The cross is the most recognizable symbol of Orthodoxy. But any of you have seen many types of crosses. Which one is correct? You will learn about this from our article!
Cross
Varieties of the cross
“The cross of every form is the true cross,” taught St. Theodore the Studite back inIX century. And in our time it happens that in churches they refuse to accept notes with four-pointed "Greek" crosses, forcing them to correct them for eight-pointed "Orthodox" ones. Is there any one, "correct" cross? We asked the head of the icon-painting school of the MDA, associate professor, abbot LUKA (Golovkov) and a leading specialist in stavrography, candidate of art criticism Svetlana GNUTOVA to help sort this out.
What was the cross on which Christ was crucified?
« Cross- this is a symbol of the Passion of Christ, and not only a symbol, but an instrument through which the Lord saved us, - says hegumen Luke (Golovkov). “Therefore, the Cross is the greatest shrine through which God’s help is accomplished.”
The history of this Christian symbol began with the fact that the holy Empress Helen in 326 found the Cross on which Christ was crucified. However, what exactly he looked like is now unknown. Only two separate crossbars were found, and next to it was a tablet and a foot. There were no grooves or holes in the crossbars, so there is no way to determine how they were attached to each other. “There is an opinion that this cross could also be in the form of the letter “T”, that is, three-pointed,” says leading specialist in stavrography, candidate of art criticism Svetlana Gnutova. - The Romans had at that time the practice of crucifying on such crosses, but this does not mean that the Cross of Christ was just like that. It could be both four-pointed and eight-pointed.
The discussion about the "correct" cross did not arise today. The dispute about which cross is correct, eight-pointed or four-pointed, was led by Orthodox and Old Believers, and the latter called the simple four-pointed cross "the seal of the Antichrist." Saint John of Kronstadt spoke in defense of the four-pointed cross, devoting his Ph.D. thesis to this topic (he defended it in 1855 at St. before the child? And this well-known form of the cross, this ancient shrine of faith, the seal of all the sacraments, like something new, unknown to our ancestors, which appeared yesterday, our imaginary Old Believers suspected, humiliated, trampled down in broad daylight, spewing blasphemy against the fact that from the very the beginning of Christianity and until now served and serves as a source of sanctification and salvation for all. Honoring only the eight-pointed, or three-pointed cross, that is, a straight shaft and on it three diameters arranged in a known way, they call the seal of the Antichrist and the abomination of desolation the so-called four-pointed cross, which is the true and most commonly used form of the cross!
St. John of Kronstadt explains: “The “Byzantine” four-pointed cross is actually a “Russian” cross, since, according to Church Tradition, the holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir brought from Korsun, where he was baptized, just such a cross and was the first to install it on the banks of the Dnieper in Kiev. A similar four-pointed cross has been preserved in the Kiev Sophia Cathedral, carved on the marble board of the tomb of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, son of St. Vladimir. But, protecting the four-pointed cross, St. John concludes that one and the other must be honored equally, since the form of the cross itself has no fundamental difference for believers. Hegumen Luke: “In the Orthodox Church, its holiness does not depend on the shape of the cross, provided that the Orthodox cross is made and consecrated precisely as a Christian symbol, and not originally made as a sign, for example, of the sun or part of a household ornament or decoration. The rite of consecrating crosses became obligatory in the Russian Church for this, as well as icons. It is interesting that, for example, in Greece, the consecration of icons and crosses is not necessary, because Christian traditions in society are more stable.”
Why don't we wear the sign of the fish?
Until the 4th century, while the persecution of Christians continued, it was impossible to openly make images of the cross (including so that the persecutors would not abuse it), so the first Christians came up with ways to encrypt the cross. That is why the very first Christian symbol was the fish. In Greek, "fish" is Ίχθύς, an acronym for the Greek phrase "Iησοvς Χριστoς Θεov Υιoς Σωτήρ" - "Jesus Christ God's Son Savior." The image of two fish on the sides of the vertical anchor with the top in the form of a cross was used as a secret "pass-password" to Christian meetings. “But the fish has not become the same symbol of Christianity as the cross,” hegumen Luka explains, “because the fish is an allegory, an allegory. The Holy Fathers at the Fifth-Sixth Trulli Ecumenical Council of 691-692 directly condemned and banned allegories, since this is a kind of "children's" image that only leads to Christ, in contrast to the direct image of Christ himself - our Savior and the Cross of Christ - a symbol of His Suffering . Allegories left the practice of the Orthodox Church for a long time and only ten centuries later began to re-penetrate the East under the influence of the Catholic West.
