Topic: Women philosophers in ancient times
Introduction
What was the role that women played in the history of philosophy? Why has this role remained largely unknown? The first of these questions is not so easy to answer. We do know, however, that in ancient times at least twenty-one women studied, wrote and/or taught philosophy. At least three of them, Hypatia of Alexandria (370-415 BC), Asclepigenia of Athens (c.375 BC), and Arete of Cyrene (c.350 BC) BC) were believed to have led, led, or co-directed schools of philosophy with men. These twenty-one ancient female philosophers were known to some of the consistently male philosophers, including Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristippus, and Proclus. Women are mentioned in the extant works or biographies of some of these philosophers, in earlier histories such as those written by Diogenes Laertius (Kolesnikov A.S., 2009).
Why then were women removed from the historical canon of philosophy? Old learning can hardly explain these actions of men. Here, apparently, the point is in the characterization of the histories of philosophy. Information regarding male and female philosophers appears in the same sources: early compendiums and encyclopedias, medieval archival collections (especially in the Vatican), early modern professional journals maintained a correspondence of male and female philosophers. Perhaps this has nothing to do with the fact that the history of philosophy did not include mention of practicing women philosophers, but it is strange that female historians of philosophy are also unknown. In any case, there remains some prejudice on the part of men towards women philosophers, as well as silence regarding the contributions of women to philosophy in large chronological reference books on philosophy and philosophical encyclopedias. It is known that the ancients, acting out of prejudice, rarely taught girls in general, including philosophy; Medieval theologians acting out of prejudice rejected the existence of the very ability of women in the sphere of religious or philosophical management (Kolesnikov A.S., 2009).
It seems obvious that the desire for wisdom is not the prerogative of a man, given to him by nature. The paths to wisdom are varied, just as the forms of love for it are varied. And, although usually men played the main role in search of metaphysical insights, among women there were always those whose adornment was, in the words of the apostle, “not external braiding of hair, not gold headdresses or elegance in clothing” (Dyomin R.N.)
Women philosophers of antiquity: destinies, ideas
Let's start from the beginning, with early Greek philosophy. According to one of the founders of the biographical genre in antiquity, Aristotle’s student Aristoxenus, who in his youth studied with the Pythagoreans and wrote a biography of Pythagoras that, unfortunately, has not reached our time, Pythagoras took his teaching from Themistoclea of Delphi(Dyomin R.N. Petershule).
However, there is very little information about women philosophers, and their works are also scarce. However, more fragments have survived than the works themselves.
Plato includes two fragments: Socrates' account of Diotima of Mantinea's views on love (c. 415 BC), forms most of the Symposium; and one of the two remaining versions of Pericles' speech to the Athenians is the Sophist, which is traditionally believed to have been written by his wife Aspasia of Miletus (ca. 400 BC) (Kolesnikov A.S., 2009).
Diotima of Mantinea was hetero. This outstanding woman gave ideas to Socrates and Plato. Her words were recognized as the wisest among male philosophers. For this Plato immortalized her in his Symposium. In Plato’s “Symposium,” Diotima says: “All people are pregnant, both physically and spiritually, and when they reach a certain age, our nature requires relief from the burden... It can only be resolved in the beautiful, but not in the ugly.” And he adds: “The intercourse of a man and a woman is such permission.” She believed that “every creative desire for goodness and beauty is generated by a thirst for the continuation of life. Every birth is a miracle, that is, a manifestation of the divine in man, including when it comes to the birth and formation of morality in us or the knowledge of the divine.”
According to legend, Diotima, whose name in Greek means “God-fearing,” in 429 BC. e., during an outbreak of plague, she begged for a reprieve of the disease for the Athenians and was made a priestess for this (Kolesnikov A.S., 2009, Losev A.F., Taho-Godi A.A., 1993)
Aspasia one of the first prominent women known in history. Second wife of Pericles, the greatest Athenian figure. Aspasia was not a native of Athens, so her marriage to Pericles was not considered legal. She was accused by the enemies of Pericles of disrespect for the gods and immorality. Acquitted only thanks to her husband's protection. Despite the fact that many talented people of that era (for example, Phidias ) admired her intelligence and beauty, her opponents ridiculed her as a hetaera (Modern dictionary-reference book, 2000). Aspasia was adored by Socrates and was introduced to her by Pericles, with whom he became friends. In Plato's dialogue Menexenus, Socrates reproduces Aspasia's speech. She had philosophical conversations with Socrates and Anaxagoras, discussed politics with Charinos, hygiene with Hippocrates, and aesthetics with Phidias. Her sophistication, wit, and depth of knowledge of this or that subject delighted her interlocutors. This was also noted by Socrates’ student Echinaeus. Plato noted that he, like Pericles, owes Aspasia the stimulation of mental activity in him (Mussky I.A., 2008, Kolesnikov A.S., 2009).
Macrina's neo-Caesarian views on the nature of the soul were recorded on her deathbed (around 379 BC) by her brother Gregory of Nyssa (brother of Basil the Great) in the Vita Makrinae (Life of Macrina) (Kolesnikov A.S., 2008).
Fragments of the great work of Aezaria from Lucania (ca.
350 BC), Theano of Croton (daughter of Leophron, native of Metapontus or Thurii, Pythagorean, wife of Carystus or Croton, or Brotinus the Pythagorean, wrote “On Pythagoras”, “On Virtue to Hippodamus of Thurii”, “Women’s Exhortations” ", "Sayings of the Pythagoreans" (Fragments of early Greek philosophers, 1989), Theano (Cretan, wife of Pythagoras, wrote "Philosophical Notes", "Sayings", a poem with epic verses; approximately 550 BC), Periktions I (mother Plato, approximately 450 BC), Phintias from Sparta (ca. 400 BC), Periktion II (ca. 300 BC) and Hypatia from Alexandria are also among the twenty. one of the famous ancient women philosophers (Kolesnikov A.S., 2009).
