The very first source of artificial light was, as already mentioned, the hearth. Thus, initially the living space was illuminated by one source located in the center. The need for additional side lighting arose simultaneously with the need for a person to express themselves in rock paintings. In his work, he was assisted by a torch, which was installed in the gap between the stones. In the Middle Ages, forged clamps were used to strengthen the torch on the plane of the wall. It was this simple device that served as the prototype of the sconce.

In Greece and Rome, floor lamps, consisting of a tripod and a bowl with a combustible substance (often with aromatic additives), were widespread. A later modification of this lamp is a candelabrum. Unlike the tripod, it had a single support, wide at the base. In different cultures, the same lamp could be called differently. For example, the shandal among the Persians or the menorah among the Jews.

Another lighting device known since those times is the lampadarium. Like the candelabrum, it was stationary. Pendant lights were called lamps and icon lamps and consisted of one or more oval bowls attached to ceiling beams or consoles. The bowls were filled with oil, animal fat or oil. A wick twisted from plant fibers was dipped into the flammable liquid.

The advent of the candle was a major breakthrough in the field of creating new types of lamps. It was in many ways more convenient than all other devices - it smoked the wrong way, it turned out to be much more economical and easy to manufacture. It was first made from animal fat, and then from beeswax with a cane wick. Later, the wick was made from cotton or hemp fibers. The candle gave birth to a whole galaxy of lamps. The candelabrum has become a graceful branching design. At the end of the 17th century, the chandelier was finally formed. Palace chandeliers for hundreds of candles illuminated the huge ballrooms. The sconces glowed just as brightly in the walls between the windows. The hallways were lit with elaborate candelabra. All of them were reflected in numerous mirrors and their gilded frames. Candles were extinguished with metal caps on long handles. The chandelier consisted of a massive metal frame and a large number of pendants made of glass (transparent or colored) or natural stones. She could weigh about a ton. To lower such a structure, light the candles, and then raise it all, a powerful mechanism was required.

The era of kerosene that came after this gave us a hit in the form of a "bat" lamp. The design of the kerosene lamps was quite sophisticated (one has only to remember the famous Tiffany table lamps). Until now, these not very practical, but reliable lamps in the country house are associated with the era of decadence. And the aforementioned "bat" has been repeatedly used by designers to create new varieties of industrial-style lamps. This solution looks good in kitchens and children's kitchens. And numerous rehash of table lamps and night lamps of the Art Nouveau era for her time perfectly complement the interiors of bedrooms and offices. Modest workers - gas lanterns have revolutionized street lighting. Their interior variety, gas burners, peacefully coexisted with kerosene lamps. Both those and others desperately smoked and were not, as they say, environmentally friendly. This is probably why it was worthwhile to come up with electricity.

Electricity is common and common. There are a great variety of electric lamps. The variety of their shapes and materials is simply incredible. We'll talk about them in more detail later. In the meantime, I would just like to summarize all of the above.

Both natural and artificial lighting existed in the primitive dwellings of primitive man. Natural was subdivided into upper (chimney) and side (inlet). The artificial was central (hearth) and lateral (torch).

In the Middle Ages, before the advent of candles, oil lamps were used. The earliest candlesticks have survived very little, since during the wars they were melted into coins. After the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the candlesticks were forged from thin sheet metal.

By the end of the seventeenth century. skilful Huguenot masters who fled from France from religious persecution introduced into the practice of casting candlesticks from solid silver. The base, the stand (leg) and the candlestick itself were cast separately, and then soldered. Cast candlesticks were heavy, durable, often with intricate relief decorations.

Fashion at the beginning of the 18th century replaced by simple, minimally decorated candlesticks in the 1730s. richer ornamentation. Some talented craftsmen adopted the lush French Rococo style. The most exquisite candlesticks of the time are elaborately cast stands in the form of female figures holding candle sockets above their heads. By 1780, fashionable, artsy ornamentation gave way to the restrained decor of the neoclassical period. At the same time, the growth of industrial centers such as Birmingham and Sheffield ensured the mass production of candlesticks. Now they were minted from sheet silver, and the hollow parts were filled with resin, wood, and sometimes metal for stability.

For the production of less expensive candlesticks in Birmingham and Sheffield, a mechanical embossing process was used with the insertion of sheet silver into a mold with an embossed pattern (since the 1760s).

Like candlesticks, candelabra were often paired. They came into use from the middle of the 17th century, but most of the surviving copies date from the 18th - 19th centuries. At first, chandeliers were made with two simple horns. The number of horns increased from the end of the 18th century, when lunchtime shifted from daytime to evening.

A host of useful supplies, including tweezers and taper holders, were also made of silver. Candle Tongs - A tool with two rings, like a scissor, with a small box, was used to trim a burned-out wick before the invention of the self-absorbing wick in the 1820s. Small candlesticks were intended for thin candles, from which they lit a pipe, illuminated desks, or melted sealing wax to seal letters.

In the nineteenth century. the decorative style, in accordance with Victorian taste, acquired an exaggerated pretentiousness. In the last years of the century, casting was rarely resorted to, since this method of processing silver became prohibitively expensive, and the mechanization of production involved the production of not paired candlesticks or candelabra, but more sets.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. many silversmiths opposed mass production. They focused on working in a medieval handicraft style using first-class materials and simple designs inspired by Japanese art. From the styles of "Arts and Crafts" and Art Nouveau to Art Deco masters of the twentieth century. managed to embrace both the revival of historical styles and minimalist modern design.

