prepared uprising was dedicated ..

Early spring 184. The uprising flashed simultaneously in different parts of the empire. The rebels tied heads of yellow-colored heads - a symbol of a new era of great prosperity (hence the name of this popular movement "Yellow bandages"). A fortified army was thrown on the suppression of the uprising, but the main role in the defeat of the rebels was played by the detachments of major landowners. After the death of Zhang Jiao (autumn 184), the movement lost a single manual. In October 184 in Guanjun (Sov. Hebei Province), the rebels were defeated. As a result of the repristed after this, at least 80 thousand people died.

Despite the defeat of the main forces of the rebels, in 185 the uprising flashes with a new force. The army of the Black Mountain creates a base on the North Coast of Juanhe, in close proximity to the capital. However, the inconsistency of the actions of individual groups leads to the fact that government troops can be divided into parts. In 188-207 In the country did not stop the scattered performances of the rebels, which were suppressed with incredible cruelty. But the Han Empire has not been able to recover from the impact of the strike.

After the death of Emperor Lin-di in 189, in the capital was "a conspiracy against the omnipotch of ENUOV. Against Yuan Shao, one of the leaders of the conspiracy, the Dong of Chio speaks to the throne of the Minor Son of Emperor Lin-di, transfers the capital to Changan. And he captures power in their country in the country. In 192, Dong Joe was killed. This was followed by a fierce struggle between the warlords, elevated during the repression of the uprising of the "yellow dressings". Intersublies lead to the collapse of a single empire. on. Her debris in III in . There are three independent states - Wei, Shu and W. The era of three-chairs begins. Aging in the depths of the Ancient Chinese Society II-III centuries. New feudal relations marks the beginning of the Epoch of the Early Middle Ages.

Culture of ancient China

Mythology and religion


Today we can judge the Ancient Chinese myths only on the tracks that are preserved in later monuments, mainly from the VI century. BC e. In its content, these myths are divided into several groups, or cycles.

Among the cosmogonic myths, interpreting about the emergence of nature and a person from the state of the initial chaos, two main concepts are presented - division and transformation. According to the first of them, inanimate things and living beings arose as a result of dividing chaos into two primary elements - a bright (male) beginning Yang and dark (female) Beginning Yin. The second concept involves the emergence of all the facts as a result of transformation. So, the person was created from the clay of the goddess by name Nyu Va. According to another version of the same myth, Nyu Va itself has become subjects and creatures that fill the world.

The extensive group make up the myths about natural disasters and heroes who saved people from them. Most often appear two kinds of disasters - floods and droughts. In some myths, the flood appears as a kind of initial state, in other floods sent by heaven in punishment to people. The drought turns out to be the result of at the same time ten suns, seeding crops and threatening people's death. From flooding people saved the Great Yu, from drought - arrows and, knocked out all the extra suns.

Myths about the oldest heroes reflect the desire of ancient Chinese to find personalized "authors" of the most important technical advances in ancient times. Among them are those who taught people to extract the fire by friction; For the first time built slashes from branches; invented ways of hunting and fishing; Made the first agricultural tools and taught people to eat bread cereals; Opened a way to cook the grain to a pair, etc. It is characteristic that many of these cultural heroes were depicted by the ancient Chinese in the form of semi-suicide semi-digestible: with the body of the snake, with a bull's head, etc., which is undoubtedly a reflection of ancient enemy ideas.

An independent cycle is the myths about the first positions. All of them were born as a result of a defective conception - the ancestor of hents accidentally swallowed the egg of the sacred purple bird, the mother of the first Zhouusz came on the trail of the Giant, etc. These details of the myths about the first-enders are closely connected with the widespread ideas that once "people They knew only the mother and did not know the Father. "- Reaper reflection in the consciousness of people of the initial matrilinean focus.

The representations of the insisters about the past world were a mirror reflection of the law and order that existed on Earth. Similarly, in the subway, the supreme power belongs to Vanu, An Injans believed, so everything and everything obeys the Supreme Divine<Ди). Ди всемогущ — это он оказывает людям благодеяния или карает их несчастьем, он дарует им урожай, посылает засуху, от него зависит дождь и ветер. Ближайшее окружение Ди. составляют усопшие предки вана, являющиеся его «слугами». Предки вана выполняют различные поручения Ди, они же передают ему просьбы вана о ниспослании благоволения и помощи. Поэтому, принося жертвы своим предкам, ван мог умилостивить их и благодаря этому заручиться поддержкой Верховного божества. Функции вана как верховного жреца как раз и заключались в том, что он мог осуществлять общение со своими предками, являвшимися посредниками между миром людей и миром богов.

In Earlyzhou, this system of religious submissions has not changed any more significant changes. Later there is a gradual process of separating in the minds of the people of the world of ancestors from the world of the gods, which leads to the separation of the cult of ancestors from the cult of the Supreme Divine. As a result, the mediator function is moving to priests or priestess - a person who has the ability to handle spirits and gods.

The emergence and dissemination of the Confucian teaching contributed, on the one hand, strengthening the cult of ancestors, on the other - the transformation of the ideas of di in the cult of the sky. After the conversion of confusion into the official state ideology, the interpretation of these cults became a canon.

Along with this, the Hanskaya time develops folk beliefs that find a significant Taoist color. In the II-III centuries. Buddhism penetrates China. According to legend, the first Buddhist sutras were brought to China on the White Horse; In memory of this near Loyana, the Buddhist "White Horse Temple" was built near the present. The translation of the Sutr into Chinese and the spread of Buddhism is already the IV-VI centuries.

Writing

The earliest monuments of the Ancient Chinese writing are the Ying gadal inscriptions of the XIV-XI centuries. BC e. The emergence of this writing system should be "referred to a much earlier time, because the Inin writing appears before us in a rather developed form. From a typological point of view, there are no fundamental differences between yin writing and modern hieroglyphics. Like modern Chinese, Inhints used signs that fixes or other units of the language mainly on the part of their meaning. The vast majority of the Inisk signs were ideograms - images of objects or a combination of such images transmitting more complex concepts. In addition, another type of signs have already been used in the Yin writing, absolutely dominant in modern Chinese Jero-Glofik : One element of such a sign indicated reading, the other - for an approximate value. This category of Yinsky characters is typologically close to those ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, which, fixing the sound of the word, had an additional semantic determination.

Inisk signs are characterized by three features that distinguish them from modern Chinese characters. First, each elementary sign was an image of a contour of any object, indecomposable parts. Secondly, there was a wide variety of writing the same sign. Thirdly, the orientation of the sign regarding the direction of the line has not yet stabilized.

Thanks to the borrowing of the Yin writing, the development of it was not interrupted in the i millennium BC. e. Significant changes occur in it only in the II-I centuries. BC e. When after the unification of local versions of the hieroglyphs there is a new handwriting of signs. The hieroglyphs of this time have already completely lost contact with their original designs. The writing of the Hansky time in principle is almost no different from modern.