The first encrypted images of the cross itself were found in the Roman catacombs of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. The researchers found that on the tombs of Christians who suffered for their faith, they often painted a palm branch as a symbol of eternity, a brazier as a symbol of martyrdom (this is the method of execution that was common in the first centuries) and a christogram - a letter abbreviation of the name Christ - or a monogram consisting of the first and the last letters of the Greek alphabet Α and Ω - according to the word of the Lord in Revelation to John the Theologian: "Az, I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end" (Rev. 1, 8). Sometimes these symbols were drawn together and arranged in such a way that the image of a cross was guessed in them.
When did the first "legal" cross appear
The Holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Tsar Constantine (IV) “appeared in a dream to Christ, the Son of God, with a sign seen in heaven and commanded, having made a banner similar to this one seen in heaven, to use it to protect against attacks by enemies,” writes church historian Eusebius Pamphilus. “This banner happened to be seen by us with our own eyes. It had the following appearance: on a long spear covered with gold there was a transverse rail, which formed a sign of the cross with the spear, and on it the first two letters of the name Christ, combined together.
These letters, later called the monogram of Constantine, the king wore on his helmet. After the miraculous appearance of St. Constantine ordered to make images of the cross on the shields of his soldiers and installed in Constantinople three commemorative Orthodox crosses with a golden inscription in Greek "IC.XP.NIKA", which means "Jesus Christ the Conqueror". He installed the first cross with the inscription "Jesus" on the triumphal gates of the city square, the second with the inscription "Christ" - on a Roman column, and the third with the inscription "Conqueror" - on a high marble pillar in the bread square of the city. With this began the universal veneration of the Cross of Christ.
“Holy images were everywhere so that, more often visible, they urged us to love the Archetype,” explains Abbot Luke. “After all, everything that surrounds us affects us in one way or another, good and evil. A holy reminder of the Lord helps the soul to aspire in thought and heart to God.
As St. wrote about these times. John Chrysostom: “The Cross is everywhere in glory: on houses, in the square, in solitude, on roads, on mountains, on hills, on plains, on the sea, on ship masts, on islands, on lodges, on clothes, on weapons, at banquets, on vessels of silver and gold, on precious stones, on wall paintings… so everyone vied with each other to admire this amazing gift.”
It is interesting that since the opportunity to legally make images of the cross appeared in the Christian world, the encrypted inscriptions and Christograms did not disappear, but migrated, as an addition, to the crosses themselves. This tradition also came to Russia. Since the 11th century, under the lower oblique crossbar of the eight-pointed cross-crucifixion, which was installed in temples, a symbolic image of the head of Adam appears, who, according to legend, was buried on Golgotha. The inscriptions are a brief commentary on the circumstances of the crucifixion of the Lord, the meaning of His death on the cross, and are deciphered as follows: “M.L.R.B.” - “the place of the frontal was crucified”, “G.G.” - "Mount Golgotha", The letters "K" and "T" mean a spear of a warrior and a cane with a sponge, depicted along the cross. The inscriptions are placed above the middle crossbar: "IC" "XC", and below it: "NIKA" - "Winner"; on the tablet or near the inscription: “SN BZHIY” - “Son of God”, “I.N.Ts.I” - “Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews”; above the plate there is an inscription: "ЦРЪ СЛАВЫ" - "King of Glory". "G.A." - "Head of Adam"; moreover, the bones of the hands lying in front of the head are depicted: right on the left, as during burial or communion.
Catholic or Orthodox Crucifixion?
“The Catholic Crucifixion is often written in a more naturalistic way,” says Svetlana Gnutova. - The Savior is depicted sagging in his arms, the image conveys the martyrdom and death of Christ. In ancient Russian images, Christ is depicted as Risen and Reigning. Christ is depicted in power - as a conqueror, holding and calling the whole Universe into His arms.
In the 16th century, the Moscow clerk Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovaty even spoke out against crosses, where Christ is depicted on the cross with clenched into a fist, and not open palms. “Christ stretched out his hands on the cross to gather us together,” hegumen Luke explains, “so that we rush to heaven, so that our aspiration will always be towards the heavenly. Therefore, the cross is also a symbol of gathering us together so that we can be one with the Lord!”
Another difference between the Catholic Crucifixion is Christ Crucified with three nails, that is, the nails are driven into both hands, and the soles of the feet are put together and nailed with one nail. In the Orthodox Crucifixion, each foot of the Savior is nailed separately with its own nail. Abbot Luke: “This is a fairly ancient tradition. In the 13th century, custom-made icons for the Latins were painted in Sinai, where Christ was already nailed with three nails, and in the 15th century, such Crucifixes become the generally accepted Latin norm. However, this is only a tribute to tradition, which we must respect and preserve, but not look for any theological load here. In the Sinai Monastery, the icons of the Lord crucified with three nails are in the temple and are revered on a par with Orthodox crucifixes.
