Authorities in Russia in the XVII century.
Remember the system of authorities and management in the XVII century.
Peter did not suit the old government system.
She was slow, "Patriarchalna,", in the Duma and orders almost no documentation was carried out, and therefore it was impossible to establish personal responsibility for executing decisions.
Peter sought to borrow Western management models.
Idea bases of transformations
The XVII century - the era of the celebration of rationalism.
Rationalism (from lat. Ratio.- Mind), a philosophical theory that recognizes the mind is the main source of truth, which considers the main factor in the human development of the human mind, and not divine providence.
Rationalism gave rise to an idea of \u200b\u200bthe state not as a manifestation of the will of God, but as a result of the activities of people.
Appeared the theory of public contract.
What is the most important statement of the theory of the public contract?
Idea bases of transformations
Rationalists considered: if the state was created by people to ensure its security, then people can improve it.
What followed from the point of view of rationalists, to make an ideal state to create an ideal state?
Write ideal laws and improve the work of officials.
Why did Peter I have to look like the views of rationalists on the theory of state administration?
Because they convinced: to create an ideal state only mind and will need a mind.
Views of Peter I on the control system
Think why here is the picture V. Serov.
Peter I was sure that it was firmly knowing what the happiness of the power consists, and any resistance occurs only from nerazumia and laziness.
He saw the role of the monarch in order to force people to reasonable actions.
This required a strong state apparatus.
New higher authorities
In 1701, Peter created a new one, earlier an unknown authority in Russia - considia Ministers.
Consilia ( from lat. subsilium - Meeting) - advice.
At the time of the opposite of the king from Moscow, she concentrated in their hands all the full power.
Consilion was headed by "Prince-Kaesar".
Registration of papers, meetings, reports were conducted in the Consil.
Each Consil member had a certain number of responsibilities.
New higher authorities
So in the activities of Consil, Peter began to embody theory in practice camelismAccordinglaising management should rely on strict reporting and clear separation of powers.
Patriarchal work style has changed by bureaucratic.
Peter - F.Yu. Romodanovsky in 1707:
"Estimated to declare to all ministers, so that they are all cases that they advise, and everyone would have signed his own hand.
And the dower of each revealed will be! "
Senate
In 1711, Peter created Government Senate.
During the absence of the king, the Senate is a collective head of state.
Senate functions:
Control over the ministers, the appointment of officials, the highest judicial instance, the law-and-knowledge body under the king.
Senate decisions were accepted unanimously.
The disappearance of the Boyar Duma
Peter I did not make a decree on the elimination of the Boyar Duma. But since 1704 he stopped collecting it.
Consignment in the boyars stopped. Old boyars died, new did not appear. The Duma gradually disappeared by itself.
Why did Peter do not kill the boyars of his associates?
The tradition demanded that the boyars become immigrants from noble families.
Even Peter was difficult to go against this tradition.
In addition, for him, the Boyar title was connected with the hated Moscow antique.
College
In 1717-1721. The reform of industry management was carried out.
Created colleges.
College - A group of persons forming a governing deliberative or administrative body.
College Groups:
College "outside the groups":
Justice College, Vulture College, Main Magistrate.
College features
Foreign - foreign policy.
Military - army, construction of fortifications.
Admiralteyskaya - fleet, port facilities.
Camera College - Collection of income.
College staff - budget expenditures.
Audit College - Control over the activities
staters and cameras-colleges.
Berg-College - heavy industry.
MANUFACTURE-COLLEGE - Light industry.
Commerce College - Trade (internal and external)
Justice College - legislation and legal proceedings.
Voted College - Registration of Legal Rights
estates, permission of land disputes, inheritance.
Main magistrate - management of cities.
College work order
The college was headed by the president.
His deputy was called vice president.
Decisions were taken by a majority voteboard members.
With equality of votes, the voice of the board of the board was considered for two voices.
In practice, the powerful president of the board almost always could impose with ordinary members of the Collegium a beneficial solution to him.
The first presidents of the "first" colleges:
Foreign - G.I. Golovkin.
Military - A.D. Menshikov.
Admiralteyskaya - F.M. Apraksin.
Colleges and orders
What difference between the colleges from orders?
The colleges were significantly less, the sphere of activity is much more wider.
There were no regional colleges, the college relied on local governments.
In the colleges, detailed office work was conducted, the style of their work was not a patriarchal, but a bureaucratic.
Peter about colleges:
"Meetings of many persons ..., in which the presidents or the chairmen do not have such a memorial, as old judges, they did what they wanted."
Local governance
The reform of local government was carried out before the Senate and College - in 1707-1710.
Russia is divided by gubernia:
Local governance
In 1711, army shelves "painted" by provinces that were obliged to contain them:
Astrakhansky Regiment, Kazan Regiment, Moscow Regiment ...
The shelves were not called at the place of their stay, but according to the "shefing" province.
For the convenience of managing the province, they were divided into provinces, the provinces - on the counties (distributors).
How did the creation of such a management system affected the number of officials?
The official apparatus has grown multiple times.
Local governance
Local control was created in the Swedish pattern.
In Sweden, the lowest control of the control was Kirchpil (arrival). Parish council consisted of pastor and elected parishioners.
In Russia, the receipts with the link control did not.
Senate Ordinance:
"Any outfits and parcels are by decree from cities, not from churches; In addition, there are no smart people in the erect of the peasantry.
What does the exclusion of parishes from the public administration system?
To control the officials of Peter in 1711, established a position fiscala(lat. Fiscalis - related to the treasury).
He headed all fiscals ober FiscalHe was obeyed by provincial fiscals, they - Fiscals.
Fiscals were to follow, "no one from the service was burangored and did not chinyl humus," to convey about any abuses, maintain charges in court.
For encouraging Zaeri Fiscal, they were assumed to be a remuneration in the form of half a fine imposed on the criminal shown by them.
Fiscals have not been responsible for the false denunciation: "That is not to put in the guilt, the bottom e. To join, under cruel punishment and ruin of all estates. "
State Supervision Organs
Why did Peter liberate the fiscal from responsibility for the false den?
The king preferred to blame the innocent, rather than miss a real crime.
As a result of false denunciations, there was a lot.