The first lamps

The first lighting device was, apparently, a stone vessel with the fat of some animal and dry grass. Torches with such contents were able to illuminate the road on dark nights and gloomy caves.

Then the prototypes of candles appeared - hollow reed stalks filled with the same fat. These devices produced a lot of soot, and were replaced by others, made of beeswax, with a cotton wick. A torch was also used - a thin sliver, which was clamped with a split rod.

Just think that until the 19th century, other sources of lighting for rooms, except candles, splinters and oil lamps were not!

To light from a small flame candles there were more, in large palaces mirrors were placed next to them - it was much brighter.

Evolution lamps expanded this subject range. The first candelabra appeared - candlesticks for one or more candles, then suspended fixtures(choros and chandeliers). They were hung on chains in the center of churches or palaces, and were decorated with images of birds and the sun. There were also devices for several lamps - lampadarii.

Aromatic oils, petroleum and kerosene were used as flammable liquids.

The palm in the invention of the first light bulb belongs to the Russians: electrical engineer Alexander Lodygin in 1872 invented an incandescent lamp, consisting of needles wrapped in threads. Such lamps could burn for 40 hours.

Lodygin was the first to reveal the properties of tungsten, which became widely used in the production of lamps. And finally, in 1799, the Italian physicist Volt created the first chemical current source.

Later, fluorescent and very economical halogen lamps appeared.

The history of the development of artificial lighting devices

Acquaintance with the history of the development of household lamps helps to better understand the relationship and mutual influence of technology and culture in these objects of the subject environment of the dwelling, which are extremely diverse in their forms. The first literary mention of the lamp we find in Homer. When describing Odysseus and Telemachus, carrying out the weapons of the suitors, it is said: "... and Athena Pallas, invisibly holding a golden lamp, shone for them."

The centuries-old history of household lamps demonstrates the dependence of their shape on the development of artificial lighting technology, materials and manufacturing technology, architecture, arts and crafts and, finally, design.

The sources of artificial light of the ancient world are torches, torches and oil lamps. Oil lamps consisted of a vessel for hemp or linseed oil and a wick. The material for their manufacture was most often clay, less often bronze. Many examples of similar lamps from the period of ancient Greece and Rome have survived. Due to the weak light intensity of one wick, the vessels for oil were supplied with several wicks, and the composition of one lamp sometimes included several vessels. A significant achievement in the technique of artificial lighting was the creation in the 5th century. BC NS. Callimachus wick made of so-called Karpasian flax, a non-combustible material, reminiscent of asbestos, mined on the island of Crete. This "unquenchable fire" burned for seven centuries in the sanctuary of Athena in the Erechtheion. He is mentioned in the “Descriptions of Hellas” in the II century. n. NS. traveler and geographer Pausanias.

As a widespread household item, lamps have become an object of artistic creativity in ancient times. Already at that time, their shapes and designs were very diverse. At the same time, almost all types of lamps existing today appeared according to the method and place of their installation.

Historically analyzing the evolution of the shape of household lamps, one can trace the emergence and development of their structures and decor. At the same time, stable structures are easily identified that do not depend on the change in architectural and artistic styles. Many types of structures, having arisen in ancient times, have survived to this day. Other types of structures have proven to be less durable. For example, with the advent of electricity, those that existed in the 19th century have become a thing of the past. portable kerosene lamp-mugs. The surviving structures include pendant lamps with a ring or arm structure, table lamps with a central post, wall sconces (arm). These structures originated and developed during the period when the candle was the most common source of light.

The main reason for preserving the original structures is their expediency and rationality, as well as a certain inertia of human consciousness, people's adherence to stereotypes. For example, the structure of a table candlelight with a central post in the 19th century. was used for kerosene lamps, although, in this case, it is less appropriate. In this case, it was necessary to mask the necessary fuel tank.

With the advent of electric lighting, new types of structures were formed, rational with a new light source. However, many types of structures that cannot be classified as rational continue to be used in electric lighting fixtures. Today we see numerous examples of the use of structures and shapes typical of candle and kerosene lamps.

For many centuries, the luminaire has been considered as an integral part of the home interior. Therefore, its form and decor developed in close connection with the form of interior equipment and obeyed the stylistic trends in this area.

The luminaire has always been an object of professional and folk decorative art. In the times of Ancient Greece, Etruria and Rome, along with richly decorated bronze lamps, oil lamps were made from baked clay in large quantities. As examples of such ancient samples, one can cite lamps found during excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii as early as the 18th century. and lamps from excavations in Chersonesos already in our time (Fig. 1).

To decorate bronze lamps, architectural motifs, images of people and animals, plant and geometric ornaments were widely used. Already at that time, it is easy to notice a lot in common in the elements of lamps and furniture. Etruscan candelabra, like furniture, had supports in the form of human legs or animal paws. Silicate glass appears in bronze oil lamps as diffusers (or rather to protect the flame from gusts of wind).

Clay oil lamps used in the dwellings of ordinary people are also different in shape. However, they use only the motives of the animal and plant world and there are no architectural motives. Most often, such lamps were made portable.

For many centuries, in the homes of peasants in many Nordic countries, including Russia, the main source of light was a torch. To maintain the flame of a burning torch and store new torches, the so-called lights were used. Most often they were forged from metal. Sometimes wooden parts were used as a base. The sevets were very diverse, they were decorated with various metal curls, and wooden parts were carved and sometimes painted.