Pythagoras' wife Tiano, was a famous mathematician, physicist, physician, and philosopher. Moreover, after the death of Pythagoras, Tiano taught his school for another six years!
Tiano was born in 546 BC. Her father was either Pitonax of Crete or Milo of Croton. Some sources claim that Theano was the daughter of Brontinus, the successor of Pythagoras, or even the daughter of Pythagoras and the wife of Brontinus. Apparently, the confusion occurred partly because Tiano was 36 years younger than her husband, and partly because among the followers of Pythagoras there was another Tiano, also a mathematician and physicist.
Although Tiano was the first female student of Pythagoras, later there were many women in his school, both students and teachers (including Tiano herself). Since all of Pythagoras' students lived in a commune and published their works under the name of Pythagoras, today it seems impossible to determine who wrote what exactly.
Tiano's works on the principles of the golden ratio are definitely known. Some researchers even argue that the name of Pythagoras would never have gained such influence if not for the works of Tiano published after his death. In any case, it is to her work that there are references in the works of Diogenes and many famous manuscripts of those times.
It is not even known exactly how many children Pythagoras and Tiano had. Supposedly there were five of them. Three daughters (Damo, Maya and Arignote) became philosophers. One of the two sons became a mathematician.
Interestingly, the Pythagorean school existed seven generations before Plato, and there are references to it in Heraclitus, Plato, Herodotus and Aristotle himself. How did the latter, who argued about the underdevelopment of women compared to men, manage to “forget” the women who were part of the school of Pythagoras and the very specific works of his wife?
Gradually, the school of Pythagoras began to practically rule Croton, which most likely explains the lack of discrimination in the admission of students, unusual for that time. Most likely due to religious squabbles (the Egyptian Osiris was too revered on Croton), there was once a riot there, during which Pythagoras and several of his associates were killed and many were expelled.
Tiana ran a school that was scattered throughout Greece, which was more difficult than running a commune merged with the government.
Unfortunately, everything we know about Tiano’s works comes from references to them in other, later sources, and from there we also know descriptions of public debates that were fashionable in ancient times, in which Tiano took part. It is known that she, at a minimum, wrote such works as “The Life of Pythagoras”, “Cosmology”, “The Theorem of the Golden Section”, “The Theory of Numbers”, “The Structure of the Universe” and “On Goodness”.
Hypatia (Ipatia) of Alexandria( 370 (?) - 415 ) - female scientist of Greek origin, philosopher, mathematician, astronomer.
Hypatia, daughter of Theon, spent her entire life in Alexandria, where she gained respect and honor as a philosopher and scientist. At that time, Alexandria, famous for its intellectual asceticism and at the same time the extremes of refined sensuality, was at the crossroads of cultural traditions (Fili K, 2002). Hypatia, who grew up in an intellectual environment and received an excellent education from her father, was close to Theon’s scientific interests. Therefore, it is not surprising that over time she becomes his closest employee. They say that she even surpassed her father, for, as Damascus writes, she was by nature “more talented and refined.”
Hypatia received her education under the guidance of her father,Theon of Alexandria, who was one of the scientistsAlexandria school(Stäckli, 1971).
Around 400 Hypatia was invited to lecture at the School of Alexandria, where she occupied one of the leading departments - the department of philosophy. Taught philosophy Plato and Aristotle ; She also taught mathematics and was involved in calculating astronomical tables. Wrote comments on essaysApollonius of Perga And Diophantus of Alexandria, which have not reached us. In her lectures, Hypatia was not limited to philosophy (which both during classical antiquity and the Hellenistic period remained the lot of the aristocracy), but also taught mathematics, including arithmetic, geometry, astronomy (which, based on Plato’s understanding of this science, Hypatia considered the pinnacle of knowledge) and music, i.e. disciplines that Boethius later called quadrivius. But still, the mathematical disciplines were considered by Hypatia only as steps leading to metaphysical knowledge. She saw her main task in exploring the mystery of existence (Fili, 2002).
Historian Socrates Scholasticuscharacterizes Hypatia as follows: “She acquired such learning that she surpassed contemporary philosophers; was the successor to the Platonic school, which originated from Plato , and taught all philosophical sciences to those who wished. Therefore, those who wanted to study philosophy flocked to her from all sides. By her education, having a self-confidence worthy of respect, she appeared with modesty even in the face of rulers; and she did not put any shame in the fact that she appeared among men, for for her extraordinary modesty everyone respected her and marveled at her (Steckli, 1971)
Hypatia took part in Alexandrian city politics, having influence on the head of the city, the prefect Orestes . This circumstance caused constant friction with Bishop Kirill (later canonized), why the Christian community considered Hypatia guilty of the resulting turmoil. IN 415 a group of Egyptian Christians, supporters of Bishop Cyril, attacked Hypatia and killed her. Christian historianSocrates Scholasticblames Hypatia's death on "a certain Peter."Soon after Hypatia's death, many of her students left the city, which marked the beginning of the decline of Alexandria as a scientific center (Stäckli, 1971).