In 1714, after the protests of Metropolitan Stephen Yavorsky, the responsibility for the false denunciation was established: Fiscal received a punishment that was supposed to be guilty if the den was confirmed.
However, after that, overcome fiscal abuse failed.
In 1722 Ober-Fiscal A.Ya. Nesterov was executed for treasures.
State Supervision Organs
In 1722, the vocal control over the activities of state bodies and courts was entrusted prosecutor's Office.
She was headed by the prosecutor General - "Oko State University".
He was obeyed by college and provincial prosecutors.
Prosecutors were obliged to keep "sovereigns of interest" and warn the job offering, especially embezzlement.
Sovereign Cabinet
Peter created a slender system of state bodies.
This harmony, however, was violated by the position of the monarch.
As an unlimited monarch, Peter, on the one hand, stood at the head of the entire state car, on the other hand - could interfere with the work of her level through the head of higher links.
Possessing colossal energy, Peter constantly personally intervened to work, customizing his associates and, at the same time, controlling them.
Sovereign Cabinet
The volume of daily work of Peter was huge.
The king even wrote:
"It is possible for one person for so much to see, truly not a sharpening person - below the angel"
Therefore, in 1704, Peter created his own stationery - Cabinet.
At the head of the office stood the Cabinet-Secretary A.V. Makarov.
Through his hands were all sent to the king documents.
This was founded by Makarov's power, in front of which many large dignitaries entered.
Reform of the Church
After the death of Patriarch Adriana in 1700, Peter did not allow to elect a new patriarch.
What do you think, what did Peter guided by, forbidden the election of the Patriarch?
The church headed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky, elected by the Patriarchal Patriarchy Location.
The property of the Church began to dispose of the monastery order (abolished in 1667 and restored in 1701).
Reform of the Church
In 1721, the "Spiritual Regulations" was published, written by close to the king by Archbishop Fauofan Prokopovich.
Feofan verbally wrote that the people are thinking that the highest shepherd (Patriarch) is "the second sovereign, a delicate of equal," why "the simple hearts are corrupted."
According to the spiritual regulation, the Patriarchate was canceled, and the highest power in the church was transferred to the Spiritual College - Holiness Synod.
Reform of the Church
At the request of Peter, the Eastern Patriarchs recognized San. Synod with their "brother in Christ", possessing "equal patrimony."
Metropolitans and bishops appointed members of St. Synod king.
St. Synod headed the president (the first ongoing), he was granted two vice presidents.
He supervised the activities of the Synod a secular official - Ober-Prosecutor of St. Synod, subordinate to the prosecutor general.
Synod was state institution.
Reform of the Church
The priests under the threat of deprivation of San and the death penalty were obliged to convey about anti-state plans that were famous for confession.
Thus, the clergy was forced to violate the secret of confession.
The number of priests and monks is reduced. Installed norm - 1 priest for 150 yards.
"Extra" excluded from the spiritual estate and recorded in the first salary.
Those of them who lived on landlock land became serfs.
How did the changes made in respect for the church affected?
Reform of the Church
The church fully lost its independence. She did not just obey secular power, as with Alexei Mikhailovic, but became part of the state apparatus.
The most important functions of the Church were: preaching devotion to the sovereign, the ideological substantiation of the state's actions, control over the minds and moods of subjects.
In turn, the state took care of the strengthening of church control over the subjects: pursued the Raskolnikov, karos of evading confession, encouraged the inners to transition to Orthodoxy.
Authorities by 1725
Noble service
What do you think: service under Peter has become easier or harder for nobles?
In the XVII century The nobleman, although he served for life, stayed in service only during hikes and reviews, in the Petrovsky era, he was in the service (military or civilian) constantly, for years not extinguished in his estate.
True, officers and officials began to pay monetary salary.
In 1714, Peter issued decree on the union of alliance, I banning the landowners to crush the estates when passing them by inheritance.
The estate received one of the sons, the rest were supposed to extract food.
Peter believed that this would strengthen the service zeal.
Service and ranks
What principle was at the heart of a person's career in the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries?
Principle of locality based on official merit roda.
When was it officially canceled selling?
Under Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682
Despite the cancellation of locality, the promotion of the service is still largely dependent on the "breed", i.e. from origin.
Service and ranks
Peter from the very beginning of the reign paid attention not to the origin of his close, but on their talents.
Even noble nobles had to start service ordinary in the guard or small stationery.
Without passing the lower stages of service, it was impossible to make a career.
Do you think: did it strengthen or weaken the control of the state over the nobility?
Strengthening because personal merits before the state were the only source of career.
At the proposal of the military college, to determine the knowledge of the nobleman in the number of the courtyards belonging to him Peter replied: "Notable gentlement by shelf life consider!"
Tabel about ranks
Tabel about ranks
Let's sum up
The state apparatus under Peter began to work on the basis of professional bureaucratic management principles.
A single management and supervision system was created in the center and on the ground.
The army became regular.
The church finally turned into an element of the state apparatus.
The nobleman's career began to depend not from origin, but solely on personal service merit.
The dependence of the nobility from state power has increased.
What is the name of such a political system?
Let's sum up
Petrovskaya Epoch - the time of final approval in Russia of absolutism.
Absolutism - The monarchy, in which the power of the monarch is not limited by elected representative bodies, relies on a developed bureaucratic apparatus and is subject to the law.
Peter I called the state created by him regular .
Sources illustrations
Slide number 3. http://www.artsait.ru/art/m/matveev/main2.htm.
Slide number 6. http://www.artsait.ru/foto.php?art\u003ds/Serov/img/83&n\u003d%20%D1%E5%F0%EE%E2%20%C2%E0%EB%E5%ED%F2. % E8% ED% 20% C0% EB% E5% EA% F1% E0% ED% E4% F0% EE% E2% E8% F7.% 20% CF% E5% F2% F0% 20i.% 20% D4 % F0% E0% E3% EC% E5% ED% F2.% 201907
Slide number 7. http://21region.org/news/world_news/38751-mistika-rophinskogo-dvorca.html
-
Reforms of higher state authorities under Peter 1
Around 1700, Peter I abolished the Boyar Duma, replacing it with the consent of ministers as part of 8-14 (in different years) of its closest associates. This body was also called the closest office, which was made by the affairs during numerous ignites of Peter from the capital. In 1711, with his departure to Front, Peter issued a decree on the establishment of the Governing Senate, 9 of whom were prescribed by the king. They were instructed by the country's leadership in his absence. A little later, the functions of the Senate were identified: the functions of the Senate were determined: to conduct trafficking, commissioning of the army, tax collecting, the court, established a strict procedure for discussing issues and decision-making (based on unanimity). Later, the Senate has expanded its composition: He began to include the presidents of the colleges, from 1722 - only the main 4, as well as 2 "commissioner" from each province.