For centuries, artificial lighting has been carried out with candles. Safer and more convenient to use, already in the XII century. in ancient Russia they were widely used. Earlier than others, tallow candles appeared, then wax, stearic, paraffinic, spermaceti, which burned longer and gave less soot and smoke. All lighting fixtures of the XVI-XVIII centuries. were various designs, with profits attached to them, into which candles were inserted. The most common were candlesticks (shandals) for various numbers of candles, for the manufacture of which wood, bone, glass and porcelain were used, but the most common was durable fire-resistant metal.

With the development of foundry in Kievan Rus back in the IX century. made copper and silver chandeliers and candlesticks. The name "chandelier" or "polycadilo" comes from the Greek word "polycandelon", meaning a multi-candlestick. The most stable composition of the chandelier consisted of a central bar structure with complex balusters (and later with balls), from which multi-tiered candlesticks branch off (Fig. 4). In later times, the construction of chandeliers formed the basis for the creation of many chandeliers.

Along with the chandelier in Russia, there was an even more ancient form of lamps - choros, which looked like a round bowl suspended on chains and framed by a ring in which candles were installed. There are interesting examples of choruses in the Faceted Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin.

Complex and large lamps were used mainly in churches, palaces and the homes of wealthy people. Such lamps, as a rule, differed not only in size (the diameter of chandeliers in some churches reaches 3 m), but also in excellent decoration, the use of relief carving, artistic casting, valuable materials, painting, gilding.

A special place in the history of the development of lamps is occupied by lanterns ("walking" or "portable"), used in the most solemn occasions (during religious holidays, during the procession, during wedding and funeral rites) and therefore decorated with special luxury. Lanterns usually had a hexagonal shape with mica walls to protect the candle flame from the wind.

With the development of construction and architecture in the XVIII century. numerous large mansions with rich interior decoration appeared. All this caused the need for new, more efficient lighting fixtures, which were "wall lamps" and chandeliers. Walls were shiny copper flat or concave reflectors of a round, octagonal or figured shape with candles attached to them, which were hung on the wall. The bright surfaces of the wall panels that attracted attention were engraved, minted, decorated with patterns and images.

The most perfect in terms of lighting and architecture were multi-candle chandeliers with crystal and colored glass. These lamps, various in shape, dimensions, materials, manufacturing technologies, are the product of the corresponding era, both in terms of architectural and technical solutions. The use of such low-power light sources as candles led to the need for large pendant lamps with a large number of candles. At the same time, medieval architects had to solve the complex problem of the compositional connection of individual candles scattered in a large volume of weak spots into a single whole. The creation of a single luminous volume of the lamp was ensured by the use of various decorative glass and, above all, crystal. In this regard, it is necessary to note the exceptional influence of the formation and improvement of glass production on the development of lighting fixtures.

In ancient times, glass was expensive and of poor quality. With the development of artistic glassmaking, glass for lamps changes, takes on different shapes and colors. For the first time, glass is used as the main material in Venetian candle chandeliers. The main method of their manufacture was the molding of parts from a cooling mass of transparent glass, in which the Venetians were distinguished by unsurpassed virtuoso skill. A Venetian stucco glass chandelier is usually assembled from a bunch of glass stems freely “growing” upward from a single central glass bowl. At the same time, the stems are decorated with flowers, leaves, often intertwined, candlesticks are installed in the flowers; chains of glass rings fall like garlands; the central metal bar is hidden in the glass decorations. Venetian chandeliers, girandoli, candelabra were typical Baroque pieces.

Luminaires made of untreated glass (including Venetian molded glass) are being replaced by crystal ones, which arouse the exceptional and constant interest of architects to this day. A crystal candle chandelier multiplied the visible number of light spots compared to the number of candles used, created a decorative play of light on small and large faceted glass parts based on refraction and reflection of light, as well as on the effect of light dispersion by trihedral prismatic elements. A moving flame of light, together with crystal, created a different visual effect under different directions of observation. Crystal, playing with light, slightly vibrating under the influence of rising currents of warm air, united a single composition of dim candles and created an exceptional emotional effect, turning the lamp into a light-colored structure, unsurpassed in decorative effect.

Artificial crystal, i.e. Glass, got its name from the mineral of rock crystal. The crystal is soft, easily amenable to mechanical processing - faceting, deep grinding, polishing. For the first time faceted crystal appeared in Bohemia in the 17th century; in the XVIII century. In England, a cleaner and softer lead crystal appeared. At the heart of domestic chandeliers of the first half of the 18th century. the use of crystal headdress made of stylized oak leaves, star-shaped rosettes, figured "vases" and balls, made at a glass factory in Yamburg, and then at a St. Petersburg factory. Russian art glassmaking is obliged to appear in the chandeliers of colored painted glass. Blue and pink glass was most often used in the 70s - 80s of the 18th century, ruby ​​and emerald green - at the end of this century. A special place in the history of the development of lamps is occupied by products of Tula craftsmen, made of steel.

In subsequent years, compositional techniques for placing crystal elements in lamps of various structures were developed, as well as the forms of these elements, depending on the technology of their manufacture and the prevailing architectural and artistic style.

The advent of crystal lamps coincided with the heyday of the Baroque style. However, the artistic merits of crystal were most fully revealed during the period of the domination of Rococo, Classicism and Empire style. Fine examples of crystal lamps were created by Russian architects of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

In the middle of the XVIII century. at the same time, “headsets” or “sets” appear in furniture and lamps, consisting of products of different installation methods, united by a single artistic solution.