Orthodox cross - Love crucified
“The iconography of the cross is evolving like any other iconography. The cross can be decorated with ornaments or stones, but in no way can it become 12-pointed or 16-pointed,” says Svetlana Gnutova. “The variety of forms of the cross in the Christian tradition is a variety of glorification of the Cross, and not a change in its meaning,” explains Abbot Luke. - Hymnographers glorified the Cross with many prayers, just as icon painters glorify the Cross of the Lord in different ways. For example, an image of a tsata appeared in icon painting - a royal or princely pendant in the shape of a crescent, in our country it is usually used on the icons of the Virgin and Christ, - it soon appeared on the cross to emphasize its royal significance.
Of course, we need to use the crosses that are written in the Orthodox tradition. After all, the Orthodox cross on the chest is not only the help that we resort to in prayers, but also the evidence of our faith. Although, I think we can accept images of crosses of ancient Christian denominations (for example, Copts or Armenians). Catholic crosses, which after the Renaissance became too naturalistic in form, do not coincide with the Orthodox understanding of Christ Crucified as the Conqueror, but since this is an image of Christ, we must treat them with reverence.
As St. John of Kronstadt: “The main thing that should remain in the Cross is Love: “The Cross without love cannot be thought and imagined: where the cross is, there is love; in church you see crosses everywhere and on everything so that everything reminds you that you are in the temple of Love, crucified for us.
Today, shops and church shops offer a wide variety of crosses of various shapes. However, very often, not only parents who are about to baptize a child, but also sales assistants cannot explain where the Orthodox cross is and where the Catholic one is, although it is actually very simple to distinguish them. In the Catholic tradition - a quadrangular cross, with three nails. In Orthodoxy, there are four-pointed, six-pointed and eight-pointed crosses, with four nails for hands and feet.
cross shape
four-pointed cross
So, in the West, the most common is four-pointed cross . Starting from the III century, when such crosses first appeared in the Roman catacombs, the entire Orthodox East still uses this form of the cross as equal to all others.
For Orthodoxy, the shape of the cross does not really matter, much more attention is paid to what is depicted on it, however, eight-pointed and six-pointed crosses have received the greatest popularity.
Eight-pointed Orthodox cross most corresponds to the historically reliable form of the cross on which Christ was already crucified. The Orthodox cross, which is most often used by the Russian and Serbian Orthodox churches, contains, in addition to a large horizontal bar, two more. The top symbolizes the tablet on the cross of Christ with the inscription "Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews"(INCI, or INRI in Latin). The lower slanting crossbar - a support for the feet of Jesus Christ symbolizes the “righteous measure”, weighing the sins and virtues of all people. It is believed that it is tilted to the left side, symbolizing that the repentant robber, crucified on the right side of Christ, (first) went to heaven, and the robber, crucified on the left side, by his blasphemy of Christ, further aggravated his posthumous fate and ended up in hell. The letters IC XC are a Christogram symbolizing the name of Jesus Christ.
Saint Demetrius of Rostov writes that “When Christ the Lord on His shoulders carried the cross then the cross was still four-pointed; because there was still no title or footstool on it. There was no footstool, because Christ had not yet been lifted up on the cross, and the soldiers, not knowing where Christ's feet would reach, did not attach footstools, finishing it already at Golgotha.. Also, there was no title on the cross before the crucifixion of Christ, because, as the Gospel reports, first they “crucified Him” (John 19:18), and then only “Pilate wrote an inscription and placed it on the cross” (John 19:19 ). It was at first that the warriors “who crucified Him” (Mt. 27:35) divided “His clothes” by lot, and only then “They put an inscription over His head, signifying His guilt: This is Jesus, the King of the Jews”(Matthew 27:37).
The eight-pointed cross has long been considered the most powerful protective tool against various kinds of evil spirits, as well as visible and invisible evil.
six pointed cross
Widespread among Orthodox believers, especially in the days of Ancient Russia, was also six-pointed cross . It also has an inclined crossbar: the lower end symbolizes unrepentant sin, and the upper end symbolizes liberation by repentance.
However, not in the shape of the cross or the number of ends lies all its power. The cross is famous for the power of Christ crucified on it, and all its symbolism and miraculousness lies in this.
The variety of forms of the cross has always been recognized by the Church as quite natural. In the words of St. Theodore the Studite - "a cross of every form is a true cross" and has unearthly beauty and life-giving power.