Transformation of the writing of the signs was largely due to the evolution of materials used for the letter. In ancient China, they usually wrote on long and thin wooden or bamboo planets, which then joined with a cord or belt. They wrote in mascara with the help of a brush, and erroneously written signs were screwed up with a metal knife (hence the common name of the written accessories is "Knife and brush"). Starting from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The ancient Chinese also wrote on silk (samples of such "silk" books were found in the Han burials). At the turn of a new era in China was invented and published paper. In the first centuries of the new era, paper displaces all the old materials for the letter.

Literature

Samples of the oldest poems have reached us in inscriptions on "bronze vessels of the XI-VI centuries. BC. Er The rhymed texts of this time detect the known similarity with songs included in Schizin.

Schizhin is a genuine treasury of the ancient Chinese poetry. This monument includes 305 poetic works grouped in four sections ("Moral Kingdoms", "Small OD".

"Great ODD" and "Hymns"). Lyrical folk songs included in the first section "Shizhin" are striking with their sincerity and incessia. Other stylistic features of works included in the second and third section. This is mostly author's poems, the main topics of which are serving the ruler, military campaigns, feasts and sacrifices. In the fourth section, samples of solemn temple chambers in honor of the ancestors and rulers of the past are collected.

The traditions of Schizhin were inherited by the authors of poetic works of the IV century. BC E., who came to our time in the form of texts on stone stands, in the form of reminiscent drums, why and the inscriptions were received by the name "texts on stone drums".

The era of Zhango was the time of the rapid take-off of the ancient Chinese culture. In IV century BC e. In the kingdom of Chu lived and worked out the outstanding poet Quysh Yuan, in the works of whom the contradictions of the modern society were brought together. The shape of the poetic gift Quysy Yuan, the expressiveness of his verse and the perfection of the form put this poet among the bright talents of antiquity.

People's poetry has fifth the work of the Han poets. The works of the most famous of them - Syant-Zhu Syan - were included Suma Zanta in the lives of this poet. They reached us and the poems attributed to the Sum's Suma himself, although the question of their authorship continues to be controversial.

Art

Ancient Chinese poetry is inseparable from music. It is not by chance that, in particular, the name of the poetic Song genre (hymns) rises to the word "bell". The character of the accompaniment determined poetic features and other genres. Music, poetry, dance - In the syncretic unity of these three phenomena of culture, the Confucianians saw the expression of genuine norms of relationships between people. "Words can deceive, people can pretend, only music is not capable of lying" - so was determined by the ancient Chinese the social function of music.

Ancient Chinese musical instruments were divided into three main groups: string, brass and drums. This set of musical instruments continued to exist in the Han time to perform the traditional "exquisite" music. Along with him in the I-II centuries. In China, completely new musical instruments are distributed, mainly borrowed from neighboring peoples. Many of them fell into China from Central Asia.

In the deep antiquity in China, the collection of construction techniques begins to develop, subsequently attached the characteristic features of the Palace and Temple Architecture of the Han Epoch.

The basis of the design of the ancient Chinese building was not a wall, but the skeleton pillars who took the main severity of the roof. Without pillars and connecting their beams of the building, it cannot be reflected in numerous metaphors and comparisons found in the ancient Chinese written monuments ("You for the kingdom of Zheng - like a roof beam, says the dignitary of this kingdom one of the courtiers, - if The beam will collapse, they will fall out. ").

The building was erected on raised? Platform, from here Typical for the ancient Chinese language expression "climb into the palace", "descend from the palace", etc. The walls were usually built from the ramble clay (the brick began to be used in construction from the II - I centur. BC. e). The roof was covered with tiles, and the front decorative tile discs were fixed by the facade, in the Hanskaya time decorated with hieroglyphic inscriptions with the wishes of happiness, well-being and wealth.

A sample of the Han urban planning was the capital of the empire - Changan, one of the largest cities of the ancient world. He was surrounded by a wall with a twelveth gate. The most high buildings were the imperial palaces. Palace premises were not focused in one place, and were located at different ends of the capital. They combined their indoor transitions and suspended galleries, along which the emperor and his retinue could move from one palace to another, without fear of bringing the visor of commoners. Near the palaces were placed painted in the yellow color of the building of administrative institutions (in Chan's time, the red color was a symbol of the emperor, a yellow - official physician). Not only these buildings, but also at home by many rich citizens were two-storey.

"Dogs and horses are difficult to depict, because people are constantly seeing and knowing them well, so violation of similarities can immediately be discovered. Spirits are much easier to depict. Perfume does not have a certain form, they cannot be seen therefore it is there to be easily drawn, "said one of the Chinese philosophers. His contemporaries often portrayed dogs with horses and spirits - this is evidenced by numerous frescoes and bas-reliefs known to us thanks to the excavations of burials. These works of fine art belong to the truth, to a slightly later time, but are based on the traditions established during the period of Zhango.

Especially it should be noted the development of portrait painting in the Han. The most significant and well-known works of this genre belongs to the fresco, open in 1957 in the Hansky burial near Loyang. It shows the dramatic episode of the internecine struggle of the end of the III century. BC Eh, when the future founder of Han-Skoy dynasty fell into a trap, adjusted by his opponent, and remained alive thanks to the resourcefulness of his associates. Unknown artist masterfully handed out the individual features of the participants of the Pera. It is interesting to remember what I wrote about one of them by the author of "historical notes": "Judging by his actions, I believed that it should be grew and courageous in appearance. What appeared to my eyes when I saw his image? By appearance and facial features, he looked like a charming woman! "

The fact that in Hanskaya time there was a custom to decorate the Palace premises with portrait frescoes, numerous evidence of sources speak; The names of some artists in their time are preserved. One of them was told that he owned the art of portrait to such an extent that he could transfer not only the beauty of the face, but also a person's age. Somehow the emperor ordered him to write portraits of concubines from his harem and honored with his attention only those of them who looked under the brush of the artist most attractive. Many concubines bribed the artist so that he seen them somewhat; Only Zhao-Jun did not want to go to deception, and therefore the emperor did not see her. When I had to send the bride to Sunnu Shango, the emperor decided to choose Zhao-Jun for this. Before leaving the wedding train, Zhao-Jun was adopted by the emperor, who suddenly discovered that in reality she was the most beautiful of all his concubines. The angry emperor ordered the execution of an artist who embarked mediocre and thus left in the shadow of true beauty.

Naturally scientific knowledge

An indicator of the general lift of the culture of ancient China's era of Zhengo was also the development of scientific knowledge, primarily mathematics. Progress in this area of \u200b\u200bscience is determined by its applied character.

Compiled in II century. BC e. The treatise "Mathematics in nine books" is similar to the "beginning" Euclidea contains compendium mathematical knowledge accumulated by the preceding generations of scientists. In this treatise, the rules of action with fractions, proportions and progression, Pythagora theorem, the use of the similarity of rectangular triangles, solving a system of linear equations and much more is recorded. "Mathematics and nine books" was a kind of leadership for land surveyors, astronomers, officials, etc. For a researcher of the history of the ancient China, this book besides its purely scientific significance is valuable in that it was reflected in it. Realities of the Hanskaya era: prices for various goods, indicators of the yield of agricultural crops, etc.