As porcelain spread in Europe, it began to be used in decorative elements of lamps.

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. more and more widespread are lamps in which bronze displaces other materials, including glass. At the same time, chandeliers with oil lamps appeared, which had significant advantages due to their greater brightness and duration of operation. In these lamps, a reservoir of viscous oils was placed above the burners, which ensured the flow of fuel to the wick. Lamp glasses appeared that protected the flame from the effects of air currents, created traction and reduced soot.

The important stages in the development of lamps were the creation of "Karelian" and kerosene lamps. The first of them, invented by the Frenchman Carcel, had oil reservoirs with a “clock” mechanism that pumped oil into the burner. The kerosene lamp was invented by the Pole Lukasiewicz in 1853. The principal difference between these lamps and oil lamps was the location of the burner above the reservoir; this turned out to be possible due to the fact that kerosene is easily absorbed by the wick and is lightly combustible. The widespread use of kerosene lamps, and after them gas burners with glowing grids, led to the need for devices to protect the eyes from the glare of the incandescent parts of these lamps. Various milky silicate glass diffusers, “lampshades”, opaque reflectors and screens were used as such devices.

With distribution in the XIX century. kerosene lamps, more complex in design than all the previous lamps, and with the development of the machine method of production, the lamp gradually began to be recognized not only as a decorative element of the interior, but also as a household appliance.

The era of kerosene lighting has created a number of highly stable structures. Electric fixtures still use some of these structures, although not always constructively justified. In kerosene lamps, complex nodes appear for raising and lowering the lamp (candle chandeliers were lowered and raised using small winches). Kerosene lamps of the second half of the 19th century. They were produced both in the form of simple and cheap machine-made products, and in the form of unique expensive products using art glass, porcelain and metal casting.

The new method of production entailed the emergence of new materials and technologies, but he could not quickly create his own specific, inherent only to him forms of products. The appearance of electric lighting in the early 80s of the XIX century. happened at a time of style chaos. The desire of the bourgeoisie for the aristocratic respectability of their home revived interest in antiques and led to a revival in architecture and furniture of historical styles of different eras. However, the foremost artists and architects of that time had already begun an intensive search for new ways, which led to the emergence of the Art Nouveau style, which was frankly decorative in nature.

In electric lamps of the late 19th century. two directions were immediately identified: constructive (light, technological form, devoid of any decor) and decorative (use of common style forms of past eras and modernity).

Lamps of constructively simple and expressive forms were produced by many electrical companies in the USA, Germany, and France. As a rule, these were luminaires for local illumination of work areas, with the ability to adjust the direction of the light flux. The shape of some of them was so interesting that their serial production has now been resumed. Despite the fact that this step can be seen as a clear stylization in the spirit of "retro", only a specialist can determine that the age of the prototype is already approaching a century.

The electric incandescent lamp made it possible to create, along with multi-layered designs, luminaires with a closed structure, directly recessed into the ceiling or wall. The new light source has opened up great possibilities for Art Nouveau artists and architects to create products of expressive decorative form. Art Nouveau, according to which the architects strove for the ensemble unity of the architecture of the building, its interiors and equipment, developed a complex system of stylized ornament based on the motives of the flora. This ornament was often used in lamps. As a typical example, we can cite lamps created by a Russian architect at the turn of the 20th century. for a number of mansions in Moscow. These lamps are inextricably linked with the space and equipment of the interior; they seem to "grow" out of the fantastic forms of the interior. Their forms are rich in imagination and delicate taste.

And at the same time, Art Nouveau artists no longer try to get away from the machine form, but they want to rethink this form decoratively.

By the 20s of the XX century, when Art Nouveau exhausted itself, the trend to simplify the shape of products quickly spread throughout Europe. Lamps are also designed with restraint. Pendant lamps with a cloth shade, flat-shaped bowl lamps, cuboid pendant-lanterns, wall lamps of simplified shapes, table lamps on a thin central post with a cloth shade, devoid of any decorations - these are the main assortment of lamps used at that time.

In the early 50s, fluorescent lighting began to enter the dwelling. The process takes place most intensively in Japan, where this type of light source fits perfectly with the traditional national forms of lamps that have formed over the centuries. Currently, fluorescent lighting dominates Japanese dwellings.

In Europe, the first attempts to introduce fluorescent lighting were made back in the 40s, but its use in household lamps was limited by the significant size of tubular fluorescent lamps, which made it possible to use them only in ceiling lamps.

A revolutionary breakthrough in this direction took place in the late 70s - early 80s, when mass production of compact fluorescent lamps, comparable in size with standard incandescent lamps, was mastered.

And as always, innovation begins with the use of old forms. The first fluorescent luminaires for residential use replicate the structure and shape of incandescent lamps. Only later do they acquire their own specific forms.

"The light of fire, every day scattering darkness and gloom ... It is customary, everyday and necessary for a person in any era. People were constantly forced to turn to lighting devices and think about how to preserve their dim, flickering flame. Time passed, centuries changed. for centuries, and along with them there have been changes in the ways of maintaining the light. "

There is no doubt that initially people used the flame of a fire as lighting devices, as evidenced by the remains of ancient hearths, which undoubtedly served not only as a heating device, but partly as a lighting device and torch. Primitive man, having received the divine fire in his hands, was able not only to warm and feed himself, but also for the first time illuminated the gloomy vaults of his cave.