“There is no significant difference between Latin, Catholic, Byzantine, and Orthodox crosses, as well as between any other crosses used in the service of Christians. In essence, all crosses are the same, the differences are only in form., - says the Serbian Patriarch Irinej.
crucifixion
In the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, special significance is attached not to the shape of the cross, but to the image of Jesus Christ on it.
Until the 9th century inclusive, Christ was depicted on the cross not only alive, resurrected, but also triumphant, and only in the 10th century did images of the dead Christ appear.
Yes, we know that Christ died on the cross. But we also know that He later resurrected, and that He suffered voluntarily out of love for people: to teach us to take care of the immortal soul; so that we too can be resurrected and live forever. In the Orthodox Crucifixion, this Paschal joy is always present. Therefore, on the Orthodox cross, Christ does not die, but freely stretches out his arms, the palms of Jesus are open, as if he wants to embrace all of humanity, giving them his love and opening the way to eternal life. He is not a dead body, but God, and his whole image speaks of this.
The Orthodox cross above the main horizontal bar has another, smaller one, which symbolizes the tablet on the cross of Christ indicating the offense. Because Pontius Pilate did not find how to describe the guilt of Christ, the words appeared on the tablet "Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews" in three languages: Greek, Latin and Aramaic. In Latin in Catholicism, this inscription looks like INRI, and in Orthodoxy - IHCI(or ІНHI, “Jesus of the Nazarene, King of the Jews”). The lower oblique crossbar symbolizes a leg support. It also symbolizes two thieves crucified to the left and right of Christ. One of them repented of his sins before his death, for which he was awarded the Kingdom of Heaven. The other, before his death, blasphemed and reviled his executioners and Christ.
Above the middle crossbar are the inscriptions: "IC" "XS" - the name of Jesus Christ; and below it: "NIKA" - Winner.
Greek letters were necessarily written on the cross-shaped halo of the Savior UN, meaning - "Truly Existing", because "God said to Moses: I am who I am"(Ex. 3:14), thereby revealing His name, expressing the self-existence, eternity and immutability of the being of God.
In addition, the nails with which the Lord was nailed to the cross were kept in Orthodox Byzantium. And it was precisely known that there were four of them, not three. Therefore, on Orthodox crosses, the feet of Christ are nailed with two nails, each separately. The image of Christ with crossed feet, nailed with one nail, first appeared as an innovation in the West in the second half of the 13th century.
In the Catholic Crucifixion, the image of Christ has naturalistic features. Catholics depict Christ as dead, sometimes with streams of blood on his face, from wounds on his arms, legs and ribs ( stigmata). It manifests all human suffering, the torment that Jesus had to experience. His arms sag under the weight of his body. The image of Christ on the Catholic cross is plausible, but this is the image of a dead person, while there is no hint of the triumph of victory over death. The crucifixion in Orthodoxy just symbolizes this triumph. In addition, the feet of the Savior are nailed with one nail.
The Significance of the Savior's Death on the Cross
The emergence of the Christian cross is associated with the martyrdom of Jesus Christ, which he accepted on the cross at the forced verdict of Pontius Pilate. Crucifixion was a common method of execution in ancient Rome, borrowed from the Carthaginians, the descendants of the Phoenician colonists (it is believed that crucifixion was first used in Phoenicia). Usually thieves were sentenced to death on the cross; many early Christians, persecuted since the time of Nero, were also executed in this manner.
Before the sufferings of Christ, the cross was an instrument of shame and terrible punishment. After His suffering, he became a symbol of the victory of good over evil, life over death, a reminder of God's infinite love, an object of joy. The incarnated Son of God sanctified the cross with His blood and made it a vehicle of His grace, a source of sanctification for believers.
From the Orthodox dogma of the Cross (or Atonement), the idea undoubtedly follows that the death of the Lord is the ransom of all , the calling of all peoples. Only the cross, unlike other executions, made it possible for Jesus Christ to die with outstretched arms calling "to all the ends of the earth" (Isaiah 45:22).
Reading the Gospels, we are convinced that the feat of the Cross of the God-man is the central event in His earthly life. By His suffering on the Cross, He washed away our sins, covered our debt to God, or, in the language of Scripture, “redeemed” us (ransomed us). In Golgotha lies the incomprehensible mystery of the infinite truth and love of God.
The Son of God voluntarily took upon Himself the guilt of all people and suffered for it a shameful and most painful death on the cross; then on the third day he rose again as the conqueror of hell and death.
Why was such a terrible Sacrifice needed to cleanse the sins of mankind, and was it possible to save people in another, less painful way?