Description of work
What was the role that women played in the history of philosophy? Why has this role remained largely unknown? The first of these questions is not so easy to answer. We do know, however, that in ancient times at least twenty-one women studied, wrote and/or taught philosophy. At least three of them, Hypatia of Alexandria (370-415 BC), Asclepigenia of Athens (c.375 BC), and Arete of Cyrene (c.350 BC) BC) were believed to have led, led, or co-directed schools of philosophy with men. This
The topic of relations between a man and a woman, in particular the topic of the role of women in the Ancient World, has always been and will be of interest to historians. There are many studies of various aspects of the life and activities of the most famous representatives of the aristocratic elite, as well as ordinary residents of ancient states. For example, works are devoted to the position of women in Ancient Greece I. Blokha "History of Prostitution" E. Dupuis, E. Vardiman, P. Brule and etc.
E. Vardiman sees only in prostitution an opportunity for an ancient woman to develop her abilities, to be independent, educated, that is, to be a person (“Woman in the Ancient World”).
P. Brule notices the contradiction that lay in the subordination and dependence of the Athenian woman of the classical period in relation to a man, her secondary role in the life of the polis and the veneration and actual deification that was expressed in the cult of Athena, the main goddess of the city.
It is also important to note the emergence of special studies F. Sartori about the role of hetaera in the political life of the Greeks of the 6th–5th centuries. BC e.
Much attention was paid to the cultural and universal aspects of the women's issue in Antiquity. For example, in the works of Catullus, Aristophanes, Plautus, Terence and other Greek and Roman writers and playwrights, issues of love, family, female beauty and character, and actions were repeatedly raised. But it must be taken into account that the woman in their works served only as a background for the expression of deeper internal processes and events taking place in society.
The Greek historian Thucydides left extensive narratives about the lives of prominent people, but there is not a single biography of women. Women appear only in the background - passive, insignificant, side characters.
A work of archaic lyric poetry from the 7th century is devoted to the issue of women. BC e. Semonidas of Amorg "Poem about Women." It is believed that Semonides' poem is more of a caricature or an evil satire on women.
Semonides of Amorg describes 10 women who differ in their character, using as a technique a comparison or likening the character to the temperament of an animal. Semonides notes that differences between women are inherent from the very beginning. They (differences) are not the result of the influence of the social environment or any other factors.
In Greek drama, there is another female image that is regarded as the ideal wife - this is Alcestis, who sacrificed her life for her husband. This image is reflected in Euripides’ tragedy “Alcestis”.
Ancient Greece. In the classical Greek polis (city-state), the dominance of the masculine principle is clearly expressed. A person is always a man, a husband. A woman not only does not occupy a high position in society, but by her position she is always dependent and completely dependent on a man. She is a lower being and Aristotle clearly formulates this position. While differing in certain features, the position of women in different policies is generally the same.
Women in Athenian society can be divided into two categories:
1) wives and mothers of citizens, freeborn full-fledged women; from a social point of view, women in Athens could not be considered citizens at all, since they were deprived of civil rights, although at the level of ordinary consciousness they were perceived precisely in this capacity. Thus, Pericles addresses them as “wives and citizens.” According to their status, these women are intended for marriage, for legal marriage. In Athens, for example, only the marriage entered into by an Athenian citizen and the daughter of a citizen, born, in turn, in a legal marriage and belonging to a certain clan and house, was recognized as legal. Women spouses did not participate in public life. Their role was reduced to simple procreation: “We have wives for the birth of legitimate children and for the faithful protection of property,” wrote Demosthenes. The wives were uneducated, essentially ignorant, they had absolutely no understanding of issues of literature, art, philosophy, politics, etc. The most important thing that was required of them was chastity;
2) the other half of the female Greek world was sharply different from the first. This included foreigners, women who came from a family in which a legal marriage was not registered. And the largest part are “free” women: hetaeras, auletrides, pallakes, dicteriades. The literal translation of the word “hetera” is “companion”; this was the name given to women who led a free, independent lifestyle, but were supported by men (although, in fact, the wife was also supported by the man). They were intended for a pleasant holiday, a holiday, accompanied and entertained their master. Of course, not all of them reached a high level. But those who achieved this played a noticeable role in social and cultural life. In general, the path of education and “emancipation” in the Ancient world was available only to women of this type and was unthinkable for wives. The heterae had their own center, the role of which was played by the temple of Aphrodite in Corinth. There, young girls were taught the art of manners, as well as music, rhetoric and even philosophy.
Auletrids- these are, as a rule, foreigners who work professionally in the field of art: dancers, actresses, musicians. They made a living from their talents and were highly valued by the Greeks. Their performances were paid, especially when they were invited to feasts. After a successful performance, such a woman could make a decent fortune for herself. Pallake- concubines - did not have any rights, being by status most often freedwomen, or even slaves. The lowest level is decteriades– public women selling themselves for money. They could live in visiting houses or outside them, but they were equally powerless. The law treated them harshly. There were a lot of restrictions for them: living in the vicinity of the city, they had no right to appear there during daylight hours, they were forbidden to enter churches or participate in festivities. The Greeks strictly ensured that the decteriades did not end up near their wives, mercilessly punishing for non-compliance with these norms (punishment followed immediately - in word or action). They wore certain clothes by which they could be immediately recognized - a suit made of colorful fabrics in loud colors, with a bouquet of flowers, put on blond wigs, and dyed their hair.
In general, as for clothing, the Greeks created a special type of clothing - a draped suit. It is very simple: rectangular pieces of fabric were draped on the figure in various ways, creating a complex and varied rhythm of folds, revealing the beauty of the human body, giving clothing individuality and plasticity. The most common types of clothing are chiton and himation for both men and women.