The Senate was essentially the highest legislative, judicial and control body of the Empire. He issued decrees on all issues of foreign and domestic politics, was the court of first instance for senior officials and considered the appeal of the lower ships, audited the activities of the provincial bosses, carried out control functions. To fulfill the latter, the Senate was established the secret post of Fiscal, who had a state of subordinates and had to "secretly spend" and "to convey" about the abuse of officials, while receiving the fourth part of the casnocrads and bribes of the amounts. The Fiscal Institute soon broke up, under the leadership of the Ober-Fiscal, Fiscal, Fiscals, Provinces, Provincel Fiscals in the provinces and city fiscals in cities.
The functions of the police supervision were charged with the prosecutor general, whose position was established in 1722. The position conceived as "Police over the administration" position quickly covered the necessary state (Ober-prosecutors, prosecutors during colleges and survival vessels) and turned into a non-primary "Eye of the Soviet " Police functions in relation to the population were assigned to the administration of all ranks, obliged to control only the public, but also the privacy of subjects. Since 1718, the position of the police officer in the cities was also introduced, he was subordinate to the local administration and headlights.
Peter I, conducting transformations in the economy, tried to adapt to new tasks an old order control system. But the attempt was not crowned with success, had to hold a fundamental reform, reorganizing and partially abolished orders and creating new bodies in their place - the college (in the image of Sweden). At first, in 1718, there were 10 colleges (strangers, chambers, staff, revision-office, Justice, Commerce, Berg-, Manufactory-College, Military and Admiralteskaya), which was instructed to engage in army and fleet, Industry and Trade, Finance. A little later, a victim board and the main magistrate was added to them.
The structure and procedure of the college was regulated by the General Regulations of 1720 - a peculiar charter of the civil service. In addition to him, the regulations of each college were published. The staff of the colleges were small: the president (Russian), the vice-president (German), 4 advisers and 4 of the assessor (in Catherine II, the number of the latter decreased to 2, and the whole state up to 6 people). Decisions were taken at the general meeting by a majority vote.
The abolition of orders was reformed and old office work. Peter I forbade columns-scrolls, gone to the past of Dejaks and the Fish, memory and unsubscribe. New members of the office appeared: secretaries, notaries, registrars, actuaries, translators, writers. From Petrovsky time, protocols, reports, reports, applications, petitions, etc. began to be written.
The ratio of Peter I to the church was two. On the one hand, Peter did not tolerate the "flyout" (atheism) and understood the importance of religion and church in the construction of the state. On the other hand, creating a light state, he tried to eliminate the spiritual leadership of the church and turn it into part of the state apparatus. And he succeeded. Helping an orthodox church in the fight against the split, Peter unfolded mass repressions against the splitters, but at the same time the patriarchy abolished. When he died in 1700, Patriarch Adrian, conflicted with the king in the question of kindness, about relations with the West, Peter did not hold the election of a new one, and instructed the head of the Church of Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky, announced by the "Location of the Patriarcharchy Throne". After the displeased of the Natius of the king on the material benefits of the Yavorsky church "shouted" in 1712 against the king, he was actually suspended from spiritual affairs, which turned into the hands of other Favorites, F. Prokopovich in particular. In 1721, the Synod appeared on the site of the monastic order - a spiritual board for managing church affairs. The synod consisted of 12 persons, the highest hierarchs assigned to the king. Ober-prosecutor of the Synod, who had the right to impose a veto on any decision of hierarchs, a secular man was appointed, as a rule, a retired officer. The Synod was observed for the purity of faith (the transition from Orthodoxy to another faith was banned), the interpretation of church dogmas, conducted cases of marriages. The Synod was subordinate to Peter and all the innovic churches, Lutheran, Catholic and partly of non-Christian confession.
Central Governance
Zemsky Cathedral
Local governance
Boyarskaya Duma
Governor
Lightheads
Zemskoye older
Corolovans.
Big Palace,
Palace vessel
Stable
Falconer,
Bedding
Golden Affairs
Discharges: -novgorodsky,
Sevsky,
Belgorod
Tambovsky
Kazan
Tobolsky,
Smolensky
Vladimirsky
Administrative financial:
Casual
Big arrival
Big treasury
Military administrative:
Discharge
Secure
Streletsky
Inosian,
Ratar
Armory
Church:
Casual
Church cases
Patriarch
Territorial
Kazan Palace,
Siberian Palace,
Malorossiy,
Smolensky,
Great Russia
Causes of reforming the public administration system:
1) the old system did not allow to quickly solve problems in the conditions of war; 2) She did not allow to control the entire territory of the country from the capital to the outskirts; 3) after the adoption of cathedral deposits in 1649, the all-known Zemsky Cathedral has lost its powers; 4) After the cancellation in 1882, the price of the Boyarskaya Duma lost importance.
5 ) There were about a hundred permanent and temporary orders in the country. This system was poorly managed, absorbed public funds, was unable to quickly solve emerging problems.
Structure of public administration under Petri I Emperor (from 1721) Senate (from 1711)
Central organs
control
Control bodies
Local governments
College of Foreign Affairs (Relations with foreign states)
Military College (Armed Force Management)
Admiralty College
(Fleet Construction and Military Fleet Management)
Camera College (collection of funds in favor of the state)
Constor College (Maintaining all government spending)
Audit College. (control of state parishes and expenses)
Berg College (Organpo leadership of the mining and metallurgical industry)
Manufacture-collegium (Organpo Light industry leadership)
Commerce College. (Trading actions)
Justice College (referral and search services)
Votchinny (Land tenure issues)
The oldest government
Synod (Spiritual College) (Supreme Organ for the Affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church)
Preobrazhensky (political cheer)
Order Geraldmakerskaya College
Mint Department
Magistrate (Department of local police officers, supervision of the monetary case, repairing roads, served as governors in small cities)
1) General - Wardror
2) Fiscals from 1725, Fiscals in all states. institutions;
3) Prosecutor General (from 1722), prosecutors in all states. institutions.