Researchers have found many images of torches from the Greek and Roman times, although they themselves, for obvious reasons, have not reached us. There were practically no special changes in the design of this simplest lighting device, with the exception of the actual combustible materials. The main disadvantage of the torch is soot, so the ancient Greeks already thought about ventilation of the premises and built some chimneys. "The trunk of a date tree made of copper, arranged above the lamp and reaching the roof, draws the soot out," wrote the ancient Greek historian Pausanias. There were special openings for removing smoke from houses that were heated in black.

The importance of the torch in the life of ancient Greek society can be evidenced by the fact that in Athens, during the sacred holiday of the Great Panathenae, competitions were held in the lampodromia - a race with torches, in which to win it was necessary not only to run first, but also to keep the blazing fire. In the culture of the Ancient East, torches played a special role. The king of Babylon Hammurabi, like his predecessors, began his reign with the declaration of "justice", that is, forgiveness of all debts. Standing at the top of the ziggurat, he lit a "golden torch", seeing the fire of which, the inhabitants of the surrounding towns and villages also lit torches and spread the good news throughout the country. By the way, this kind of light signaling was actively used in military affairs in all countries of the Ancient World, notifying the inner regions of an enemy attack.

Torches helped solve lighting problems in later times, right up to the Middle Ages. The demand for them has always been high. So, the monks of Constantinople in the 5th century. they were specially made for sale, and the money received was invested in the purchase of threads and other necessary raw materials. "The Book of the Eparch" - a collection of laws for Constantinople merchants and artisans of the end of the 9th century. - fixes that part of the income brought by ergastirium (workshop) was deducted for the purchase of torches.

Roman "round" lamps, covered with red lacquer characteristic of the first centuries of our era. Found in various cities of the Northern Black Sea region. 1st-2nd centuries AD

First lamps

The use of clay

18th century baked vessels of a special shape as lighting devices began in the Levant at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. A little later, in the late Minoan period, they became widespread in Crete. Archaeologists have found them in insignificant quantities during excavations of various Greek cities in the layers of the X-VIII centuries. BC. In later layers, they are very common, which indicates that they began to be produced in large quantities from the 7th century. BC.

Animal fat and oil (primarily olive oil) were used as fuel in the lamps. The design and configuration of lighting fixtures depended on different types of combustible materials. Thus, lamps filled with animal fat were always open, and a wick made of plant fibers floated freely in the fat, and sometimes it was bent onto the wall of the lamp. This is evidenced by traces of flame found on the overwhelming majority of specimens. Often the lamps had thick walls; moreover, many stucco lamps were designed specifically for animal fat. An interesting example can be cited: during the excavation of "barbarian" settlements and burial grounds around the ancient Greek city of Chersonesos, very few lamps were found. There is no doubt that this is due to the adherence of these tribes to other types of lighting devices - open bowls for which animal fat was used, which, apparently, was explained not only by another cultural tradition of the late Scythians, but also by the relatively high prices for olive oil, which was filled in lamps of antique type.

Despite the relatively small size, depending on the thickness of the wick, the lamp could burn from 30-40 minutes to 2-3 hours, giving relatively little light. Nevertheless, modern experiments have shown that with two lamps lit it is quite possible to read.

Due to the simplicity of manufacturing, most likely, the lamps were produced in the same place as ceramics, and practically did not require additional equipment. Specialized workshops for the manufacture of lighting fixtures appeared only in Hellenistic times, a typical example is the large-scale production of lamps on the Cnidus Peninsula in Asia Minor.

The most common type of early Greek lamp is open-ended luminaires with a central bushing (conical or cylindrical). This sleeve was made for a finger, the presence of which provided the lamp with greater stability when carrying, or for a stand on which it was easier to fix the lamp (see Fig.). Most of the lamps had handles (see fig.), The shape of which often depended solely on fashion, the wishes of the customer or the taste of the master. For example, in ancient Greek vase painting, we find images of a woman holding a lamp with a horizontal handle (Attic red-figure jug of the 5th century BC, Metropolitan Museum), or Hermes carrying a lamp with a vertical handle (bell-shaped crater, Vatican Museum). Luminaires of the same shape could be produced without bushings. Most of the lamps of the 6th-5th centuries. BC. were low and held a relatively small volume of oil. Over time, the container of the lamp became deeper (respectively, more voluminous), and the walls covered it more and more.

With the spread of the technique of stamping in the form in the Hellenistic time, the technology of making lamps improved, and they began to be decorated with flowers, rosettes, and various palmettes. The outside of the luminaire is coated with a glossy black or red lacquer. Sometimes the same coating is made from the inside so that the oil is not absorbed into the porous clay (see fig.).

The black-glazed lamps were made in Athens. Olvia, Ukraine. IV-III centuries BC.

Lamps from Roman times

The flourishing of the clay lamp was the era of the Roman Empire. The transformation of colossal territories even by modern standards into a single market stimulated not only the formation of tastes and traditions, but also the emergence of the first powerful industrial centers for the production of ceramic products, capable of filling the entire Mediterranean with their simple products. It is no coincidence that from this moment the compactness of the luminaire and ease of manufacture are at the forefront, which reduced its cost and facilitated transportation. In the world empire, goods made in Italy, Greece and Egypt were easily delivered by the ubiquitous Roman merchants to the edge of the ecumene, to the Crimea and the Caucasus.