The man's chiton consisted of a rectangular piece of fabric measuring 1 by 1.8 m, folded in half lengthwise and fastened with two brooches at the shoulders. The sides were sewn together and the bottom was hemmed. (An unhemmed hem is a sign of mourning or slavery.) The chiton, as a rule, was short (to the knees) and girded with one or two belts. Long tunics were worn by priests, officials, actors and participants in sacred games. In a himation (cloak) - a long straight piece of fabric (2.9 by 1.8 m), one folded hem was lowered onto the chest from the left shoulder, the remaining fabric was straightened on the back and passed under the right arm, leaving the right shoulder open, then, laying it was thrown in beautiful folds over the left shoulder onto the back. Himation is an outer garment, but men (Spartans) often wore it without a tunic, putting it directly on the body.
Women's chitons were of two types: chiton with a lapel - diploidy and a wide Ionian chiton. The first was, like the men's, a rectangular piece of fabric. The difference was that the upper edge was bent, forming a diploid lapel, which gave a special picturesqueness to the women's costume. The diploidium had different lengths (to the chest, to the waist or hips), was decorated with embroidery or made of fabric of a different color (during the Hellenistic period), which emphasized the sophistication of the woman. The chiton was belted once or twice, and the excess length formed a kind of overlap - kolpos. Spartan girls did not sew the tunic on the right side and it turned out to be ancient peplos(the nickname of the Spartans is the bare-thighed). To protect themselves from the sun, rain, immodest glances, and also as a sign of sadness, women covered their heads with diploidy. The outer clothing was a himation, and when going outside they covered their heads with its edge. Women from poor classes wore the same clothes, but they were simpler, smaller in volume, and without lush drapery. The fabrics were not distinguished by bright colors and were not decorated with bright borders. Slaves did not wear a himation; their tunic was shorter than that accepted among free women.
As for hairstyles, young men preferred long hair, mature men preferred shorter hair. A beard was considered a sign of courage. For women, the main type of hairstyle in the classical era was the so-called Greek knot. At the front, parted hair fell onto the forehead (a high forehead was not considered a sign of female beauty), and at the back of the head it rose and gathered into a knot, which was supported with the help of nets, hairpins, and bandages, which were often works of jewelry. Emphasizing the graceful line of the neck and head, the Greek hairstyle was in harmony with the draped suit, creating a single artistic image. The Greeks wore mostly sandals, but there were also leather shoes.
In the Hellenistic era, noble modesty became a thing of the past, and new tastes dominated - a passion for expensive clothes, jewelry, and display of one’s wealth. Rich oriental fabrics appeared - silk, cotton (in the classical era - wool and linen), new types of clothing, ways of wearing them. The general type of draped costume was adopted and developed in Rome and continued for several centuries.
So, we see that the social environment left its mark, a certain specificity, on the appearance of the Greeks. This interdependence of society and everyday life finds expression in the characteristics of family relationships and marriage.
As Euripides argued, the Greeks were the first of the ancient peoples to adhere to the principle of monogamy, believing that polygamy was a barbaric custom and unworthy of a noble person. According to ancient ideas, the institution of marriage pursued two goals: public and private. Social – increasing the number of citizens who will defend the borders of the fatherland. Private – procreation. Marriage was the moral duty of citizens to the family and the state (marriage had nothing to do with love). In antiquity, marriage was more of a relationship based on a reasonable choice of a partner (pragma).
In Greece there were no legal laws forcing men to marry. However, there was moral compulsion, for example, in Athens, single men who did not fulfill their duty and did not marry were not respected. In Sparta, they were treated even more harshly: bachelor life led to a partial loss of civil rights, accompanied by humiliation not only from individual citizens, but also from the state. In particular, on a certain day (in winter) bachelors had to walk around the market square naked, singing a special song in which they admitted their guilt. They were also fined. In Sparta, unlike other policies, marriages with foreigners were allowed; children born in them were considered legal heirs. But nevertheless, the young men preferred local girls brought up in the Spartan spirit.
The choice of a husband is the right and duty of a woman’s guardian; as a rule, he was a father, brother, or closest relative. Marriage was allowed at the age of 12–15 and blood relationship was not an obstacle. Even children of the same father could marry. The only restriction was that uterine children should not marry. Before the wedding there had to be a betrothal. It was an important normative act, since it concluded a family agreement, which defined property relations and mutual obligations of the parties. A man, for example, promised not to bring another woman into the house, not to recognize children born out of wedlock, and not to offend his wife. The woman also assumed similar obligations.
The bride's dowry, which was required by custom, was considered an important issue. Not only family, but also neighbors, relatives, and officials could collect it. The dowry meant a certain progress in the evolution of the institution of marriage and a certain degree of emancipation of the woman who brought material values to the family.
The wedding had both legal and religious significance. On the wedding day, the bride was washed with water from a sacred spring, she was dressed and decorated. In the presence of guests, sacrifices were made to the Gods. The main action took place in the house of the bride's father: he handed over his daughter to the young man and uttered a sacred phrase that he was handing her over to her husband. The feast began at the father's house. The bride did not take part in it and sat separately in a group of her peers, covered with a blanket. After the feast there was a ceremonial move to the husband's house. The young woman was solemnly brought to the hearth, thereby initiating her into home life.
Thus, when a woman got married, she completely lost her independence. She led a secluded life, took care of the housework and most of the time was in the female half of the house - in gynecea.(In Sparta, a woman was not locked within four walls and enjoyed greater freedom, she was a real mistress.) Only one exception gave women the opportunity to show themselves to others - a religious holiday, a sacred ceremony. In poor families, women led a more open lifestyle, sometimes even trading in the agora. Life outside the walls of the house should not have concerned the wife, just like the behavior of her own husband outside the walls of the house.