Local authorities
Administrative and territorial system
Supervisory authorities
Management cities
magistrates
gubernia
prosecutor
province
1) Governor (8 provinces from 1708)
Province:
Moscow
S. - Petersburg
Kievskaya
Smolenskaya
Arkhangelskaya
Kazan
Azovskaya
Siberian
2) of the governor (50 provinces from 1719)
Zemsky Commissioner in County
3) city magistrates.
Characteristics of government bodies created by Peter 1.
Central control:
Senate (2Marta 1711) - Higher government institution, which replaced the ancient boyar duma. The Senate by decree in 1718 included the presidents of all the boards (grafIvan A. Musin-Pushkin, boyarinTihon Nikitich Venetian, knyazPetr Golitsyn, knyazMihail Dolgoruky, knyazGrigory A. nephew knyazGrigory Ivanovich Volkonsky, generalMihail M. Samarin, General Vasily Apukhtin iNazary Petrovich Mel'nitskii. An Ober Secretary was appointed Anisim Schukin). Its task was to endure orders at the request of the Boards, which they could not solve themselves. An important function of the Senate was the appointment and approval of almost all officials in new institutions.
College- organs of state centralized sectoral management. The Petrel first created 9 colleges, but by the end of his reigning the central office was represented by 11 colleges. The rights of the colleges existed another institutions. This is a Synod and the main magistrate.
Local control:
Management of territories
Decree on the establishment of the province has completed the first stage of local management reform. The provincial administration was carried out by governors and vice-governors who were mainly carried out by military and financial management functions. In each province there were major cities in which the Office carried out the former city administration. There were 8 provinces, divided into the counties.
Management citiesIn 1699 Peter 1, established the Burmister Chamber. Municipal authorities began to form in the cities: landing gatherings, magistrates. According to the regulations of the main magistrate, 1721, it began to be divided into regular citizens and "bottomal" people. Regular citizens, in turn, were divided into two guilds: the first guild - bankers, merchants, doctors, pharmacists, skippers merchant, painters, icon painters and silver maststers. The second guild is artisans, joiners, tailors, shoemakers, small merchants.
Conclusion:
Peter Iz, the years of the Northern War created a fairly effective system of central and local governance, which allowed to ensure the management of the state from the capital to the outskirts of the country.
The work of the Board was built on the principle of centralized industry management, in which their duties and officials were clearly defined for their execution.
Peter Ikakii decisions to create new controls accepted during the experiments. Some decisions were direct borrowing of foreign experience. The names of the governing bodies themselves: board, magistrate, etc. were borrowed from European practice. By the end of the war, the Russian management system was very similar to Swedish. She had a mobilization character and could be said that Petribil Swedes with Swedish managerial weapons.
The effectiveness of the created managerial system forced European countries to recognize Russia to the Empire, and Peter Iimperorator.
Since 1708, Peter began to rebuild the old authorities and management and replace them with new ones. As a result, by the end of the first quarter of the XVIII century. The following system of authorities and management has developed.
In 1711, a new senior executive and judiciary was created - the Senate, which possessed and significant legislative functions. He was fundamentally different from his predecessor - Boyarskaya Duma.
"Council members were appointed by the emperor. In the implementation of the executive authority, the Senate issued decrees that had the power of the law. In 1722, a prosecutor general was raised at the head of the Senate, which he had control over the activities of all government agencies. The prosecutor general was to carry out the functions of the "OKE State". He carried this control through prosecutors appointed to all government agencies. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. The fiscal system was added to the prosecutors system, headed by overefiscal. The duties of Fiscal reported on all the abuse of institutions and officials who violated "state interest".
In no way corresponded to the new conditions and objectives of the order system, which established at the Boyar Duma. "Orders originated at different times (the Embassy, \u200b\u200bStreetsky, the Local, Siberian, Kazan, Malorussky, and others) were greatly different in nature and functions." Orders and decrees of orders often contradicted each other, creating an unimaginable confusion and for a long time delaying the decision of emergency issues.
In exchange, an outdated system of orders in 1717-1718. 12 colleges were created, each of which was bred by a certain industry or the scope of management and was subordinate to the Senate. The main points were considered three colleges: foreign, military and admiralty. The competence of Comerz, Manufactory and Berg - the Collegium included trade issues and industry. Three colleges were provided with finances: Chamber Board - income, states - board - expenses, and revision - the board controlled income receipts, fees, taxes, duties, the correctness of the expenditure by the agencies to them. The Justice College was certified by civil proceedings, and his faithful, established a little later, - noble land tenure. Another major magistrate was created, who made the landing population; He was obeyed by magistrates and town halls of all cities. The college received the right to issue decrees on the issues that were included in their maintenance.
In addition to the college, several offices, the office, departments, orders, whose functions were also clearly delimited. Some of them, for example, a Geroldmaster office, who made the service and production in the ranks of the nobles; The Preobrazhensky order and the secret office who made the affairs of state crimes submitted to the Senate, the other - the Mint Department, Salt Office, the Mechanical Office, etc. - obeyed one of the colleges.
In 1708-1709. The restructuring of the authorities and field management was launched. The country was divided into 8 provinces that differed across the territory and the number of population. Thus, the Smolensk and Arkhangelogodskaya province of their size differed little from modern areas, and the Moscow province covered the entire densely populated center, the territory of the modern Vladimir, Ivanovo, Kaluga, Town, Kostroma, Moscow, Ryazan, Tula and Yaroslavl regions, on which almost half of the total population lived countries. The provinces entered the St. Petersburg, Kiev, Kazan, Azov and Siberian.