The Christian doctrine of the death of the God-man on the cross is often a "stumbling block" for people with already established religious and philosophical concepts. Both many Jews and people of the Greek culture of the apostolic times seemed contradictory to the assertion that the almighty and eternal God descended to earth in the form of a mortal man, voluntarily suffered beatings, spitting and shameful death, that this feat could bring spiritual benefit to mankind. "It's impossible!"- objected one; "It's not needed!" others have argued.
The Holy Apostle Paul in his epistle to the Corinthians says: “Christ sent me not to baptize, but to preach the gospel, not in the wisdom of the word, so as not to abolish the cross of Christ. For the word about the cross is foolishness to those who are perishing, but to us who are being saved it is the power of God. For it is written: I will destroy the wisdom of the wise, and I will put away the understanding of the prudent. Where is the sage? where is the scribe? where is the questioner of this world? Has not God turned the wisdom of this world into folly? For when the world through its wisdom did not know God in the wisdom of God, it pleased God with the foolishness of preaching to save those who believe. For the Jews also demand miracles, and the Greeks seek wisdom; but we preach Christ crucified, for the Jews a stumbling block, and for the Greeks madness, for the very called ones, Jews and Greeks, Christ, God's power and God's wisdom”(1 Corinthians 1:17-24).
In other words, the apostle explained that what in Christianity was perceived by some as temptation and madness, is in fact the work of the greatest Divine wisdom and omnipotence. The truth of the atoning death and resurrection of the Savior is the foundation for many other Christian truths, for example, about the sanctification of believers, about the sacraments, about the meaning of suffering, about virtues, about achievement, about the goal of life, about the coming judgment and resurrection of the dead and others.
At the same time, the atoning death of Christ, being an event inexplicable in terms of earthly logic and even “seductive for the perishing,” has a regenerating power that the believing heart feels and strives for. Renewed and warmed by this spiritual power, both the last slaves and the most powerful kings bowed with trepidation before Golgotha; both dark ignoramuses and the greatest scientists. After the descent of the Holy Spirit, the apostles became convinced by personal experience of what great spiritual benefits the atoning death and resurrection of the Savior brought them, and they shared this experience with their disciples.
(The mystery of the redemption of mankind is closely connected with a number of important religious and psychological factors. Therefore, in order to understand the mystery of the redemption, it is necessary:
a) to understand what actually is the sinful damage of a person and the weakening of his will to resist evil;
b) it is necessary to understand how the devil's will, thanks to sin, got the opportunity to influence and even captivate the human will;
c) one must understand the mysterious power of love, its ability to positively influence a person and ennoble him. At the same time, if love reveals itself most of all in sacrificial service to one's neighbor, then there is no doubt that giving one's life for him is the highest manifestation of love;
d) one must rise from understanding the power of human love to understanding the power of Divine love and how it penetrates the soul of a believer and transforms his inner world;
e) in addition, in the atoning death of the Savior there is a side that goes beyond the limits of the human world, namely: On the cross there was a battle between God and the proud Dennitsa, in which God, hiding under the guise of weak flesh, emerged victorious. The details of this spiritual battle and Divine victory remain a mystery to us. Even Angels, according to ap. Peter, do not fully understand the mystery of redemption (1 Pet. 1:12). She is a sealed book that only the Lamb of God could open (Rev. 5:1-7)).
In Orthodox asceticism, there is such a thing as bearing one's cross, that is, the patient fulfillment of Christian commandments throughout the life of a Christian. All difficulties, both external and internal, are called “the cross.” Each bears his life's cross. The Lord said this about the need for personal achievement: “Whoever does not take up his cross (turns away from the feat) and follows Me (calls himself a Christian), he is not worthy of Me”(Matthew 10:38).
“The cross is the guardian of the whole universe. The Cross is the beauty of the Church, the Cross is the power of the kings, the Cross is the faithful affirmation, the Cross is the glory of the angel, the Cross is the plague of the demon,- affirms the absolute Truth of the luminaries of the feast of the Exaltation of the Life-Giving Cross.
Differences between the Catholic and Orthodox cross
Thus, there are the following differences between the Catholic cross and the Orthodox:
- most often has an eight-pointed or six-pointed shape. - four-pointed.
- Words on a tablet on the crosses are the same, only written in different languages: Latin INRI(in the case of a Catholic cross) and Slavic-Russian IHCI(on an Orthodox cross).
- Another fundamental position is the position of the feet on the Crucifixion and the number of nails . The feet of Jesus Christ are located together on the Catholic Crucifix, and each is nailed separately on the Orthodox cross.