Ancient Rome. In Rome, women had no civil rights and were formally excluded from participation in government affairs. Their position was not as degraded as in Greece. Roman women enjoyed relative freedom - they could appear in society, go on visits, and attend receptions. As for family life, they were not threatened with seclusion in the female half of the house - such a concept did not exist in Rome. The participation of Roman women in public life was common. They created their own women's associations (for example, in Tusculum, in Mediolan), organized meetings, and discussed topics that concerned them.
Women from the upper classes were free to navigate political issues and were able to vigorously defend their rights. They influenced the political life of the republic, and later the empire: deprived of the right to vote, Roman women campaigned for one candidate or another, contributed to the adoption of certain decisions and laws at meetings, and intervened in political intrigues. During the imperial period, noble and wealthy women took part in decorating their city, building temples, porticos, theaters at their own expense, and donating money to organize games and entertainment. In gratitude, the city authorities erected monuments to them and declared them their benefactors. The role of women in the state religious cult was significant. The Vestals enjoyed great respect and honor in Roman society: for example, the head of their college had the right to exempt a criminal from death if she met him on the way to the place of execution. Roman women had more opportunities to get an education than Greek women. During the era of the empire, many women were interested in literature, art, and studied history and philosophy.
In ancient times, an archaic society developed an idea of the ideal type of woman as the embodiment of Roman virtues - steadfastness of character, hard work, respect for honor. Chastity, modesty, purity of soul, and marital fidelity were respected. Among married Roman women, noble matrons, wives and mothers in patrician families enjoyed special honor. In all historical cataclysms, they invariably remained faithful to their family, served as support for the family and their loved ones, and shared fate with their spouse. “Monogamous” matrons had their own temple, erected in honor of patrician chastity, into which married widows and divorced wives were not allowed.
Marital unions were traditionally strong. In the absence of their own children, they adopted strangers, usually their own young relatives. In accordance with legal norms, marriage could take place in two forms: with the transfer of the wife under the authority of her husband or without the transfer. Such regulation regulated property relations, since in the second case the woman remained under the authority of her father, did not break ties with her parental family and, therefore, did not lose the right to inheritance. Having come under the power of her husband, the wife found herself completely dependent on him or his father. In material terms, a woman’s legal capacity was limited for many centuries: a woman could neither own real estate nor independently manage it. Over time, however, the process of emancipation also affected this area: women were given the opportunity to choose a guardian or manage property through an experienced slave (freedman). During the imperial era, married women no longer needed intermediaries and could independently manage their dowry or inheritance, for example, draw up a will, etc.
It was in Ancient Greece that the main canonical foundations of beauty were formed. The ideal of beauty is captured in many works of art of this era.
In Ancient Greece, the depiction of people for the first time acquired signs of art. There is no doubt that the famous sculptors of the ancient Greek gods were of ideal character. The marble sculpture of the goddess of beauty and love Aphrodite reflects Hellenic norms of beauty and harmony of the female body, thereby becoming the standard of the ideal body among the Greeks. This beauty was expressed in numbers: height 164 cm, chest circumference 86 cm, waist - 69 cm, hips - 93 cm. It is interesting to note that Praxiteles' model, the courtesan Phryne, was once brought to trial for vicious behavior. The judges recognized that such a perfect body could not be the receptacle of a sinful soul. And Phryne was released.
The cult of the body - these are the words that define the essence of the female ideal of beauty in Ancient Greece. A beautiful, proportional body is the dream of not only men, but also women of that era. Particular attention was paid to posture.
The knowledge of the ancient Greeks lost its mythological coloring and acquired the character of science, and, accordingly, they tried to explain beauty as a form of being. Pythagoras believed that beauty comes from harmony and proportion of sizes. He even looked for the corresponding numerical ratio. A face that could be divided into several equal parts (three or four) was considered beautiful. With three, the demarcation lines passed through the tip of the nose and the upper brow; with four - across the edge of the chin, along the edge of the upper lip, along the pupils, along the upper edge of the forehead and along the crown of the head.
According to the canons of Greek beauty, a beautiful face combined a straight nose, large eyes with a wide inter-century slit, arched edges of the eyelids; the distance between the eyes should have been no less than the size of one eye, and the mouth should have been one and a half times larger than the eye. Large bulging eyes were emphasized by a rounded eyebrow line. The beauty of the face was determined by the straight lines of the nose, chin, and low forehead, framed by curls of hair with a straight parting.
Aristotle said that beauty lies in a certain relationship between the parts of the whole, symmetry and orderliness, organic integrity. Vivid embodiments of the ideals of ancient beauty are the statues of Apollo and Artemis. Their bodies are young and perfect, their thoughts are noble.
A typical feature of Greek images is harmony of proportions, natural beauty, youth, partial or complete nudity of the body. Thus, the beauty of a woman at that time was expressed in the beauty of her body. But we must not forget that the Greeks depicted not women, but goddesses.
If you look at the picture of the real life of the Greeks, you can talk about the unenviable position of women in society. Wives were assigned the role of childbearing and housekeeping. Only hetaeras had human status - they were admired and sung in poetry. Perhaps it was their bodies that inspired the sculptors. Although it would be more accurate to say that the goddesses went to the Greeks from matriarchy. The complete dominance of patriarchy led to the fact that a woman was deprived of all her rights and lived to satisfy the needs of a man.
During the era of democracy in Athens, Greek women were ordered to be modest and stay at home. They did not abuse bright, saturated colors, as this was considered the privilege of women of easy virtue. When the society of Ancient Greece fell into decline (II-V centuries AD), Greek women began to actively use cosmetics and go out in this form.