"Head of the province stood the governor appointed by the king, who focused executive and judicial authorities in his hands. Governor existed the provincial office. But the situation was complicated by the fact that the governor was subordinate not only to the emperor and the Senate, but also to all boards, orders and decrees of which were often contrary to each other. "
The provinces in 1719 were divided into provinces, the number of which was 50. The province was headed by the province with the Office with him. The provinces, in turn, were shared on the counties with the governor and the county stationery. For some time, in the reign of Peter, the county administration was replaced by the elected Zemstvo Commissioner from local nobility or retired officers. Its functions were limited to collecting pillow by grade, observing the performance of governmental duties, detention of fugitive peasants. Submitted to the Zemsky Commissioner of the Provincial Office. In 1713, the local nobility was granted to choose 8-12 landrs (advisers from the Dobye district) to help the governor, and after the introduction of the pillow, the regimental distributions were created. Armored military units were observed for the collection of filters and stopped manifestations of discontent and antipodeal performances. The painting of the ranks on January 24, 1722, the table of ranks, introduced a new classification of the employee of Luda. All new established posts are all with foreign names, Latin and German, except for very few, are built on the table in three parallel rows: military, Stat and court, with the division of each of 14 ranks, or classes. A similar ladder with 14 steps of ranks was introduced in a fleet and the court service. This constituent act of reformed Russian officials, put a bureaucratic hierarchy, merit and driving, to the place of the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed, pedigree book. In one of the articles attached to the table, the emphasis is explained that the knowledge of the genus itself, without service, does not mean anything, does not create a person of any position, the people of the noble breed is not given no position, until they show them the sovereign and the Fatherland.
Thus, the administrative-bureaucratic management system for the whole country has developed, the decisive role in which the monarch played, who appeared on the nobility. In the second half of the XVII century. The overall trend of the development of the state system of Russia was to transition from autocracy with the Boyar Duma and Boyar aristocracy, from the estate and representative monarchy to the "Chinovkin-Noble Monarchy", to Absolutulla. In the XVII century The title of Russian kings has changed, in which the term "self-catering" appeared. The overall process of regulating all areas of life and managing the country with unlimited authorities of the monarch met the protest from the Russian Orthodox Church. It was the largest feudal organization by owned by indispensable wealth, thousands of fortress peasants and huge land. The church, and success, beat off the attempt of state power to put control of its ownership. But Peter managed to partially subordinate the church of state power.
All the state activities of Peter I can conventionally divided into two periods: 1695-1715 and 1715-1725.
The peculiarity of the first stage was a hurry and not always thoughtful, which was explained by the leading of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily on the collection of funds for warfare, were carried out by a violent method and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, in the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out in order to modernize the lifestyle.
In the second period, the reform were more molar and ill-conceived and aimed at the internal arrangement of the state.
In general, Peter's reforms were aimed at strengthening the Russian state and the introduction of the ruling layer to Western European culture with the simultaneous strengthening of the absolute monarchy. By the end of the board of Peter the Great, a powerful Russian empire was created, at the head of which was the emperor who had absolute power. During the reforms, Russia's feasibility and economic lag from a number of other European states were overcome, converted to the Baltic Sea, transformations were carried out in all spheres of life of Russian society. At the same time, the folk forces were extremely exhausted, the bureaucratic apparatus broke out, prerequisites were created (a decree of the throne) for the crisis of the supreme power, which led to the era of "Palace Dobor".
State Department Reforms
Peter I initially did not have a clear reform program in the field of state reign. The emergence of a new government institution or a change in the administrative-territorial management of the country was dictated by the conduct of wars, which required significant financial resources and mobilizing the population. Inherited by Peter I, the system of government did not allow to collect enough funds for reorganization and an increase in the army, the construction of the fleet, the construction of fortresses and St. Petersburg.
From the first years of the reign of Peter, the tendency to reduce the role of a ineffective Boyar Duma in government management was trained. In 1699, a near office was organized at the king, or Consilium (Council) Ministersconsisting of 8 trusted persons who managed individual orders. It was a preamune of the future of the Governing Senate, formed on February 22, 1711. Recent mention of the Boyar Duma belongs to 1704. A certain mode of operation was established in Consil: each minister had special powers, reporting and minutes of meetings appear. In 1711, instead of the Boyarskaya Duma and sublimating its concilia, the Senate was established. Peter so formulated the main task of the Senate: " Watch throughout the state of expenses, and unnecessary, and especially in vain, retain. Money, as perhaps, make money to the arterier of war.»
Created by Peter for the current management of the state during the absence of the king (at that time the king went to the Prut's campaign), the Senate, as part of 9 people, turned from the temporary to a permanent higher government institution, which was fixed by Decree of 1722. He controlled justice, conducted trafficking, fees and expenses of the state, watched the health of military aperture serving, was transferred to him, the functions of the discharge and ambassador orders were transferred.
Decisions in the Senate were collegially accepted, at the general meeting and supported the signatures of all members of the Supreme State Body. If one of the 9 senators refuses to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated a part of his authority to Senate, but at the same time laid personal responsibility on his members.
At the same time, the post of fiscal appeared with the Senate. The obligation of Ober-Fiscal in the Senate and Fiscal in the provinces consisted of a unprofitable supervision for the activities of institutions: there were cases of violation of decrees and abuses and conveyed to Senate and King. Since 1715, a general auditor has followed the work of the Senate, from 1718 renamed to the Ober-Secretary. Since 1722, the control of the Senate is carried out by a prosecutor general and the ober-prosecutor, which were subject to prosecutors of all other institutions. No decision of the Senate had no strength without the consent and signature of the prosecutor. Prosecutor General and his deputy Ober-Prosecutor submitted directly to the sovereign.
Senate as a government could make decisions, but an administrative apparatus was required to fulfill them. In 1717-1721, the reform of executive governing bodies was carried out, as a result of which the system of orders with their vague functions was replaced by the Swedish sample by 11 colleges - predecessors of future ministries. Unlike the orders of the function and sphere of activity of each college, they were strictly delimited, and the relationship in the collegium itself was based on the principle of collegiates of decisions. Were introduced:
- College of alien (foreign) affairs.
- Military College - Working, Armament, Equipment and Learning of the Ground Army.
- Admiralty-Collegium - Naval, Fleet.
- Kamor-College - the collection of state revenues.
- The counter-college staff - was the expenses of the state,
- The revision board is to control the collection and spending of government funds.
- Commerce College - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
- Berg College - Mining and Metallurgical Case.
- MANUFACTURE-COLLEGE - LIGHT INDUSTRY.