With the development of mathematics, significant achievements of the ancient Chinese in the field of astronomy and the calendar were closely associated. In the "historical notes", the Suma Suma is one of the chapters of the "TRACTATES" section specifically devoted to the problems of heavenly luminaries. A similar chapter is also contained in Khan's History Ban GU, where the names of 118 constellations (783 stars) are given. Much attention was paid at this time to the observations of the planets. In i century BC e. The ancient Chinese were known that the treatment period of the wood star (Jupiter) is 11.92 years. It almost coincides with the results of modern observations.

In 104 BC e. It was calculated that the duration of the year is 365.25 days. The calendar adopted this year was used up to 85 N. e. According to this calendar, the year consisted of 12 months; An additional month was added in the leap year, which was established once every three years.

The sunny-lunar calendar of the ancient Chinese was adapted to the needs of agricultural production. The calendar was paid to considerable attention in those scientific treatments that summarized the most important achievements of agricultural equipment.

Extremely significant development received medicine in ancient China. Ancient Chinese doctors still in the IV-III centuries. BC e. began to apply, the treatment method, which was subsequently widely used in traditional Chinese medicine, is acupuncture. Extremely interesting manuscripts of medical writings, found recently found in one of the Han burials of the beginning of the II century. BC e. They include a treatise on nutrition, a guide on therapeutic gymnastics, the treatment allowance by the method of cavity and, finally, a collection of various recipes. The latter contains 280 prescriptions intended for treatment of 52 diseases (including convulsions, nerve disorders, fever, hernia, glitters, female and childhood diseases, etc.). Among the recommended agents, along with drugs containing comprehension more than two hundred ingredients, migration and acupuncture, some magic techniques are also mentioned. For example, for healing from tumors, it was offered in one day at the end of the month to spend on a tumor seven times the old broom, and then throw a broom to the well. Attention is drawn to the fact that in later medical essays of the Hansky time, magic treatments are almost no longer mentioned. To the III century. Application of the famous doctor Hua has a local anesthesia at long-distance operations.

In the history of other enevostochny countries Ancient Far East occupies a very important place. Ancient Chinese class society and statehood was formed somewhat later than the scinting of civilization of ancient ancient ancient Asia, nevertheless, after the occurrence, they begin to develop in a rapid pace and in ancient China, high forms of economic, political and cultural life were created, which led to the folding of the original social and political and cultural system.

The history of the ancient states arising in East Asia in the II-I millennia BC. e., convincingly testifies to the action of the law on the One, the Power and the diversity of ways to fold and develop class societies. Arriving in the Huanghe basin during the decomposition of tribal relations, the ancient Chinese class society and the state over the centuries developed under the conditions of relative isolation from other civilizations of the Ancient East. This has determined a significant originality of many specific forms of ancient Chinese society and culture.

An important feature of the socio-economic development of ancient China is the complex nature of regulating the Kuanghe River bed, the openness of the borders of the agricultural districts of China for numerous border nomads, the withdrawal and the difference in the number of China's districts, which were nutritious soil for political and cultural separatism. These features made it difficult to fold the centralized state and at the same time gave birth to particularly tough forms in the struggle for the creation of state centralization.

The continuity of the development of the ancient Chinese nationality and culture, the robust continuity of traditions was reflected in the ethnic self-confidence of modern Chinese - Han, ascending to the name of the Ancient Chinese Empire; Many features of modern culture are rooted in early historical era.

At the same time, it would be a mistake to exaggerate the degree of isolation of ancient China and other states of East Asia from those who simultaneously with them from the foci of ancient ancient civilizations. Starting with the last centuries to the new era, the Han Empire establishes intensive contacts with the Western countries of the Ancient East. In the Great Silk Road to Central Asia and the countries of the Middle East, the ancient Chinese silk fabrics, paper, lacquer products penetrate. Through the Parfyan and Syrian merchants, the ancient Chinese get acquainted with glass and glazing. Having perceived Buddhism from India through the countries of Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan, China became an intermediary of his penetration in Korea and Japan.

The original system of writing, rich literature, the subtle and expressive art of ancient China had a noticeable impact on the cultural development of neighboring peoples of East Asia. At the same time, the emergence of the most ancient Chinese culture was unthinkable without various contacts and mutual influences with other states and the peoples of the ancient Far East, which the Ancient Chinese population borrowed and creatively crossed many cultural achievements.

Along with the ancestors of modern Chinese, Koreans, Japanese, the Vietnamese contributed their contribution to the development of world culture and those ancient peoples of Asia, who already disappeared from the ethnic map of the world to the beginning of our era. These include, in particular, the ancient Syunnu (Gunnes), for centuries not only who were an important political force of ancient East Asia, but also the agricultural nations for neighboring agricultural people.

China is one of the largest and largest states of the world, he also occupies a leading position on the export of products. In addition, the Middle Kingdom can easily boast a multiplinary history of the state, which, according to different estimates, starts from 3500 to 5,000 years ago.

History of existence

In greater the ancient China was an imperial country, but some other era can also be distinguished.

So, the largest periods of existence:

• dopimer's time (from the beginning of the Paleolithic to the emergence of the first state);
• Ancient China (early forms of government and early empires);
• classic period (from 3 in. until 1912);
• modern era.

Five emperors and three dynasties

Several mythical is considered the early history of China during the reign of five emperors who changed one by one:

• Yellow emperor;
• Zhuan Xu;
• Gao-blue;
• Shun.

These emperors at different times led the cruel struggle for power to be in the throne. So it lasted from the 27th century BC. e. and up to 23 century BC e.

After that, they came in the form of the first dynasty, which the rules since the beginning of the 23rd century BC. e. and until the middle of the 18th century BC.

The eastern country began its active development during the reign of the next dynasty - Shan-Yin, which rules in the 17-11 centuries. BC e. And it was divided into two epochs - early Shang-Yin and Late.

At this time, writing was born, so more about this period is known. Also formed the first political foundations of the state, and agriculture gained a new form of soil cultivation.

The struggle for the power of the next dynasty - Zhou - led to the fact that Shang-Yin was overthrown.

The era of Zhou in the early stages of the Western period (11th century BC. E. - 771 BC. Er) had an exclusively central government. But gradually the decentralization of power was occurring, especially in the oriental period (771-475 BC).

Zhou's dynasty in ancient China replaces the period of fighting kingdoms, where several independent states begin to fight for power and territory. The largest of them were:

• Zhao;
• Qin;
• Han.

Development of the Eastern Country

Despite the constant struggle, which was carried out during the time of fighting kingdoms, the ancient China is changing in all areas of life. Bronze replaces iron, new crafts appear, the cities are increased.

A lot of artworks were created, which still enjoy great popularity.

Two main philosophical and religious schools appear - Confucianism and Taoism - thanks to Confucius and Lao Tzu. Both schools have been gained popularity over time, and in modern China, most of the population professes these teachings.

Association under the Board of the Kingdom of Qin

In 221 BC e. Qin dynasty manages to combine all the land in a single state, which contributed to a single language, culture, religion.

The kingdom of Qin has probably the shortest period of reign - only 11 years, but during this time incredible reforms were held, which concerned almost all areas of the life of ordinary people.

Emperor Qin Shihuangi was able to do something that did not work in any early emperor. In addition, the construction of one of the miracles of the world, which has survived to the present day, is the Great Wall of China, it began at the same time with the emperor.