- different is image of the Savior on the cross . On the Orthodox cross, God is depicted, who opened the way to eternal life, and on the Catholic one, a person experiencing torment.
The cross is one of the most famous signs in human history. This universal graphic symbol has been identified with Christianity for more than 2 millennia. But its origin dates back to much earlier periods of cultural development.
Drawings and other images of crosses appeared in the Stone Age, which is proved by excavations and study of the primitive sites of ancient tribes.
Later, the cross became a common phenomenon in civilizations that developed in different periods in all parts of the planet - European, Asian, African, Australian, American and island.
Why, then, did the most diverse peoples with original cultures (often never know about each other at all) use this image?
For what reasons, even among warring tribes and religions, was it not just famous, but one of the most important mystical signs?
Perhaps the whole point is in the simplicity of the character's outline, which disposes to a flight of fancy, to creativity. Maybe its shape touches some deep aspects of the human subconscious. There may be many answers.
In any case, over the course of millennia, a group of motifs has been formed that regularly participate in the formation of the symbolic meanings of the cross. So, this figure was associated:
with the world tree;
with a person;
with the image of fire and the image of a wooden fire starter (sticks for extracting the flame by friction): two hands were often associated with flammable sticks, which, in the view of primitive man, were endowed with female and male characteristics;
with a solar sign(crossed beams).
Ancient Civilizations
Paleolithic and early Neolithic periods, the sun was considered their first and main deity and his light shed upon the earth. This is understandable, because it was the sun, rising every morning in the east, that ensured the normal life of people. It drove away darkness and cold, gave light and warmth. When people mastered fire, which also gave warmth, illuminated, protected, they began to associate it with the sun.
Many nations have myths that fire is the son or other closest relative of the great luminary. These are, for example, the Indian Agni, the Persian Atar, the ancient Greek Helios and Prometheus, the ancient Roman Vulcan. However, the sacred and such a necessary fire for a long time did not know how to produce.
The first method that became known to people was the extraction of fire by rubbing two pieces of dry wood against each other. Probably, sticks of soft and hard wood were used for this, which were arranged crosswise. Drawings of such crosses can be seen on ancient megaliths and tombs. Over time, a more convenient flint was invented: two intersecting dies with a hole on top into which a dry stick was inserted. It was quickly rotated until flames appeared.
This tool in the form of a cross became the very first graphic symbol of fire and its progenitor, the sun. Subsequently, improving this tool, the ends of the cruciform dies began to be bent to the sides. This is how the Indo-European swastika appeared - a solar sign known to many tribes, denoting at the same time the great cosmos and life itself.
Even after other, easier ways of lighting a fire were invented, during sacred actions on altars and in temples, the sacrificial flame was allowed to be ignited only by rubbing the wood on the swastika cross. This was done in Persia, India, Ancient Greece, the Germanic tribes, the Scottish Celts and the Eastern Slavs. To emphasize that fire and the sun are one element, the cross was often inscribed in a circle or a circle was drawn inside the crosshairs. Such signs were found during excavations in the Caucasus, in different parts of Asia and the European part of the continent, in many African territories.
So, the wide distribution of the cross in ancient times is explained by the shape of the tool with which the flame was produced. The fire carried warmth, was life-giving and deified. Symbolically depicting him and the sun, the cross acquires a sacred, religious meaning. Later, it becomes a sign of new gods - fertility and the life-giving forces of nature, which were also associated with life-giving warmth and light. In addition, the cross became an attribute of priests and kings as vicegerents of heavenly forces on earth.
The invention of devices for the birth of a flame revolutionized human culture.
Considering the fiery cross (as well as the flame itself) as a talisman, they began to depict it not only on religious buildings, but also on dwellings, jewelry, weapons, clothes, utensils, even on gravestones and urns.
Spatial symbolism of the cross
also very old.
It represents the world along with the circle and the square. But if geometric figures separate the outer and inner space, then the cross is a harmonized Universe. From its center there are directions that indicate the cardinal points and divide the world (square) into the correct sectors. It was in the image and likeness of the cross that many great cities were built.
For example, Rome with its crossroads of streets and later cities with the correct division into squares of quarters. In the Middle Ages, world maps were drawn in the form of a cross with Jerusalem in its center.
However, one of the most sacred spatial correspondences was the correlation of the cross with the World Tree. This image is characteristic of the primary beliefs of almost all peoples of the world. Usually, this refers to the cosmic Tree, which was considered the core of the world and organized the world space. The upper kingdom of gods and spirits was associated with its crown, the middle dwelling of people with the trunk, and the underworld with its roots, in which evil demonic forces live. Time flows under the shadow of the World Tree, events, people, gods change. The tree was often recognized as a source of cosmic vital energy, giving fertility and nourishing life. The fruits of the World Tree gave true knowledge and immortality, and on the leaves were written the fate of everyone who has ever come or will come to this world.