The shields of the lamps were decorated with various images - from the deeds of deities to gladiatorial fights and erotic scenes (see fig.). This is a real encyclopedia of ancient life. The lamp from Chersonesus depicts a naked Venus, to whom Eros, standing in front of her, gives a sword and a helmet. This plot is closely related to the symbol of the political program of Julius Caesar, who always represented Venus as the founder of the Julian family. Apparently, one of the Chersonesos thus demonstrated his political loyalty to the Roman dictator who gave Chersonesos independence.

Ancient Greek open lamps made on a potter's wheel. The bushing in the center of these luminaires had a corresponding recess on the inside and made it easier to carry the luminaire. Initially, such lamps came to the Northern Black Sea region from the Ionian cities of Asia Minor, but then their own production was established. VI-V centuries. BC.

Stigma

The mark of the master was put on the lamps of famous workshops. Illegal copying of someone else's, popular trademark is by no means an invention of the modern era, and in the Roman provinces, crooked lamps with poorly printed patterns were often sold, on which the brand, for example, of the North Italian workshops or just a random set of letters, was proudly stood. This can be easily traced on the basis of the so-called Firmalampen, which are widespread on the territory of modern Romania and Bulgaria.

Clay lamps were in every residential building, workshop, shop: they were hung out in front of the entrance, in the porticoes, placed in niches in the walls or just on the ground, at the door sills. The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus noted that the illumination of Antioch at night was as strong as daylight. Of course, the lamp took its rightful place in the Roman brothels - lupanars, often, in addition to the bed, being the only decoration of a modest interior.

Once on the market, anyone could choose a lamp according to their taste, mood and purpose. From the baskets around the merchant, it was possible to extract a lamp decorated with the image of a deity (the Olympians peacefully coexisted with the Egyptian gods, the Jewish menorah or the Christian sacred monogram), an animal or a frivolous scene, which even today can make an inexperienced viewer blush. Apparently, it was possible to order a lamp with any image in the workshop.

Candelabra

Bronze candelabra served as ceremonial lighting fixtures, which were used in everyday life only by the top of society. Usually such a candelabrum was made in the form of a multifaceted rod on three lion's legs; it was often crowned with an Ionian capital with a figure or stand on it, on which it was possible to fix a candle or put an ordinary clay lamp. Interestingly, primitive candelabra were also used by barbarians, such as the Sarmatians. Most often they were iron, forged by local craftsmen, who hardly worried about the beauty of their products.

Bosporan multi-track lamps. Panticapaeum. 1st century BC.

Unquenchable light

Of course, the fire illuminated not only the residential building. It can be assumed that an unquenchable fire burned in the temples in honor of various deities. "And Callimachus made a golden lamp for the goddess. Having filled the lamp with oil, the Athenians await the same day next year; the oil in the lamp is enough for all the time from time to time, while the lamp burns day and night" (Paus., I, XXVI, 6-7). The altar and the lamp were repeatedly mentioned together by ancient authors. Lamps were also used in rituals dedicated to the underground gods, they were also used in witchcraft. The Arab fairy tale about Aladdin's lamp became an echo of the latter - it is enough just to rub an old copper lamp to make the almighty genie appear from there.

In addition, the light of the lamp accompanied the deceased on his last journey, dimly illuminating the road to eternity. Even the vestals, who were immured alive in the grave for breaking their vow of virginity, were left with a flickering lamp along with a small supply of food and water.

I count as one lamp

To illuminate public buildings and temples, along with torches and ordinary lamps, multi-track lamps could be used (see Fig.). The relatively small volume of the container for oil, combined with a large number of horns, in each of which a small tongue of flame burned, required constant replenishment of oil fat. This may indirectly testify in favor of the sacred load, which could be endowed with a lighting device with several horns. At the same time, one cannot but recall one of the famous epigrams of the Roman satire master Martial (XIV, 41), where a slightly different version of the purpose of multi-track lamps is given:

A multi-arm lamp found in one of the settlements on the territory of the present-day Taman Peninsula. IV-V centuries AD

In late antiquity, there was a tendency for the coarsening of the forms of clay lamps, as well as their decor. The products that came out of the hands of the master were filled with a new spirit - the spirit of cold, soulless stylization. Everything was designed for mass production and sales, for demand from the widest sections of the population with their simple requests.

Bronze chandeliers - Byzantine lamps with numerous horns ending in horizontal rings - were clearly intended for the installation of glass lamps. It was at this time that the role of clay lamps, which was previously so important in the cult rite, disappears. According to Paul Silentiarius (563), the splendor of the interior of the Cathedral of St. Sophia in the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, was made up of glass lamps, including carved ones, and the Byzantine historian Theophylact Simokatta, describing the funeral of Emperor Tiberius II in 582, recalled, how the sad singing of psalms lasted all night long "with lamps lit".

Already from the IV century. Glass goblets with a conical or cylindrical body, which were in use until the 6th century, are in wide circulation in all the provinces of the immense Roman Empire. Their use as lighting devices is evidenced by the finds of such lamps with traces of oil on the walls, as well as images of similar vessels, where they are hung at the ends of the Jewish menorah. From the very beginning, these products were not inferior in popularity to clay lamps. Water was poured into them, and on top of it was a layer of oil, into which a wick was dipped.