Han Epoch in China's History

Han's empire quickly changed Qin, but during this period nothing was lost, but on the contrary, there was a significant expansion of the territory: from the Gobi desert to the South China Sea, from the Mountains of Pamir to the Liaodong Peninsula.

The ancient China was great and militant in the Han era, because they managed to crush the strong Huns and to establish a great silk path, which began to bring big profit to the state.

It is on the Han dynasty that the history of the ancient China ends and the classic era begins.

If you want to learn more about the existence of ancient China and its board, we advise you to view the following video:

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In the II millennium BC. er, far east of the oldest civilizations of the anterior Asia and India, there is a slave-owned society and the first slave-ownership state arises in North China. It was of great importance to the history of the peoples who inhabited both China and other countries of the Far East. By this time, the ancient legends of the Chinese people, the earrings of its hieroglyphic writing, the growth and spread of the influence of its high culture. Since that time, the centuries-old history of the Great Chinese people takes his beginning.

Decomposition of the primitive-communal system and the emergence of the state Shan (Yin)

The Russian name "China" is borrowed from the Central Asian peoples who gave the country to the name by the name of China (the people of Mongolian origin), who owned in the X-XII centuries. n. e. Northern China. Western European and Middle Eastern names of China will rise to the word "Chin", Tajik-Persian designation of the country's name. This name comes from the name of the Ancient Chinese Kingdom of Qin, who spread its power to most of China in the III century. BC e.

The Chinese themselves called their country in different ways, most often by the name of the reigned dynasties, for example: Shan, Zhou, Qin, Han, etc. Since ancient times, the name "Zhong GO" was also common ("Middle State"), which preserved until now. Another Chinese name of the country "Hua" ("blooming") or "Zhong Hua" ("median blooming"); Now it is part of the names of the People's Republic of China.

Nature and population

According to geographical and economic features, modern China is usually divided into two parts: Western and Eastern. The territory of Western China is an extensive plateau with such powerful mining systems as Himalayas, Kunlun and Tien Shan. The world's highest mountain ranges of Himalayas, having places height more than 8 km above sea level, form a barrier between China and India.

East China does not have such powerful mining systems as Western; A significant part of the territory here is lowlands, seaside plains, the mountains of medium height and plateau are adjacent to them.

In East China, more favorable natural conditions than in Western, significantly softer the climate, a variety of vegetation, etc. All these conditions contributed to the fact that it was in this part of China ancient agricultural culture was originated, the first foci of Chinese civilization appeared, earlier than in Other parts of the country emerged a state.

China has a significant river network, but all major rivers are located in the eastern part of the country. The main rivers of China flow from west to east. Valley of the rivers are the most fertile and most populated areas of the country. The ancient population of China focused in river valleys. The pool of the main river Northern China - Juanhe, the length of which is more than 4 thousand km, was the center of the ancient Chinese civilization. Huanghe is a stormy river. She repeatedly changed her bed, flooded the huge spaces of the Earth, bringing great disasters to the population. The largest river of China is Yangzizyan, having a length of over 5 thousand km, its pool is central China. The largest river of South China is a century-water Sizyan (about 2 thousand km).

China's subsoil is replete with minerals. Rivers, lakes and the sea are rich in fish. In ancient times, obtrivate territories in Kathod were covered with forests.

The climate of the eastern part of China is very favorable for agriculture, since at the hottest time of the year - summer accounts for the greatest amount of precipitation, the autumn is warm and dry. The climate of the western part of China is distinguished by considerable dryness: here is a long cold winter and a short sultry summer.

China's population in antiquity was not homogeneous. Actually, Chinese tribes that were worn, according to the instructions of later literary sources, the names of Smia, Shang, Zhou, etc., already in very early times, occupied a significant part of the eastern, northern and northwestern China. In the south and south-west, the country's various tribes of the Sino-Tibetan group of languages \u200b\u200blived in the south. West, North and Northeast China settled mainly the tribes of the Turkic, Mongolian and Manchuro-Tungus groups of languages.

The main areas of the settlement of the Chinese in ancient times were the areas of the middle and lower flow of the Juanhe River, as well as the plain, adjacent to the Bohaji (Zhili) bay. Here prevailed fertile apparent (alluvial) soil, which formed mainly from the river alley. Fertile soil and moderate climate of the Great Chinese Plain contributed to the development of agriculture here in the ancient Chinese tribes.

An ancient tribes in the less profitable position were the ancient tribes that settled the area of \u200b\u200bthe Lens Soils, which occupy a huge space in North and Northwestern China. Lens, which is the deposition of particles of mineral dust mixed with winter monscons with mountain hills, contains nutrients (organic residues and easily soluble lumps), which allow you to do without fertilizers. But in the area of \u200b\u200bthe lastic plateau of precipitation falls relatively little, so artificial irrigation is required for agriculture. By virtue of the conditions noted above, the tribes that inhabit the ancient times of a lesson plateau, agriculture was less developed than in the lower course of Juanhe.

Decomposition of primitive-communal system

According to Chinese literary sources, it can be concluded that conservation in China in the III Millennium BC. e. Reworkers of the parent. This can be seen from the fact that the ancient sources, reporting the origin of the first generators of the tribes Shang, Zhou and Qin, do not speak of their fathers, and lead only the names of mothers, the expense of kinship was then on the maternal line. It is known that with the parental kind (matriarchate) of the sons could not inherit the father, as they belonged to another race, precisely to the family of the mother. According to Qian's Sum, the author of "historical notes" 1 ("Historical Notes" ("Shi Ji"), consisting of 130 chapters, are the first time in China in China, the consolidated history of the country, which covers the period from the legendary antiquity to the i century. BC . E. Tsyan Sum (II-1 BC. BC), author of this work, used sources available in time and lost later. "Historical notes" highlights a large range of issues: in-political events, China's external connections in ancient Times, economic system (mainly II-1 centuries. BC), Cultural development, etc.), the legendary rulers Yao and Shun before his death elected successors not from among their sons.

"Historical Notes" convey to us memories of the period when the Council of Generic Elders existed. The leader of the tribe often consulted with him on the most important issues. Generic or tribal leaders by decision of the Council of Elders could be released from their duties. From legends given by literary sources, it can be concluded that at the end of the III millennium the electoral principle was replaced by hereditary right: the breeding leaders were not elected, the hereditary power of the leader appears, transmitted from the Father to the Son. The family of the leader, which made up the rest of the tribe, was in the further carrier of the royal power. But in these conditions, the Council of Elders still exists, although his rights are limited, and its solutions become optional for hereditary tribe leaders.

These archaeological excavations make it possible to conclude that in the II of millennia, when bronze appears in China, a primitive-communal system decomposes and a gradual transition to class, slave-owned society occurs.

Sources do not allow to trace the entire process of decomposition of the generic system and the transition to class society in China; They report it only by fragmentary data. According to them, it can be concluded that slavery appears in the depths of the generic society. The prisoners captured during wars between the individual tribes and childbirth were used as labor, turned into slaves. This process took place on the basis of the further development of the productive forces, the appearance of private ownership of the means of production and products of labor, based on the growth of property inequality and was held in a continuous struggle as inside the tribes that have seen China in the oldest time and between tribes. Based on Chinese literary sources, it can be assumed that the struggle inside the tribes was accompanied by the struggle of generic elders against the tribal leaders.