The World Tree played a special role in religions associated with the idea of a dying and resurrecting god, who crucified himself on the trunk, died, and then was reborn stronger than he was before.
This is told in the legends of the Hittites (about the god Telepin), the Scandinavians (about Odin), the Germans (about Wotan), etc. During the holidays associated with agricultural cults, on pillars and crosses imitating wood, figures of fertility gods were hung or painted. They were sacrificed to the Tree so that the earth would give a good harvest. A particularly interesting example of this kind is the pillar of Osiris, which was crowned with a cross. Branches with leaves and the image of God were carved on the pillar. During the spring agricultural ceremony, this cross was burned by priests, and its sacred ashes were buried in the ground so that it would bear fruit better. Later, during the era of Roman domination, the belief in the animating power of the cross in the Empire was replaced by a different perception of this sign. The cross became an instrument of torture and a shameful death for foreigners and at the same time - a symbol of a man with arms outstretched to the sides, as during a crucifixion.
Cross in Christianity
The Bible also describes a cosmic plant called the Tree of Life and the knowledge of good and evil, growing in the midst of the earthly Paradise. It was his fruit that caused the fall and the expulsion of the first people from Eden. In the books of the Church Fathers, the biblical Tree of Life is associated with the multi-pointed cross and the Savior himself. In addition, in Christianity, the cross is called the "life-giving tree."
The oldest sources claim that it was a part of the trunk of the Tree of Eden that was transformed into the passionate cross of Golgotha. John of Damascus on this occasion wrote literally the following: “The tree of life, planted by God in Paradise, transformed the cross, because just as death entered the world through the tree, so life and resurrection must be given to us through the tree.”
Thus, the World Tree and the cross symbolizing it were the most ancient sacred images of life and death, resurrection and immortality. This perception was passed on to Christianity. In it, the cross became the central sacred symbol of faith and the Savior. He personifies, first of all, the holy martyrdom and redemptive crucifixion of Jesus, with the blood of which the world was washed and humanity was cleansed from sin.
In addition, the Christian cross is a sign of faith in divine power, the ascension of Jesus, the immortality of the soul and the coming resurrection.
Over time, people have significantly diversified the appearance of a simple cross. Pre-Christian and Christian symbolism has a huge number of modifications of this sacred image. Here are descriptions of just some of the most famous options.
Ankh - Egyptian looped cross("with a handle"). It combines a crosshair (life) and a circle (eternity). This is a sign that unites opposites: temporary and eternal, heaven and earth, male and female, life and death, all the elements.
It was also adopted by early Christianity. His images are found in the Coptic catacombs and in religious manuscripts of the 1st century AD.
Teutonic cross(crosslet) is crowned with small crosses at each of its ends, which are symbols of the four evangelists. The oblique shape of such a cross denotes Christ and adorns the clothes of Orthodox priests.
Greek variant- one of the simplest: these are two crossbars of equal size, superimposed one on top of the other. In early Christianity, he is also identified with Christ.
Greek cross. In Orthodoxy, a six-pointed crucifix is considered canonical: a vertical line is crossed by three transverse ones, one of them (lower) is oblique. The upper horizontal bar (the shortest of the three transverse ones) symbolizes a tablet with an inscription in three languages (Greek, Latin and Hebrew): "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews." This tablet, by order of Pontius Pilate, was nailed to the Cross of the Lord before the crucifixion.
The middle, shifted closer to the upper (longest) crossbar, is a direct part of the Cross - the hands of the Savior were nailed to it.
The lower oblique crossbar is a support for the legs. Unlike Catholics, in Orthodoxy on the Crucifix both legs of the Savior are shown with pierced nails. This tradition is confirmed by studies of the Shroud of Turin - a board in which the body of the crucified Lord Jesus Christ was wrapped.
It is worth adding that the oblique shape of the lower crossbar carries a certain symbolic meaning. The raised end of this crossbar rushes up to heaven, thereby symbolizing the robber crucified at the right hand of the Savior, who, already on the cross, repented and entered the Kingdom of Heaven with the Lord. The other end of the crossbar, facing down, symbolizes the second robber, crucified to the left of the Savior, who blasphemed the Lord and did not receive forgiveness. The state of the soul of this thief is the state of God-forsakenness, hell.
There is another version of the Orthodox Crucifixion, the so-called full or Athos cross. It carries even more symbolic meanings. Its peculiarity is that certain letters are inscribed above the canonical six-pointed Cross.