Most women wanted to have ash or golden hair. The heavy and thick hair of Greek women was skillfully tied up with great ingenuity into knots at the back of the head, and their hairstyles were decorated with tiaras, beads, hoops and ribbons. The decoration of clothes and the style of clothes and hairstyles corresponded to the entire way of life of the Hellenes. We can get an idea of the hairstyles of Greek women by looking at the works of art of the ancient Greeks: lush hair, curled into curls, parted in the middle, combed back from the forehead and sides and tied at the back of the head in a knot.
"VENUS" OF THE PALEOLITHIC Already in ancient times, people, in addition to household items, sculpted human figures from clay. The oldest female figurine known to mankind is 80 thousand years old. The first cultural objects depicted a woman - these are the consequences of matriarchy. These finds were predominantly of a cultic nature. The woman who was the head of the clan was elevated to the rank of mother of the gods. What were the requirements for the ideal of female beauty at that time, and who was the “trendsetter”? 
Figurines of Paleolithic “Venus” show that interest in women thirty thousand years ago was very different from what it is today. The face, arms and legs are very poorly detailed in these figures. Sometimes the entire head consists of one lush hairstyle, but everything that has to do with the birth and feeding of a child is not only carefully described, but, it seems, exaggerated. Huge ass, hips, pregnant belly, saggy breasts. Paleolithic Venus is not a graceful creature that captivates the imagination of a modern man, nor is it the blooming femininity of the Louvre Aphrodite, but a multi-bearing mother. This is the most famous "Venus" from Willendorf (Austria)
Such is the remarkable relief from Lussel (France)
in which a woman standing in front holds in her right hand, bent at the elbow, a massive horn, very reminiscent of a cornucopia, but most likely this is a sign of the presence of the Bison God. 
Paleolithic Venus. Parking lot Kostenki. Approximately 35,000 BC
Woman from the island of Malta And it’s not that the Paleolithic artist simply couldn’t or didn’t want to depict female beauty. On several monuments we can see that he did this very well in principle - the ivory head (Brassempouille), a relief in the La Madeleine cave, discovered in 1952. 
But the figurines and images of “Venuses” were by no means intended to glorify the perfection of female beauty. MOTHER OF CHEESE EARTH. FEMALE IMAGE OF THE NEOLITHIC ERA
The veneration of the earth in the image of a pregnant woman, already inherent in the Upper Paleolithic, is completely preserved in the Neolithic era and becomes more complex in many ways. But the essence of reverence for the earth remains the same - it is reverence for the element into which the seed of life goes and which revives it to a new existence. . Images women of Tripoli As one of the best examples of Neolithic ceramics, the Trypillian civilization existed from the 5th millennium to the 2nd millennium BC on the lands of modern Ukraine, Moldova and Romania. 
If the essence of the worldview of a primitive farmer is expressed by the simplest formula grain + earth + rain = harvest, then in the plastic arts of Tripoli we will find a reflection of all the links of this formula, expressed through the female figure. The earth, the soil, the plowed field were likened to a woman; a sown field, land with grain - to a woman who “carried in her womb.” The birth of new ears of grain is likened to the birth of a child. Woman and earth are compared and equalized on the basis of the ancient idea of fertility, fertility. 
The huge number of naked female tattooed figurines in the Trypillian material substantiates this thesis (i.e. it confirms the general symbolism then characteristic of the peoples of the East, Egypt and America, namely: the image of a woman - as a symbol of fertility and matter, the square depicted on her is a field, a symbol of manifested life, matter, which simply emphasizes the depth of symbolic thought, grain - a symbol of the reserve of mental, vital energy). Associated with agrarian magic, female figurines are divided into two chronologically distinct types: early images (4th millennium BC) give us mature matrons with immense loins, lavishly decorated with intricate tattooing. Later (3rd millennium BC) figurines depict young girls with thin waists, narrow hips and miniature breasts. However, the idea of the birth of a new life is also carried out in the manufacture of these gracile figurines: sometimes there are imprints of grains, sometimes - the pregnancy of a young woman. 
WOMEN OF INTERFLIVES In Western Asia and the fertile valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the first human settlements appeared in the Neolithic era. In the 4th millennium BC. e. Separate cities already existed on the territory of Mesopotamia, and in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. states arose. What did the women of Mesopotamia look like, what clothes did they wear? We can try to find answers to these questions by carefully looking at the reliefs that have come down to us in the palaces of the Assyro-Babylonian rulers. Unfortunately, the answer to this question is very difficult to obtain for the following reason. The image of a woman was not part of the main topics. Only one relief depicting women has survived. This is the famous scene of the feast of King Ashurbanipal with his wife in the gazebo. entwined with grapes. Ashurbanipal is reclining on a bed, his wife is sitting at his feet on a high chair, and the servants are fanning her. But still, the ideals of female beauty of Mesopotamia can be judged by the images of the great goddess Ishtar (Astarte), many figurines and images of which have been well preserved to this day. Judging by these images, we can conclude that women with especially curvy figures are most likely , were not successful. 
The nature of Ishtar is dual. She was revered as the patroness of sensual love and fertility, and as a cruel warrior goddess. 
Among the Akkadians and Babylonians, Astarte was called “the eldest of heaven and earth,” and was the daughter of the god of heaven Annu. Among the Phoenicians, Astarte was the wife of the sky god Baal. He headed the circle of deities in the cities of Phenicia and later his name became a common noun, and not a proper one, hence Baal and Astarte carried the general name of all the gods and goddesses of Syria, Palestine and neighboring countries. 