From the end of the 5th century. and until the VIII century. Among the lighting devices, the type of lampadas with a hemispherical or cylindrical wide body and a narrow leg, which was inserted into the lampadophore, began to dominate. Apparently, it is precisely such lighting devices that the Syrian chronicler Yeshu Stylite had in mind when he wrote that Anastasius, the mayor of Edessa, at the end of the 5th century. ordered the artisans on the eve of every Sunday to hang crosses with five lighted "luminaries" over the shops.
The decline in the production of traditional clay lamps indicates the predominance of new lighting methods since the early Middle Ages, confidently crowding out the old ones. In addition to glass lamps, only candles could play such a role, which gradually found their most widespread use among lighting devices. A lot of wax candles were required on church holidays, during solemn events, funerals, fairs, which gathered a lot of people. For example, when the body of Simeon Stylite was prepared for burial in 459, "... the mountains were not visible from the crowd, candles, incense and burning lamps", and then the whole city came out to meet the funeral procession "... with candles and chants ". The candles were different - ordinary, cheaper, and more expensive, with a special coating, sometimes even decorated with Christian symbols. The item was sold by weight.

The final victory of candles in the lighting market in Byzantine society was most likely due to the loss of external sources of olive oil supplies during the invasion of the Arab Caliphate. The loss by Byzantium of its African possessions - long-standing major exporters of olive oil - could well tip the market scales in favor of wax candles.

Apparently, the specialty of a candlestick (kirularia) in the Byzantine city was widespread and, apparently, gave a good income. Kirularius produced and sold candles of various types, quality, value, and also transfused the broken ones. When Deacon Stephen, who bought expensive candles in the candlestick shop "for big money", slipped and broke them, he "returned the wreckage to the ergastirium." They tried to make the use of candles waste-free: wax was valued as a valuable raw material and, having collected cinders and wax melted on the edges of the candlestick in the temple, they again let it be recycled.

Subsequent centuries did not bring visible innovations to the design of lighting fixtures. The impending gloomy European Middle Ages were quite bypassed with torches and candles, and the latter were often greasy. The stench emanating from such candles did not bother the medieval inhabitants of castles and city houses, whose whole worldly life was just a prelude to eternal life filled with bright light ...

Lamp with a relief image of a bird. Chersonesos. V-VI centuries. AD

Ancient Russia

In Ancient Russia, the main lighting device was a lighted torch fixed on a stand; open lamps filled with fat were also used. Rich houses could have bronze lamps or imported multi-tiered lamps - lustrons. Wax, which traditionally served as an important export commodity, was also widespread in Russia, because beekeeping was one of the most important occupations of the population. As a result, a wax candle illuminated both the home of a wealthy city dweller and the temple. At a later time, the lighted torch was inserted into special stands - forged from iron lights, which even illuminated the boyar house. Imperfect lighting fixtures have repeatedly led to fires in completely wooden cities. So, Russian chronicles are full of references to how, for example, "Moscow burned out from one candle."

On the threshold stood the New Time, when with the invention of gas burners, kerosene lamps, and then electricity, the entire lighting system fundamentally changed, and the old lighting devices sank into oblivion. However, to this day, candles, small lamps filled with oil are popular, and who of us did not go at night to a flickering light that poorly illuminates the space around us ...

A brief history of the emergence of lamps

Throughout the entire stage of human existence, he was accompanied by light. And if in the beginning, primitive torches and fires were used as artificial light, then with the development of civilization, lighting devices have greatly changed. How did the Sconce lamps come about? The invention of the first oil lamps to the inhabitants of Ancient Egypt.

Such primitive lamps were one-meter columns with bowls of oil mounted on them. These peculiar lamps were usually made in the form of a flower. In ancient Greece, vessels with hot coals or tarred wood chips were used for these purposes. These lamps were made of clay and varnished. Suspended metal lamps were first mentioned during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Constantine. These lamps came to Russia in bulk after the adoption of Christianity and were called chanters. Chandeliers are considered the prototype of modern chandeliers.

The very same word "chandelier" appeared later, in the 17th century, in France, and means "to illuminate". At the beginning of the nineteenth century, with the advent of chandeliers with oil lamps, the need to use lamps with candles disappeared, and the need for directing light gave rise to lampshades. From the second half of the 19th century, kerosene lamps gained immense popularity, which were subsequently replaced by lamps with electric lamps. For the manufacture of chandeliers began to use a variety of materials: metal, glass fabric, wood plastic.

Introduction

A lamp is an artificial light source, a device that redistributes the lamp light inside large solid angles and provides an angular concentration of the luminous flux. The main task of the luminaire is to diffuse and direct light to illuminate buildings, their interiors, areas adjacent to buildings, streets, etc. Luminaires can also serve as a decorative function.

The purpose of the test is to form a meaningful and reasonable approach to the design of a work of decorative and applied art based on an analysis of historical traditions, the specifics of artistic and imaginative solutions and technological conditions for the existence of a decorative work in various cultural and historical eras, taking into account modern trends in interior design and clothing.

Test tasks:

• - to analyze the evolution of a household item as a work of decorative and applied art in various historical, stylistic and technological conditions;
• - to search for and develop effective ways to present a work of decorative and applied art and folk crafts, design an exposition and its individual exhibits.

Lamp history

The history of lamps dates back to the times of primitive people, when a fire was constantly maintained in the middle of the cave, which allowed primitive people not only to cook food and warm up, but also to light up their unpretentious dwelling. This kind of hearth is the prototype of the first floor lamp. The caveman's need to express his thoughts through the rock art also prompted the need for additional side lighting. This illumination was a torch, which was fixed in the crevices of the cave. And much later, already in the Middle Ages, forged clamps of various designs began to be used to mount the torch on the wall. Such a simple device is the ancestor of today's sconces.