By the end of the III of the Millennium, as it can be assumed on the basis of ancient legends, the Sia tribes and Shan played a decisive role in the territory of Ancient China. Ultimately, the winner was the tribe of Shan, with the name of which the creation of the first state in China's history is connected. The tribe of the Sia Science does not have reliable archaeological data. We can judge about him only according to some reports of literary sources.

Shang (Yin) state

Judging by the legends preserved in ancient literary sources, the Shang tribe originally settled the Ishui River pool (the northwestern part of the current Hebei Province). Then, as some modern Chinese researchers suggest, this tribe is spread out of the Izui River basin in different directions: to the west - to the territory of the modern province of Shanxi, to the south - in Henan, southeast - in Shandong, northeast - along the coast Bohaji bay to the Liaodong Peninsula.

By the XVIII century. BC er, when, according to legends, the chapter of the tribe of Shai stood Cheng tan, refers to the final conquest of the Sia tribe.

Cheng Tan, according to the Chinese tradition, founded the dynasty called the name of Shan. In later times, after the fall of this dynasty, in inscriptions on the bronze vessels, the Shang and the state dynasty and the state, as well as the crown population, for the first time began to denote the yeroglyph "Yin". This name was widespread both in ancient sources and in modern Chinese and foreign literature. Therefore, we also apply to the designation of the same state or a period of two names: Shan and Yin.

The name of the Shang, the applied right up to the destruction of this kingdom in the XII century. BC er, comes from the name of the terrain, where, the birth of the leaders of the tribe of the Shang. This name was also used to designate the tribe, then it was taken as the name of the state and the country.

The main source of information about the kingdom Shang (Yin) is the data taken from the excavations of the remains of the last capital of this kingdom, the city of Shan, found near the city of Anyan, at the village of Siaotun (in the modern Henan province). Of particular importance are the bones with inscriptions found here. These inscriptions are basically gadavative entries - the questions of the Ying kings for oracles and the responses of the latter. The inscriptions are made on the bones of various animals (most often than bulls and deer) and the shields (armor) turtles and can be attributed to the XIV-XII centuries. BC e.

Based on these inscriptions, some researchers conclude that the entire territory of the state Shang (Yin) was divided into five large areas that called titles: Shang, Northern Lands, South Earths, Eastern Lands and Western lands. Shang District was considered central, main, so in the inscriptions on the bones, he was called Central Shan.

The kingdom of Shang (Yin) occupied the territory of the modern province of Henan, as well as parts of the adjacent provinces. Around the kingdom, Shan was a number of semi-dependent, sometimes submitted to him, including Chinese tribal language. Next to the Western lands lived the tribes of Zhou, Qiang, Guifan, Kufan; The neighbors of the northern lands were the Peblen Pestin and Tufan; The neighbors of the southern lands are Tsaofan, etc., and, finally, in the neighborhood with the eastern lands was the tribe of Hansfan.

Tools. Agriculture.

Materials of archaeological excavations give a well-known idea of \u200b\u200bthe development of productive forces during the Shan (Yin). First of all, the widespread products are obtained from bronze, but at the same time the stone and bone tools are still maintained.

When excavations in Siaotun of the Yin city, the capital of the kingdom Shang (Yin), a lot of products made of copper and bronze were found: sacrificial vessels, homemade utensils and weapons - swords, alabards, secreirs, arrows, spike tips. In addition, bronze tools of labor were found: axes, knives, shill, bits, forks and needles. If we consider that in the Dawnsky \u200b\u200bperiod, the vessels were made mainly from clay, and tools and weapons - a stone and bones, it should be concluded that in the period Shan (Yin), great progress was achieved in the development of productive forces. This is also evidenced by a wide variety of forms, more skilled dressing of products, in particular vessels, rich in them.

Although in the life of the population of ancient China during this period, the importance of primitive forms of farm - fishing and partially hunt, but they no longer played a decisive role were presented. They were suppressed cattle breeding and farming, and the latter began to play a major role.

To designate various kinds of agriculture related concepts, in the inscriptions on the bones, a number of signs are applied, meaning: "Field", "Well", "Pashnya", "Mezha", "Pshtenipa", "Millet" and others. "Field" sign (Tian) was depicted in the form of the regular four squares connected, or in the form of a rectangle separated into several parts, or in the form of an uneven five-hexagon.

The main grain crops in northern China were millet, demanding relatively little moisture, wheat, barley and sorghum (Galyan). It is possible that the rice culture also existed at this time in the Juanhe basin. The bone inscriptions testify to the presence of gardening crops during the period of Shank (Yin), as well as the breeding of silk worms (silkworm) and the cultivation of tute trees. According to legends, silk worms divorced in China with deep antiquity. Silk cocoons were found during the excavations of one of the neolithic parking lots in the village of Sinzeun (Shanxi Province). In the inscriptions on the bones there are often signs depicting a silk worm. Silk-Street caterpillars were in honor of the hents of their spirits even committed sacrifices. In gadetting inscriptions, there are also signs depicting silk threads (silkworm product), a dress, etc.

The further development of agriculture is evidenced higher than before the Earth processing technique. A number of modern Chinese scientists suggests that irrigation, which is already applied, an imminent primitive and in small sizes. This conclusion is suggested as ancient legends, reporting on the beginnings of artificial irrigation in the Dawnsky \u200b\u200bperiod and the inscriptions on the bones. In the latter there are a number of hieroglyphs expressing the idea of \u200b\u200birrigation. One of them portrayed the field and streams of water, as it would be irrigation channels.

Metal guns were also used in agriculture. This is evidenced by the foundations found during the excavations in the vicinity of Luoyang and near Anyana copper shovels. The interpretation of a number of signs in the inscriptions on the bones makes it possible to assume that the Injans used cattle during the processing of the Earth. So, one of the signs, "U", portrayed the will standing on the side of the agricultural tool. Another sign, "Lee" (Plow, Plow), in its composition also has a will, and sometimes, but a rare horse. In gadetting inscriptions, there are also combinations of two hieroglyphs denoting a plow and bull.

According to Chinese legends, there was a so-called "spotted plowing" in deep antiquity, when two people flew together. This gave more effect when rupture of the Earth. The concept of "paired plowing" had a wider sense: it meant a connection of efforts of two or more people in the processing of the Earth, i.e. collective field processing.

Hunting and fisheries now have no longer played the main role in the farm of the Invents, but continued to be essential. This is evidenced by many bone inscriptions.

In the yin society, a considerable place occupied cattle breeding. This is evidenced by the number of animals who sacrificed the spirits. Sometimes it is the number and white kaolin. At this time there was a pottery circle, although clay vessels were produced and manually. Clay products were burned, sometimes covered with icing, were often decorated with a subtle ornament.

We have already talked about the development in the Inisk Skinning times. The manufacture of silk tissues and the development of a weaving case is evidenced by the existence of the hieroglyphs, which indicated the concepts of "silk thread", "clothes", "handkerchief", etc.