Reconstruction of the gate of the goddess Ishtar And a few words about the clothing of women of Mesopotamia. Assyrian clothing could not, like Egyptian, be limited to a scrap of material. The climate of Assyria required a shirt long to the toes, sometimes shortened to the knees and belted with a belt. The outer dress was initially worn only by the privileged classes. The costume for men and women was almost the same. Images of female goddesses in various costumes dating back to the 3rd millennium BC have also been preserved. e. These costumes can be divided into three groups, they are so dissimilar in shape. The first group includes the goddess’s clothing, consisting of a veil and a fur skirt. This appears to be one of the preferred types of clothing. The second group includes tailored long clothing that fits the female figure to the hips, with puffy sleeves at the top and narrow at the bottom. The surface of the material is completely covered with regular convex rhombuses, which presumably can be considered pieces of fur. The round neckline of the collar is trimmed with fringe. The same fringe crosses the figure from the middle of the right thigh to the waist and goes to the back. The third group is the priestesses of the goddess. Their clothing is of particular interest - it is the prototype of an extremely common wrap-around garment that has existed for millennia and currently exists - the robe. This is no longer a shapeless covering of the body with fur, but a well-fitted real women's sleeveless dress, trimmed at the edges with fringe, elegant in silhouette. ANCIENT EGYPTIANS Legends still circulate about the beauty of the women of Ancient Egypt. In 1912, during excavations at Amarna, archaeologists found a perfectly preserved painted sculpture of Nefertiti, an Egyptian queen from the 18th dynasty of the New Kingdom. Slender neck, almond-shaped eyes, dreamily smiling lips... Since then, the opinion has been established that this woman is the undoubted standard of beauty and femininity of Ancient Egypt. 
The mystery of Nefertiti's spell, real or imaginary, continues to excite people's minds thousands of years later. The ideal of beauty in Ancient Egypt was a slender and graceful woman with full lips and large almond-shaped eyes. To dilate the pupils and add shine to the eyes, Egyptian women dripped the juice of the “sleepy stupor” plant into them. Green was considered the most beautiful eye color, so the eyes were outlined with green paint made from copper carbonate (later it was replaced with black), they were extended to the temples, and thick, long eyebrows were painted on. Egyptians invented special whitewash that gave dark skin a light yellow tint. It symbolized the earth warmed by the sun. The caustic juice of iris was used as a blush; irritation of the skin with this juice caused redness that persisted for a long time. 
Judging by the large volume of cosmetic bags, the ancient Egyptians loved to take care of themselves. Even in those days, women had powder and lipstick, they painted their nails, and also made sure that there was no excess hair on their skin. We owe all our knowledge about wax and sugar depilation to Egyptian beauties. In addition, it was very fashionable in Ancient Egypt to have a voluminous and well-groomed hairstyle. That is why a large number of recipes are related to how to maintain healthy shine and smoothness of hair. IMAGES OF WOMEN IN CREETO-MINOAN CULTURE The Creto-Minoan civilization existed from 3000 to 1000 BC on the island of Crete and other islands in the Aegean Sea. 
At the beginning of the 20th century. As a result of archaeological excavations led by the English scientist A. Evans in Knossos, the first of the Cretan palaces was discovered in the central part of the island. Following Greek tradition, Evans called it the palace of Minos. Apparently, this was the famous Labyrinth (from the word “labrys” - a double-sided ax, a favorite symbol of the ancient Cretans, with which they decorated the walls of this palace), described in the Greek myth about the Minotaur - a monster with a human body and the head of a bull. The palaces of Crete really looked like labyrinths, they consisted of many rooms with different decoration and purpose, their internal layout was chaotic. But these were still unified architectural ensembles. The remarkable wall paintings that decorated the interior, corridors and porticos deserve special attention. 
Minoan artists were fluent in painting techniques. The mastery of this technique, the subtlety and vibrancy of the colors are amazing. The subject frescoes depicted scenes from the life of the courtiers, in particular “games with bulls” (tauromachy) - a religious ritual associated with one of the main Minoan cults - the cult of the bull god, in whose image the destructive forces of nature were embodied. Here we see elegant men and low-cut ladies sparkling with jewels. Women generally had an undeniable advantage in this culture. The symbol of the entire Minoan culture is the goddess with snakes: her image dating back to the 17th century is well known. BC. and now stored in Heraklion, in the Cretan Historical Museum. This is a small faience figurine dressed in a turban with a lion, a short vest exposing the chest, a long skirt emphasizing the “wasp waist” and a short decorated apron (typical clothing for the Minoan culture). 
A fragment of the painting depicting a dancer is remarkable: the elegance and charm of her figure, frank makeup, reminiscent of the makeup of a modern city girl, forced archaeologists to call her a “Parisian” (2nd millennium BC). Often there are images of priestesses in corsets and long flared skirts. The woman is the Great Goddess (Mistress) - the main figure of the Minoan pantheon. 
The costume of the aristocratic woman of Crete is more striking than all art in general. This is a beautifully designed cut that emphasizes all the characteristic features of a female figure: ample breasts, thin waist, rounded wide hips. The luxurious flowing hair of the Cretan women was supported by a precious diadem or crown. In most images of women (and especially in figurines of goddesses), the tight bodice of the dress left the breasts completely bare. In its basic features, the silhouette remained unchanged, but there were many variations of the dress: either one-piece, or a skirt decorated with transverse stripes, or entirely consisting of frills. Each of the listed options served one purpose - to emphasize femininity. 