The ancient Romans and Greeks widely used floor lamps, which were a tripod ending in a bowl with a combustible substance, to which aromatic substances were often added. Candelabra are a later type of such a lamp. Instead of a tripod, the candelabra had a single support, which had a wide base for greater stability. This type of lamp was the prototype of the well-known modern floor lamp.

Another type of lighting device, also known from past periods, was the lampadarium, which was also stationary. The pendant lights of the time were in the form of oval bowls that were attached to a console or ceiling beam. The bowl contained a flammable liquid, which could be oil, animal fat or oil. A wick was immersed in this liquid, which was twisted from plant fibers. These types of lamps were called lamps and lamps.

The candle has given rise to a major breakthrough in the lighting industry. Distinguished by great convenience and being simple and economical in production in comparison with other devices, the candle contributed to the creation of a whole family of various lamps, and the candelabrum acquired elegance and ornate designs.

At the end of the seventeenth century, the formation of the overall design of the chandelier was completed, which now served as the basis for hundreds of candles and illuminated the huge ballrooms. The chandelier of that time was a massive metal frame, on which many pendants made of glass or natural stone were attached. The weight of such a chandelier could reach the order of a ton and a very powerful mechanism was required to maintain it. Indeed, in order to light the candles in the chandelier, it was necessary first to lower the chandelier, and then, with the candles already lit, to raise it. The candles were extinguished with special metal caps, which were attached to a long handle. The candles themselves were first made from animal fat, and then began to be made from beeswax. A reed served as a wick in such candles. At a later time, cotton and hemp fibers began to be used as a wick.

The candles were replaced by kerosene, which gave rise to the creation of a lamp called the "bat". The design of this lamp still serves as a prototype for the creation of many types of lamps that are used in kitchens, in children's rooms in the form of various table lamps and sconces.

Gas lanterns have revolutionized street lighting. Along with kerosene lamps, gas burners smoked uncontrollably, but regularly carried out their service in street lighting. The successful solution to the soot problem occurred in 1799, when electricity was invented by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta. In the field of lighting fixtures, various styles began to evolve rapidly.

Today you can already choose a style for lighting your home in a spirit that is closest to you. It can be minimalism, pop art, art deco, high-tech, etc.

The late 19th and early 20th centuries enriched architecture with the freedom to use artificial light. Display windows, side stained-glass windows, continuous glazing of facades have not, however, abolished the historically established types of natural lighting. It is quite possible that everything is said in this area. The stormy architectural creativity of the late 20th and early 21st centuries was not marked by the invention of anything new. Skillful combination of historically formed forms with new materials and technologies gives rise to objects of amazing originality. Natural light is used very actively in them.

Overhead light and skylights are widely used. Artificial lighting, despite the predominantly electric nature, is divided into the same main groups: top, bottom, side. It is complemented and diversified by well-known spotlights, which allow you to uniformly illuminate the room and create whimsical light compositions. Hidden sources, lighting of furniture and interior items serve to create additional effects. For example, they allow you to expand or, conversely, narrow the space, visually change its geometry, and place accents.

Many historians are inclined to believe that the era of active development of mankind began from the moment when primitive people learned to make fire, use it for cooking, heating and lighting homes. Fire was considered a gift of the gods, it was revered and cherished, legends and myths passed on from generation to generation about it.

The history of the lamp - from icon lamps to gas lamps

Over time, people have learned not only to control fire, but also to create the first lighting devices in the history of mankind.

Lamps and torches

The very first lamp invented by man was an ordinary torch. In the Middle Ages, they began to fix it on the wall using special clamps. A prototype of modern equipment was also used in Ancient Greece. Here, special structures were used to illuminate the premises - tripods equipped with a bowl with a combustible substance, as well as hanging lamps.

Candles

The next stage of evolution is the emergence of a candle. The first candles were made from wax, which was very expensive. That is why for a long time only representatives of the aristocracy could afford such a luxury. In the 19th century, the French chemist Michel Chevrolet first proposed replacing wax with a cheaper analogue - stearin, which was practically odorless and did not emit soot when burning.

Gas lanterns

Further development of science in the field of chemistry made it possible to use a variety of combustible gases for lighting. For the first time, such lights appeared in Europe, where they were quite widespread. The main component of the so-called "lamp gas" was benzene. It was obtained by pyrolysis of the fat of marine mammals, and a little later - from coal during its coking.

Incandescent and LED luminaires

Incandescent lamps

The history of the appearance of the lamp in the traditional design for us began after the discovery of electricity. Its use has opened up practically unlimited possibilities for inventors, since it has made it possible to significantly increase the heating temperature of light sources and, thereby, to increase the intensity of the light flux. The first conductive materials used for heating were carbon filament, molybdenum, tungsten and its alloys. They decided to place the light sources in glass tanks filled with inert gases, which protected them from external influences. Today, for the production of traditional incandescent lamps, a tungsten filament is used, which can heat up to 2800-3200 ° C.

LED equipment

From the moment the first lamp appeared until today, inventors have tried to solve two main problems: to increase their efficiency and to make them as safe as possible. Excellent results have been achieved with the advent of LED equipment. The advantages of such products include efficiency, absence of harmful components, and resistance to external influences. The only drawback of LED equipment is its high cost, however, gradually the price of LED lamps is becoming more and more affordable.

Despite the excellent results, experts are sure that the history of the lamp has not ended with the advent of LED equipment. Ahead of inventors await a host of exciting discoveries that will ensure maximum efficiency for lamps and comfort for our lives.