The existence of various sectors of crafts and special workshops, as well as the high mastery of the Inisk artisans, indicate that handicraft production has already passed a considerable way in its development.

Development of exchange.

With the advent of the division of labor between agriculture and craft and the growth of excessive agricultural products and craft products, the development of exchange is obtained. Archaeological finds allow us to conclude about the existence of economic relations between the Turkish and other tribes, including very distant. From the tribes from the coast of Fohai Injans received fish, sea shells; Mattering, from the modern Xinjiang - Yashma. From the areas that were in the upper flow of the Yangzzyjiang river and in South China, copper and tin were brought, of which Bronze was paid. Nomadic and half-blood tribes received agriculture products and craft products, in particular weapons. Finds on the Abakan Vessel River, and on the River Yenise-Bronze Weapon, the same type with the products of Shan artisans, testify to the ties of the hents with the tribes of Siberia.

Archaeological excavations indicate that at least after the XIV century. BC e. In the Initians, the cost of the cost was the precious shells of Kauri.

In the ruins of the Yinskaya capital found a lot of such shells with a smooth polished by the outside. In order for the sinks more convenient to wear, holes drilled in them and rushed to the thread. The cost of ligaments, which has become significant. In the inscriptions there is a mention of the gift of the king of several bundles, at the most up to ten. In the future, as the exchange expands, the number of marine shells had been insufficient in circulation, it was difficult to produce them. Then they began to resort to the replacement of natural artificial shells made from jasper or bones. Shells, becoming a measure of value, in the future turned into a symbol of jewelry, wealth. Concepts meaning jewels, wealth, accumulation and many others, close to them in meaning, began to be denoted by hieroglyphs, in which shell was the main component.

The class character of the Yin Society.

Residues of housing and burials indicate a significant property bundle. While the poor juts in dugouts, rich lived in large wooden houses with stone foundations. The burials also reflect the class differentiation. The tomb of the kings and nobility on the abundance and wealth of things found in them are sharply different from the burials of ordinary people. The burials found a large number of expensive things from bronze and jade, as well as an inflated weapon. Together with the died noble people buried their servants, probably slaves. Thus, in the graves of the inisk pares, the corpses with severed heads were found. There is reason to assume that sometimes slaves were buried and alive.

Up to relatively recently, scientists unanimously considered the Yinskoe society of reports, noting that by the end of its existence (XII century BC) there was a decomposition of primitive community relations and a transition to a slave-owned service was made. However, further studies on the decipheres of Yinian inscriptions on the bones and archaeological excavations produced by Chinese scientists in recent years have made it possible to make another conclusion, namely: the Yinskoe society was a class, slave-ownership society. But to establish the exact time of the transition from the generic society to the class is very difficult. Although the data of archaeological excavations, reflecting class relations, and relate to the period after transferring the capital to Pan Genn to Shang, that is, to the XIV century. BC er, it can be assumed that the class society originated before that time. For a long time, this system, of course, retained significant remnants of primitive community relations.

The most reliable literary monument, whose data about Annzhah shed light and for the period preceding the creation of the Shang dynasty, is the chapter "Basic entries about Yin" from the "historical notes" of Qian's Suma. It is characteristic that the list of the Sum is tuck the list of the Inisk Vanov (rulers, kings) is mainly confirmed by the inscriptions on the bones. This gives the basis to consider the materials of Qian's Sum rather significant. According to the Sum Tsyan, Cheng Tang, turning to Zhuhou (military leaders) and to the population, said: "Those of you who will not respect my orders, I will be severely causing and destroying. Nobody will not have mercy. " So the ruler could say, already fully disposed of subordinate life.

Three thousand years ago, the Great Chinese Plain between the Rivers Juanhe and Yangtze began to settle the first Chinese. Despite the fact that the first states began to appear on this territory, their inhabitants considered themselves a single people with a single culture and language.

The emergence of ancient China occurred almost the same as in ancient Egypt, Sumer and Ancient India - on the shores of large rivers. In the Valley of Juanhe (in Chinese - "Yellow River") and ancient Chinese civilization originated. The first kingdom arose in 2 millennia BC. e. and called Shan or Yin. Archaeologists excavated the capital of this kingdom Great City Shan and the tomb of the Shan Kings - Vanov.

In 1122 BC e. The warlike tribe of Zhou, headed by Word, defeated the Shagians and established its primacy, and the majority of the country's population of Shang-Yin drew into slavery. But in the 8th century BC. e. The state of Zhou broke up under the blows of nomads; Now, one, then another kingdom, of which the largest state was the Kingdom of Jin (7-5th century to N. e.). With the collapse of States Jin began the period of Zhango ("fighting kingdoms") when China was divided into two dozen small princes of the principalities, badly obeyed Zhousvan.

6-5th century BC. e. - The time of the first philosophical teachings of the ancient China. Of all the wise men of this time, a confusion was especially revered by the Chinese. His teaching about the "noble man," about respect for the elder, about modesty, about the importance of education, about the attitude towards the ruler as the head of the family, for a long time in China, the ideal relationship between people - and in the family, and in the state.

In 221 BC, the ruler Qin In Zheng united large territories into a single empire and took the title Qin Shihuandi, which means "the first emperor of the Qin dynasty. So that people do not ropat, they were kept in constant fear. Qin Shihuandi brutally suppressed any resistance, applying the most terrible treasures, for example, could be cooked alive in the boiler. For the slightest guidance of man, they beat the heels bamboo stick or sliced \u200b\u200bhis nose. If a person violated the law, then his whole family was exposed to punishment: the condemned relatives turned into slaves who were used on heavy construction work.

Having established its complete power in the Empire, Qin Shihuangi began a war with nomads-Huns, attacked from the north on his borders. He decided to fix his victory forever to the construction of a powerful border wall, called the Great Wall. It was erected from stone blocks and bricks hundreds of thousands of convicts and ordinary peasants. The height of the wall was with a three-storey house. At the top, two carts could be dispersed without any work. In the towers carried the security service. At the bottom of it, they lived, and on the top platform, the watch closely followed the surroundings and, in the case of danger, the fire was burned, smoke, which was visible far. A large squad of warriors hurried to this place to this place.

With the fall of the dynasty of Qin to power, one of the leaders of the peasant war - Lyuban came. He reduced taxes and canceled the most cruel laws introduced in China by Emperor Qinashovandy. Lyuban became the founder of the Han dynasty. In the Han era, the main features of the Chinese state were formed, which were inherent to him before the beginning of the 20th century.

The collection of taxes in a large country required Chan's officials in geometry and arithmetic. For learning the basics of mathematics used special textbooks and collections of tasks. Ancient Chinese astronomers accurately calculated the duration of a sunny year and made a perfect calendar; They were known hundreds of stars and constellations, they calculated the periods of circulation of the planets. In ancient China, the beginning of the Chinese civilization and its culture - science, literature, art were laid.

The death of the Han dynasty was associated with the uprising of "yellow dressings", which covered the country in 184. Although the uprising was cruelly suppressed, it caused the hardest blow to the country. In 220, the Han dynasty fell, and several independent states were formed on its territory. This event is usually considered to be the end of the period of antiquity in Chinese history.