- Justice-College - Held civil proceedings (with it, a serf office was operating: various acts were recorded - borrowing, for the sale of Votchin, spiritual testaments, debt obligations).
- The spiritual board - managed church affairs (later the Holy Government Synod).
In 1721, a parst collegium was formed - he had victims of the noble land tenure (land charges were considered, the transactions for the sale and sale of land and peasants, the cheer of runaway).
In 1720, the main magistrate was formed under the Rights of the College, who managed the urban population.
In 1721, the spiritual board or synod was established - the cases of the Church were considered.
From February 28, 1720, the General Regulations introduced the Unified Country Office for the entire country in the state apparatus. According to the regulations, the board consisted of the president, 4-5 advisers and 4 tracks.
In addition, the Preobrazhensky order (political school), Salt Office, Copper Department, Mechanical Office, were operating.
The "first" colleges were called military, admiralty and foreign affairs.
Two institutions were on the rights of colleges: Synod and Main Magistrate.
The college was obeyed by Senate, and they are the provincial, provincial and county administration.Regional reform
In 1708-1715, regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of the authorities in the field and the best provision of the army with supply and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces led by governors entrusted with the fullness of judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhanghelogo and Siberian. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the revenue to the treasury, the Kazan province was followed.
The governors also made the arms located in the territory of the provincial. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - the shares that united 5536 yards. The first regional reform did not solve the tasks set, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their content.
In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, eliminating the shares. The provinces began to share for 50 provinces led by the governors, and the provinces for distributes led by the Zemski Commissioners appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and court cases remained under the management of the governor.
As a result of the reforms of public administration, the execution of an absolute monarchy ended, as well as a bureaucratic system to which the emperor relied.
Control over the activities of civil servants
To control the execution of decisions on the ground and the decrease in the Corruption since 1711, the post of fiscal was established, which were to "secretly spend, to convey and denounce" all abuses, both higher and lower officials, haunt treasures, bribery, to take denominants from individuals . At the head of the fiscal stood Ober-Fiscal, appointed by the king and who obeyed him. Ober Fiscal was part of the Senate and supported the connection with subordinate fiscal through the fiscal desk of the Office of the Senate. Donos viewed and monthly reported Senate The collapse of the Chamber - a special jurisdiction of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).
In 1719-1723. Fiscals submitted to the Justice College, with the establishment in January 1722 the positions of the prosecutor general were supervised by him. From 1723, General Fiscal, an appointed by the sovereign, his assistant - Ober-Fiscal, became the main fiscal, appointed by Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service came out of the subordination of the Justice College and again gained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.
Army and Fleet reforms
Upon joining the kingdom, Petr received a permanent shooting army, prone to anarchy and rebellion, which is not able to fight with Western armies. Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky shelves, who grew up from the children's fun of the young king, became the first regiments of the new Russian army, built with the help of foreigners on the European sample. The reform of the army and the creation of the fleet became the necessary conditions for the victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721.
Preparing for war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to produce a general recruit set and start training soldiers on the sample, headed by Transobrachters and Semenov. This first recruit set gave 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 courtyards were supposed to put one recruit on the lifelong service, idling aged guy from 15 to 20 years. Subsequently, recruits began to take from a certain number of male shower among the peasants. The set in the fleet, as in the army, was carried out from recruits.
If at first among officers were predominantly foreign specialists, after the start of the work of the navigation, artillery, engineering school, the growth of the army was satisfied with Russian officers from the noble estate. In 1715, the Marine Academy was opened in St. Petersburg. In 1716, a military charter was published, strictly determining the service, the rights and obligations of the military.
As a result of the transformation, a strong regular army was created and a powerful naval fleet, which previously did not have had previously. By the end of the reign of Peter, the number of regular land forces reached 210 thousand (they were 2600 in the guard, 41,550 in Connection, 75 thousand in infantry, 74 thousand in garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops. The fleet consisted of 48 linear ships; Gallery and other ships 787; There were almost 30 thousand people on all courts.
Church reform
One of the transformation of Peter I was the reform of church administration, aimed at eliminating autonomous to the state of church jurisdiction and the submission of the Russian hierarchy of the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I instead of the convening of the Cathedral for the election of the new patriarch temporarily put at the head of the clergy of the Metropolitan of Ryazan Stefan Yavorsky, who received a new title of the Patriarchal Throne or Exarcha.
To manage the property of patriarchal and archgray houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (about 795 thousand), the monastic order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to lead the court over monastic peasants and control Revenues from church monastic land ownership.
In 1701, a series of decrees was published to reform the management of church monastery possessions and the device of monastic life. The most important were decrees on January 24 and 31, 1701
In 1721, Peter approved the spiritual regulations, the compilation of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, an approximate king of Malorosce Faofhan Prokopovich. As a result, the indigenous reform of the church occurred, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely submitted to his state.
In Russia, the Patriarchate was abolished and the spiritual board was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized as the eastern patriarchs of the self-pointed Patriarch. All Synod members were appointed by the emperor and brought him a loyal oath upon joining the position.
War time stimulated the seizure of values \u200b\u200bfrom monastic storage. Peter did not go to the full secularization of church monastic possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.
Religious policy
The era of Peter was noted a trend towards greater religious tolerance. Peter stopped the action of the "12 articles adopted by Sofia, according to which the Old Believers who refused to renounce" split "were to be burned in a fire. "Raskolnikov" was allowed to confess their faith, subject to the recognition of the existing state order and paying taxes in a double size. Full freedom of faith was provided to the foreigners who came to Russia, restricted on the communication of Orthodox with Christians of other denominations (in particular, interfaith marriages are allowed).
Financial reform
Azov campaigns, and then the Northern War of 1700-1721 demanded huge funds, whose collecting and financial reforms were sent.
At the first stage, everything came down to finding new sources of funds. Traditional customs and kabatak charges were added fees and benefits from the monopolization of the sale of individual goods (salts, alcohol, trigger, bristles, etc.), indirect taxes (bath, fish, horse taxes, oak coffins tax, etc.) , mandatory use of stamp paper, minor weight coins (damage).