IDEALS OF FEMALE BEAUTY IN ANCIENT INDIA
In India, since ancient times, it has been believed that all the beauty of a woman is concentrated in her magnificent body. Temple bas-reliefs celebrate his smooth lines and graceful movements. Three-dimensional forms in the understanding of Indians symbolize health, wealth and a well-fed life. 
WOMEN OF ANCIENT GREECE The ideal of beauty of the ancient Greeks was based on unity and harmony of spirit and body. The Greeks considered size, order and symmetry to be symbols of beauty. An ideally beautiful person was one whose all parts of the body and facial features were in a harmonious combination. Artists found and left behind a measure of beauty - the so-called canons and modules. The body had to have soft and rounded shapes. The sculpture of Aphrodite (Venus) became the standard for a beautiful body among the Greeks. This beauty was expressed in numbers: height 164 cm, chest circumference 86 cm, waist - 69 cm, hips - 93 cm. A face that could be divided into several equal parts (three or four) was considered beautiful. With three, the demarcation lines passed through the tip of the nose and the upper brow; with four - across the edge of the chin, along the edge of the upper lip, along the pupils, along the upper edge of the forehead and along the crown of the head. Pallas Athena The beauty of the face was determined by large eyes, straight lines of the nose, chin, low forehead, framed by curls of hair with a straight parting. The Hellenes paid great attention to hairstyle. Women, as a rule, did not cut their hair; they styled it in a knot or tied it at the back of the head with a ribbon. The “Antique Knot” has gone down in the history of hairstyles and still finds admirers. 
Artemis Strict and noble beauty was in fashion. Above all, blue eyes, golden-haired hair and fair, shiny skin were valued. To give their faces whiteness, privileged Greek women used whitewash, applied light blush with carmine - red paint from cochineal, and applied powder and lipstick. For eyeliner - soot from the combustion of a special essence. But we must not forget that the Greeks depicted not women, but goddesses. If you look at the picture of the real life of the Greeks, then wives were assigned the role of childbirth and housekeeping. 
Only hetaeras had a separate status and they enjoyed freedoms unheard of for ordinary Greek women. “We have been given hetaeras for pleasure, concubines for everyday needs and wives to give us legitimate children and look after the household” - this statement of Demosthenes completely determined the attitude of a free citizen of Hellas towards women of that time. 
ETRUSIAN WOMEN The Etruscans are ancient tribes that inhabited in the 1st millennium BC. north-west of the Apennine Peninsula - a region called in ancient times Etruria (modern Tuscany). The Etruscans are the creators of a civilization that preceded the Roman one and had a significant influence on it. The culture of the Etruscans testifies to their high artistic talent. Thanks to the skill of Etruscan sculptors and painters, we can observe these truly beautiful examples of female beauty. 
It is interesting that among the Etruscans women played a much more important and independent role than in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. They, along with men, participated in feasts and celebrations. Images found in archaeological excavations show that the Etruscans had freer morals than the Greeks, at least their women enjoyed more freedom. 
The important role of women in society was enshrined in property relations: if, for example, there were no direct male heirs in an aristocratic family, then all property and social significance passed to the woman. 
Just like many other peoples, the rich Etruscans dressed up their women as if for an exhibition. The richer the noble family was, the more exquisite jewelry their ladies and maidens wore. Etruscan artisans were famous not only as skilled gunsmiths, but also as skilled jewelers who made jewelry from gold and silver - finely woven chains, necklaces, buckles, pendants... 
ANCIENT ROMAN IDEAL OF FEMALE BEAUTY The closest neighbors of the ancient Etruscans were the Latins - the founders of Rome. They became the heirs of Etruscan culture. The Romans inherited a lot from the Etruscans: the famous Roman toga, the structure of houses, city planning. The first temples in the city of Rome were built by Etruscan architects. The Romans adopted from the Etruscans many features of government, symbols of royal power, a ceremony of triumph - the glorification of the winners - generals and emperors, a number of sacred rituals of worshiping the gods along with some gods, the sacred art of fortune telling by the organs of sacrificial animals, the flight of birds and lightning. And this is not surprising, because even the last dynasty of the Etruscans’ contemporaries and rivals - the Roman kings - was founded by immigrants from Etruria. These are Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius and Tarquinius the Proud. The last of them was expelled by the Romans, and with this act the times of the Roman Empire ended, the era of the Roman Republic began, in fierce rivalry with which the Etruscan states perished. And the Etruscan culture dissolved into the Roman one. And the ideals of beauty of the Romans coincide with the Etruscan ideals. Also, undoubtedly, the ancient Greek ideals had a serious influence on the Romans’ ideas about beauty. Even the entire Greek pantheon of gods completely passed to the Romans only by changing their names. 
Fertility goddess Ceres
Venus
Minerva The Greek canons of beauty passed to the Romans with some amendments. The ideal Roman woman was required to be stately, portly, and in no case thin. However, fullness was required, not at all loose, the figure had to maintain grace and harmony. For Roman women, whose skeletons were genetically thinner than those of Greek women, this condition was not easy to fulfill. They actively engaged in physical exercises and also tightly bandaged their chests and thighs. 
In ancient Rome, the cult of fair skin and blond hair dominated. The wives of the Roman patricians used milk, cream and lactic acid products for skin care, in addition to whitening ointments, remedies against dry skin, wrinkles and freckles. . The Romans already knew the secret of bleaching hair. The hair was rubbed with a sponge soaked in goat's milk oil and beech tree ash, and then dried in the sun.
She made an invaluable contribution to European culture. Literature, architecture, philosophy, history, other sciences, state system, laws, art and myths of ancient Greece laid the foundation of modern European civilization. Greek gods known all over the world.