The history of the ancient China is located in the distant past: a few thousand years ago a great China has already been formed. There were also takeoffs and falls.

Periodization of ancient China is due to the change of dynasties, which create this very story as a result. Let's look at it.

Periodization of ancient China

All these dynasties are also divided into several groups.

Stages of periodization of the history of the state in Ancient China:

1. The first people in the neolithic era.

2. The period with three first dynasties, when China was fragmented, there was no empire as such.

3. Traditional China and Empire.

On this, all the old China ends, the dynasty as such is ceased to edit and the last stage begins, covering only the XX and XXI century.

However, an ancient China refers the period before the Middle Ages, he ends on the Han dynasty. The entire period of the existence of ancient China can be expressed as the building of the foundation for the Great State, for this, what it is now.

Consider below briefly the history of civilization and the periodization of the ancient China, public and government construction, as well as the philosophy of the time and the Grand Inventions.

Start history

It is known that the first ancestors of the Chinese lived 400 thousand years ago in the Neolithic era. The remains of Sinantroprop were found in the cave not far from Beijing. The first people already owned staining and some other skills.

In general, the territory of China is convenient for life, so the story goes into such a distant past. The soil fertrust, and the steppe herself is surrounded by the sea, the mountains that could protect people from the attacks of enemies. Such a convenient location and attracted the first inhabitants who were the ancestors of the current Chinese.

It is also known scientists that there were two cultures after Synantrophs: Yangshao and Longshan. They probably were more, but they mixed together. Only two are archaeologically confirmed.

The culture of Yangshao existed 2-3 thousand years before our era. People of that period lived on an extensive territory from Gansu Province and up to the south of Manchuria. It is known that they could make beautiful colored ceramic products.

Longshan was located mainly in the province of Shandun. In the central part of China, both cultures were superimposed on each other. People also owned the skill of processing ceramics, but their main pride was the ability to make various objects from the bone. On some of them who were found by scientists, dismissal inscriptions were found. It was the first prerequisite for writing.

Further, it is possible to distinguish several stages of the periodization of the history and culture of ancient China. The first three dynasties relate to the stage before formation then a plurality of dynasties during the existence of the empire, and the last stage should be system without dynasties and modern China.

Dynasty Xia

The first famous dynasty in the chronology and periodization of ancient China is the founder of it was Yu, and it existed from 2205 to 1557 to our era. According to some theories, the state was located on the East of North China or only in the north and in the center of Henan province.

The first rulers coped with their state management tasks not bad. The main property of the Epoch is the calendar of the time that subsequently admired the Confucius himself.

However, the decline happened, and he was caused by the pressure of the clergy, and the Russian rulers soon began to neglect their responsibilities of the clergy. Calendar dates began to be confused, the periodization of the ancient China, the social and political structure of the chromium, was shot down. This weakening and took advantage of the emperor Lee State Shang, who began the subsequent dynasty.

Shan-Yin Dynasty

The reign period begins in the XVIII or XVI century BC. e. According to various theories, and ends in the XII or XI century BC. e.

In total, this dynasty has about 30 rulers. Lee Tang (founder of the dynasty) and his tribe believed in Totemism. They adopted the custom of guessing the bones from the culture of Lunashan, they also used for predicting shells.

During the Board, Shan-Yin reigned a centralized management policy led by the emperors of the dynasty.

The end of the period came when Zhou's tribes overthrew the ruler.

Zhou Dynasty

Zhou is the last powerful dynasty of the first stage in the periodization of the history of the state of the ancient China before the formation of the Chinese Empire, which existed from IX in the III century to our era.

There are two stages: Western and Eastern Zhou. Western Zhou had the capital of Zunzhou in the West, and possessions covered almost the entire pool of the Juanhe River. The essence of the policy of that time was that the chief emperor of the rules in the capital, and his approximate (usually relatives) ruled the sets of the lots on which the state split. This resulted in universities and the struggle for power. But as a result, stronger possessions enslaved weaker.

China at the same time was defended from the constant attacks of the barbarians. That is why the ruler moved from the western capital to the eastern capital of Chengrzhou in the state of Loi in 770 BC, and began the period of the history of the ancient China called Western Zhou. The relocation of the ruler meant conventionally refusing to power and from government management.

All China was split into several kingdoms: Yan, Zhao, Sun, Zheng, Lou, Qi, Chu, Wei, Han, Qin, and on the many small principalities that great kingdoms have conquered over time. In fact, some kingdoms were much more powerful on politics than the kingdom, where the chief ruler Zhou was. Qi and Qin were considered the strongest, and it was their rulers that contributed a greater contribution to politics and to fight barbarians.

Separately, it is worth allocating the kingdom of Lou from these kings. Education and writing reigned in it, although in political plan Lu was not much. It was here that the confusion was born and lived - the founder of Confucianism. The end of the Zhou period usually consider the year of the death of a philosopher in 479 to our era. Confucius wrote the history of Western Zhou in Chunzu's chronicles. Many events of that time are known only thanks to these records. It is also known that during this period, Taoism began to penetrate into China.

The end of the dynasty was the fact that all the kingdoms fought among themselves for power. Wid the most powerful - Qin with the ruler Qin Shihuandi, who, after the conquest, was able to unite all of China and began a new dynasty. And the ruler of Zhou himself lost the status of heavenly mandate.

Qin

Since the ruler Qin united all China, the new stage of the history and periodization of the ancient China began. The era of fragmentation was replaced by the epoch of the Imperial Board with the combined parts of the whole state.

The era existed not long. Only from 221 to 207 BC, but it is Qin Shihuandi (the first emperor) contributes a special contribution to the culture of ancient China. During this period, a great Chinese wall was built - the specialistic state of the state, whose greatness amazes until now. The ruler Qin Shihuandei spent many reforms. For example, monetary and judicial reform, and also writing reform. With it, the construction of a single road network began.

Despite all the advantages, historians distinguish significant disadvantages, which also caused the period that the period of Qin existed for a long time. Qin Shihuandi was a supporter of Legianess. Leather is a philosophical school of that period, the essence of which was in very hard measures for people and punishments for any provinces and not only. This affected such a sharp jump in the form of victories over different tribes and at such a quick construction of the Chinese wall in order to protect against barbarians and enemy captives. But it was the cruelty that the dislike of people and a sharp change of dynasties immediately after the death of Qin Shihuandi.

Han and Xin

The Han Empire existed from 206 to our era to 220 years old. It is divided into two periods: Western Han (from 206 to N. e. On 9 years old) and late (Eastern) Han (25-220 years. N. E.)

Western Han had to eliminate the consequences of destroyed after the Qin period. In the empire, hunger and mortality were reign.

The ruler Liu Bang freed many state slaves, which became involuntary in Qin for the provinces. He also canceled hard taxes and strong punishments.

However, in 140-87 BC. e. The Empire returned to the despotism, as with the ruler Qin. The ruler of the U-di dynasty again introduced high taxes, which were charged even from children and the elderly (this resulted in frequent murders in families). China's territory by this time expanded greatly.

Between Western and East Han there was a dynasty of Xin dynasty led by the ruler Van Man, who managed to overthrow eastern Han. He tried to strengthen his power by conducting many positive reforms. For example, a certain territory of the Earth was established for each family. If it was higher, then the part was given to poor or people without land.