In 1704, a monetary reform was carried out by Peter, as a result of which the main monetary unit was not money, but a penny. She from now on, it became not ½ money, but 2 money, and the word first appeared on the coins. At the same time, a unmanned ruble was canceled, who since the 15th century, a conditioned monetary unit, equal to 68 grams of pure silver and used as a reference in exchange operations. The most important measure in the course of the financial reform was the introduction of a pillow of gravity instead of existing to this residential. In 1710, a "resident" census was carried out, which showed a decrease in the number of courtyards. One of the reasons for such a decrease was that in order to reduce taxes, several yards were applied to one shoulder, and did some gate (this was considered at the census by one yard). Due to these disadvantages, it was decided to transition to the pillow. In 1718-1724, a repeated census was carried out in parallel with the audit of the population (the revision of the census), which began in 1722. According to this audit, 5,967,333 people turned out to be 5,967,333 people.
Based on the data received, the government divided the amount of money required for the content of the army and fleet.
As a result, the size of the pitchfather was determined: the fortressmen paid the state 74 kopecks, state peasants - 1 ruble 14 kopecks (since they did not pay the lifts), the urban population is 1 ruble of 20 kopecks. Only men have suiced, regardless of age. The nobility, the clergy, as well as the soldiers and the Cossacks from the pillow, were released. The soul was countable - the died between revisions were not excluded from the submitted lists, the newborns did not turn on, as a result, the tax burden was unevenly distributed.
As a result of the applied reform, the size of the treasury was significantly increased due to the spread of the tax burden not only on the peasantry, but also on their landowners. If in 1710 revenues extended to 3,134,000 rubles; That in 1725 there were 10 186 707 rubles. (on foreign information - up to 7,859,833 rubles).
Transformation in industry and trade
Realizing during the Great Embassy, \u200b\u200bthe technical lag of Russia, Peter could not bypass the problem of reforming the Russian industry. One of the main problems was the lack of qualified masters. The king decided this problem by attracting foreigners to the Russian service on favorable terms, the package of Russian nobles for training in Western Europe. The manufacturers received great privileges: they were freed with children and masters from military service, only the court of the Manufactory-Collegium was obstructed, got rid of the serves and internal duties, could be duty free from abroad the tools and materials necessary for them, their homes were released from the military.
Near Nerchinsk in Siberia in 1704, the first silver smelter plant was built. Next year he gave the first silver.
Significant measures were undertaken by the geological exploration of minerals of Russia. Previously, the Russian state in commodity relations completely depended on foreign states, first of all, Sweden (from there Iron was carried), however, after the discovery of iron ore deposits and other minerals in the Urals, the need for iron procurement disappeared. In the Urals in 1723, the largest rendering of the plant in Russia, from which the city of Yekaterinburg developed was laid. In Peter, Nevyansk, Kamensk-Uralsky, Nizhny Tagil were founded. Armory plants (cannon courts, arsenals) in Olonetsk Territory, Sestroretsk and Tula, powder plants - in St. Petersburg and near Moscow, develops a leather and textile industry - in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan and on the left-bank Ukraine, which was necessarily the need for the production of equipment and uniforms For Russian troops, shelling, production of paper, cement, sugar factory and a grinding factory appear.
In 1719, "Berg-Privilege" was published, according to which any right was given everywhere to seek, melting, cooking and cleaning metals and minerals, subject to the payment of "Mountain Podachi" in 1/10 of the cost of production and 32-grades in favor of the land owner where ore deposits are found. For the rattles of ore and try to prevent the extraction of the owner threatened the confiscation of the Earth, corporal punishment and even the death penalty "is fault."
The main problem on Russian manufactories of that time was the lack of labor. The problem was solved by violent measures: whole villages were attributed to manufacturers and villages, whose peasants worked out their own states on manuffs (such peasants will receive the name of claims), the factory sent criminals and beggars. In 1721, a decree was followed in which the villages were allowed to buy villages whose peasants could relocate on manufactory (such peasants will receive the name of the sessions).
Further development received trade. With the construction of St. Petersburg, the role of the country's main port moved from Arkhangelsk to the future capital. Constructed river channels.
In general, Peter's policies in trade can be described as a policy of protectionism, which consists in supporting domestic production and the establishment of increased duties on imported products (this corresponded to the idea of \u200b\u200bmercantilism). In 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties for foreign goods that could produce or have already produced domestic enterprises.
Thus, under Peter, the foundation of the Russian industry was found, with the result that in the middle of the XVIII century Russia came out in the first place in the world in the production of metal. The number of factories and factories at the end of the reign of Peter stretched to 233.
Social politics
The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of the estate rights and responsibilities of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, a new structure of society has developed, in which the wording character is more clearly formed. The rights were expanded and the responsibilities of the nobility were determined, and, at the same time, the fastener jet of the peasants was strengthened.
Nobility
Major milestones:
- Decree of Education 1706: Boyars must necessarily have either the initial school or home education.
- Decree on Verkhnaya 1704: Noble and Boyarskaya Votchina do not share and equated to each other.
- Decree on the union of 1714: a landowner who has sons, could have all his real estate only one of them on the choice. The rest were required to carry the service. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and Boyarskaya Votchina, thereby finally erased the difference between the two estates of the feudal.
- "Tabel about ranks" 1721 (1722) of the year: division of military, civil and court service for 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military could receive the status of an offacarious nobility. Thus, the career of man depended primarily not from his origin, but from achievements in the public service.
- Decree on the Prestolon Female February 5, 1722: Due to the absence of the heir Peter I, decides to issue an order about the throne, which reserves the right to appoint himself the heir (Coronation Ceremony of Spouse Peter Ekaterina Alekseevna)
The place of the former boyars took the "general", consisting of the first four classes "table of ranks" from the ranks. Personal service mixed representatives of the former generic nobility with people raised by the service.
Legislative measures of Peter, without expanding the substantially estate rights of the nobility, significantly changed his duties. Military case, who was the Moscow time of the narrow class of serviced people, becomes now the mantom of all the layers of the population. The nobleman of Petrovsky times continues to have an exclusive legal entity, but due to the decrees about the union and a revision, the state is responsible for the state for the suggestion of its peasants. The nobility is obliged to prepare for the service to learn.