But at the same time, chaos with officials occurred, due to which the treasury empty, and had to increase taxes. This served as a reason for people's discontent. People's uprisings began, it also served as the advantage of Van Man's representatives was killed during an uprising entitled "Red eyebrows".

Liua was put forward to the candidates for the throne. He wanted to reduce hostility to power in people by reducing taxes and the liberation of slaves. The period of Western Han began. This time also made a significant contribution to the story. It was then that the Great Silk Road was established.

At the end of the second century, excitement broke out again among the people. The uprising began "yellow dressings", which lasts almost 20 years. Dynasty overthrew, a period of three trochequras began.

Although the Khan period was a period of lifting, at the end of the era after the twenty-year-old war began a constant struggle between the commander of the dynasty and other leaders. This led to another excitement in the empire and mortality.

Jin.

The Jin era and subsequent periods can already be attributed to the Middle Ages, but consider the very first dynasties to understand what the policy of the ancient China has led and how the rulers had to eliminate the consequences.

The population after the Chang wars decreased several times. There were also cataclysms. The rivers began to change their channels, thereby causing flooding and decay of the economy. Alloyed the situation constant raids of nomads.

Cao Cao, who completed the uprising of "yellow bandages", united the fragmented North of China in 216. And in 220, his son Cao Payi founded the Wei Dynasty. At the same time, the states of Shu and W. So began the period of three trochequras. Permanent wars began between them, which aggravated the military-political situation within China.

In 249, Szhao's Suma stood in chapter Wei. And his son Yang Son, when his father died, took the throne and founded the Jin dynasty. At first, Wei won the shu, and then W. The trochequraity period came the end, the Tzin era began (265-316). Soon the nomads won the north, the capital had to be transferred from Loyana to the south of China.

Smoy Yan began to distribute the lands to his relatives. In 280, a decree was released on the exact system, the essence of which was that the land plot is assumed to each person, but in return, people must pay the treasury. It was necessary to improve relations with simple people, replenish the treasury and lifting the economy.

However, this entailed not to improve the centralization, as was supposed, but on the contrary. After the death of Yana's Sum, in 290, the struggle between the owners of major goals - relatives of the deceased ruler began. She lasted 15 years, from 291 to 306 years. At the same time, in the north of the state, the position of nomads was strengthened. Gradually, they were located along the rivers, began to grow rice and enslave the whole settlements of people.

In the period Jin, as it is known, Buddhism's religion began to strengthen. Many monks and Buddhist temples appeared.

Sui

Only in 581, after a long period of Troubles, Zhou Yang Jiang managed to unite the north-crushed nomads. The rule of the dynasty of sui begins. He then captures the Chen state in the south and thus unites all China. His son Yang Di took up wars with some states of Korea and Vietnam, created a great channel for the transport of rice and improved the Chinese wall. But people were in pain, because of what a new uprising began, and Yana Di was killed in 618.

Tian

Li Yuan founded the dynasty that existed from 618 to 907 years. The empire during this period reached his heyday. The rulers of Lee improved economic ties with other states. Cities and the number in them began to increase. Started actively develop agricultural crops (tea, cotton). Especially in this regard, the son of Lee Yuan was separated - Li Shimin, whose policies came out to a new level. However, in the VIII century, he reached his peak conflict between military and power in the center of the Empire. In 874, the War of Juan Chao began, which lasted until 901, due to which the dynasty broke off. In the 907-960, the Chinese Empire was again fragmented.

State and public construction of ancient China

Periodization of all periods of ancient China can be considered as similar to the stages of history in their device. At the heart of the public device - collective farming. The main activity of people is cattle breeding and crafts (which have been developed to high levels).

At the top of the authorities there were aristocracy, there were slaves and peasants below.

Brightly pronounced was a generic heritage. During the Shan-Yin, each of the ruler's relatives was given a special title depending on how closely relatives are. Each title gave its privileges.

In the periods of Yin and Western Zhou, the Earth was issued only for the use and economy, but not like private property. And from the period of Eastern Zhou, the land was already distributed for private ownership.

Slaves first were state, and then became private. In their category, prisoners, very poor communities, tramps and others, usually fell into their category.

In the stages of the periodization of the ancient China, the public and the state unit can be distinguished by the fact that in the era of Yin, first of all, the throne of the brother of the deceased ruler was invested, and in Zhou Titul, he passed to his son from his father.

Under the ruler reigned a palace management system.

Separately, it is worth highlighting, speaking of periodization of the history of the state and ancient China: the right already existed, but at the initial stage heavily intertwined with religious principles and ordinary ethics. Patriarchate reigned, he won the elders and fathers.

In the V-III centuries BC e. The right was an integral part with cruel punishments, while the legality was already already. And with the Han dynasty, people again returned to the Confucianism and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe harmonious inequality of people depending on the rank.

The first written sources of the right are dating about 536 by the year to our era.

Philosophy

The philosophy of the ancient China is very different from the philosophy of any other European countries. If there is God and life after death in Christianity and Muslim, then the Asian schools were the principle "here and now." In China, too, appealed to kindness during life, but simply for harmony and well-being, and not under the fear of the punishment after death.

The basis of lying trinity: the sky, the earth and the person himself. People also believed that there is a qi energy, and in everything there should be harmony. Women's and male began: Yin and Yan, who have completed each other for harmony.

In total, there are several main philosophical schools of the time: Confucianism, Buddhism, Misa, Lead, Taoism.

Thus, if we generalize the said, then we can conclude: Already before our era, the ancient China formulated a certain philosophy and adhered to some religions, which are still in China are an integral part of the spiritual life of the population. At that time, all major schools changed and only sometimes superimposed on each other depending on the stage of periodization.

Culture of the ancient China: the wealth, crafts and inventions

Some of the greatest treasures of China and to this day are the Great Wall of China. The most amazing thing here was to build them under the control of the first emperor of ancient China Qin Shihandei from the Qin dynasty. It was then that the legalism and cruelty of people reigned, which under the fear and pressure built these truly great structures.

But to the Grain Inventions, powder, paper, typography and compass can be attributed.

It is believed that the paper was invented by Cai Lun in 105 BC. e. For its manufacture, a special technology was required, which still resembles the current paper manufacturing process. Until this period, people scraped letters on shells, bones, clay signs and bamboo coats. The invention of the paper led to the invention of typography in a later period of our era.

The first semblance of a compass arose in ancient China at the Han dynasty.

But the crafts in ancient China existed the random set. Several thousand years before e. Silk began to extract (whose production technology for a long time remained secret), tea appeared, made clay products and bone products. A little later, a great silk path appeared, drawing pictures on the row, sculptures from marble, painted on the walls. And also in ancient China, all the well-known pagodas and acupuncture appeared.

Conclusion

The social and political structure of the ancient China (periodization from the era of Neolith right up to the Han dynasty) had its shortcomings and dignity. Subsequent dynamos adjusted policy makes. And the entire history of the ancient China can be described as periods of flushes and decays moving along the spirals. Moving up, so "blooms" each time became improved and better. Periodization of the history of ancient China is a bulk and interesting topic that we have considered in the article.