Peter destroyed the former closure of the service class, opened by driving through the table about rank access to the Wednesday man of the people of other classes. On the other hand, the law on the only one, he opened a way out of the nobility into merchants and the clergy of those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia becomes the estate of the military-bureaucratic, whose rights creates and inheritance determines the public service, and not the birth.
Peasantry
Peter's reforms changed the position of the peasants. Of the different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom of landlords or church (the Black-sized peasants of the North, non-Russian nations, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paid the state of the state. The view that this measure "destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry" is incorrectly, since the population groups that have made state peasants, were not considered in the Dopurerov period as free - they were attached to the Earth (Cathedral Code of 1649) and could be complained to the king to individuals and churches As a fortress.
State The peasants in the XVIII century had the rights of personally free people (could own property, act in court as one of the parties, choose representatives into class bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could (until the beginning of the XIX century, when This category is finally approved as free people) translated by the monarch in the category of serfs.
Legislative acts related to the actual peasantry actually were contradictory. So, the intervention of the landowners was limited to the conclusion of the worst serfs (Decree of 1724), it is forbidden to exhibit serfs instead of defendants in court and keep them on top of the owner's debts. It was also confirmed by the norm on the transfer of its peasants in the guardianship to the guardianship, and the peasants were given the opportunity to record the soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (Decree of Imp. Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, the peasants have lost this opportunity).
At the same time, measures were significantly tightened against the runaway peasants, the large masses of the palace peasants are distributed to individuals, the landowners were allowed to give fasteners to recruits. Halling choppers (i.e. personal servants without land), a submachine has led to the merger of the hills with fortress peasants. The church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and are derived from under the power of monasteries.
With Peter, a new category of dependent farmers were created - peasants attributed to manufactory. These peasants in the XVIII century got the name of the sessions. Decree of 1721 was permitted by nobles and merchant merchants to buy peasants to manufactures for work on them. The peasants purchased to the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to the production, so the owner of the factory could neither sell or lay peasants separately from manufactory. The peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed scope of work.
An important for the peasantry of Peter was a decree on May 11, 1721, which introduced a Lithuanian braid into the practice of the harvest of bread, instead of a serpent traditionally consumed in Russia. To disseminate this innovation, the provinces were sent out the samples of "Litovok", together with instructors from German and Latvian peasants. Since the Spit gave tenfold labor savings in the harvest, then this innovation was widely widespread, and was part of the usual peasant farm. Other measures of Peter on the development of agriculture, included the distribution among landowners of new breeds of cattle - Dutch cows, merino sheep from Spain, creating horse factories. On the southern outskirts of the country, measures were taken to plant vineyards and plantations of tute trees.
Urban population
The social policy of Peter the Great, regarding the urban population, pursued the provision of paying the puffwind. For this, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, artisans of workshops) and irregular citizens (all others). The difference between the urban regular man in the end of the reign of Peter from irregular was that the regular citizen participated in the urban management by election of the Magistrate members, was recorded in the guild and workshop or a monetary event in the share that fell on him for public layout.
In 1722, craftsmen appeared on the Western European sample. The main purpose of their creation was the association of scattered craft masters for the production of products necessary for the army. However, the shop structure in Russia did not fit.
During the reign of Peter, the cities management system has changed. The governors appointed by the king were replaced by elected urban magistrates subordinate to the main magistrate. These measures meant the emergence of urban self-government.
Cultural Transformation
Peter I changed the beginning of the summer with the so-called Byzantine era ("from the creation of Adam") on "from the Nativity of Christ." 7208 in the Byzantine era became 1700 year from the Nativity of Christ. However, this reform did not affect the Julian calendar as such - only the numbers have changed.
After returning from the great embassy, \u200b\u200bPeter I led the struggle with the external manifestations of the obsolete lifestyle (the most famous ban on beards), but did not less attention to the acquisition of the nobility towards education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular schools began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, the translations of many books into Russian appear. Success in the service of Peter put for the nobles dependent on education.
With Peter in 1703, the first book appeared in Russian with Arabic figures. Before that number was denoted by letters with titles (wave-like lines). In 1710, Peter approved a new alphabet with simplified drawing of letters (the Church Slavonic font remained for the printing of church literature), two letters "KSI" and "PSI" were excluded. Peter created new typography, in which 1312 names of books (twice as large as the entire previous history of Russian typography) were printed in 1700-1725. Thanks to the rise of typography, the consumption of paper has grown from 4-8 thousand sheets at the end of the 17th century, up to 50 thousand sheets in 1719. There were changes in Russian, which includes 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.
In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the Sciences organized by the Academy (opened in 1725 after his death).
Of particular importance was the construction of Stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out on the plan developed by the king. They created a new urban environment with unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerad). The inner decoration of houses has changed, lifestyle, nutrition composition, etc.
The Special Decree of the Tsar in 1718, the Assembly were introduced, which presented the form of communication between people a new one for Russia. At the assemblies, nobles danced and spent freely, unlike the former feasts and peters. Thus, noble women were able to join cultural leisure and public life for the first time.
Reforms conducted by Peter I affected not only politics, economy, but also art. Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study "Arts" abroad, mainly in Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the XVIII century. Petrovsky Pensioners began to return to Russia, bringing with her new artistic experience and the acquired skill.
Gradually, in the ruling medium, a different system of values, worldviews, aesthetic ideas were developed.
Education
Peter clearly aware of the need to enlighten, and made a number of decisive measures for this purpose.
On January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigation sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools in Moscow, Engineering School and the Marine Academy in St. Petersburg were opened, mountain schools at the Olonetsk and Ural plants. In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened. The purpose of mass education should have been created by the decree of 1714 cyphyr schools in provincial cities designed " children of all ranks learn literacy, tiphirs and geometry" It was assumed to create two such schools in every province, where learning should have been free. For soldier children, garrison schools were opened, a network of spiritual schools was created to prepare priests 1721.
According to Hannover Weber, during the reign of Peter, several thousand Russians were sent to learn abroad.
Petra's decrees were introduced mandatory training of nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met violent resistance and was canceled. Peter's attempt to create a discovered primary school (the creation of a network of schools after his death ceased, most of the cyphic schools in its successors were reprocessed into the estate schools to prepare the clergy), but nevertheless, its reign was laid for the dissemination of education in Russia.