What do the inscriptions on the cross mean?
Above the topmost crossbar is inscribed: "IS" - Jesus and "XC" - Christ. A little lower, along the edges of the middle crossbar: "SN" - the Son and "BZHIY" - God. Under the middle crossbar there are two inscriptions at once. Along the edges: "TSR" - the Tsar and "SLAVY" - Glory, and in the center - "NIKA" (translated from Greek - victory). This word means that by His suffering and death on the Cross, the Lord Jesus Christ conquered death and atoned for human sins.
On the sides of the Crucifixion are depicted a spear and a cane with a sponge, designated, respectively, by the letters "K" and "T". As we know from the Gospel, they pierced the Lord's right side with a spear, and on a cane they offered Him a sponge with vinegar in order to reduce His pain. The Lord refused to ease His suffering. Below, the Crucifixion is depicted standing on a base - a small elevation, which symbolizes Mount Golgotha, on which the Lord was crucified.
Inside the mountain is depicted the skull and crossbones of the forefather Adam. In accordance with this, on the sides of the elevation is inscribed - "ML" and "RB" - Place of the Execution and Crucified Byst, as well as two letters "G" - Golgotha. Inside Calvary, on the sides of the skull, the letters "G" and "A" are placed - the head of Adam.
The image of the remains of Adam has a certain symbolic meaning. The Lord, being crucified, sheds His blood on the remains of Adam, thereby washing, cleansing him from the fall he committed in paradise. Together with Adam, the sins of all mankind are washed away. A circle with thorns is also depicted in the center of the crucifix - this is a symbol of the crown of thorns, which was put on the head of the Lord Jesus Christ by Roman soldiers.
Orthodox cross with crescent
It is also worth mentioning another form of the Orthodox cross. In this case, the cross has a crescent at its base. Such crosses very often crown the domes of Orthodox churches.
According to one version, the cross emerging from the crescent symbolizes the birth of the Lord Jesus Christ. In the Eastern tradition, the crescent is often considered a symbol of the Mother of God - just as the cross is considered a symbol of Jesus Christ.
Another interpretation explains the crescent as a symbol of the Eucharistic cup with the blood of the Lord, from which, in fact, the Cross of the Lord is born. There is another interpretation regarding the cross emerging from the crescent.
This interpretation proposes to understand this as a victory (or exaltation, advantage) of Christianity over Islam. However, studies have shown that this interpretation is incorrect, since the very form of such a cross appeared much earlier than the 6th century, when, in fact, Islam arose.
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Which cross is considered canonical, why is it unacceptable to wear a pectoral cross with the image of the crucified Savior and other icons?
Every Christian, from holy baptism until the hour of death, must bear on his chest the sign of his faith in the crucifixion and Resurrection of our Lord and God Jesus Christ. We wear this sign not over our clothes, but on our body, which is why it is called wearable, and it is called octagonal (eight-pointed) because it is similar to the Cross on which the Lord was crucified at Calvary.
The collection of pectoral crosses of the 18th-19th centuries from the area of settlements in the Krasnoyarsk Territory indicates the presence of stable preferences in form against the backdrop of a rich variety of individual products made by craftsmen, and exceptions only confirm the strict rule. Unwritten legends keep many nuances. So, after the publication of this article, one Old Believer bishop, and then the reader of the site, pointed out that the word cross, as well as the word icon, does not have a diminutive form. In this regard, we also appeal to our visitors with a request to respect the symbols of Orthodoxy and monitor the correctness of their speech!
Male pectoral cross
The pectoral cross, which is always and everywhere with us, serves as a constant reminder of the Resurrection of Christ and that at baptism we promised to serve Him and renounced Satan. Thus, the pectoral cross is able to strengthen our spiritual and physical strength, protect us from the evil of the devil.
The oldest surviving crosses often take the form of a simple equilateral four-pointed cross. This was the custom at a time when Christians venerated Christ, the apostles, and the holy cross symbolically. In ancient times, as is known, Christ was often depicted as a Lamb surrounded by 12 other lambs - the apostles. Also, the Cross of the Lord was depicted symbolically.
The rich imagination of the masters was strictly limited by unwritten concepts of the canonicity of pectoral crosses. Later, in connection with the acquisition of the genuine Honest and Life-Giving Cross of the Lord, St. Queen Elena, the eight-pointed shape of the cross begins to be depicted more and more often. This was also reflected in pectoral crosses. But the four-pointed cross did not disappear: as a rule, the eight-pointed cross was depicted inside the four-pointed one.
Along with the forms that have become traditional in Russia, in the Old Believer settlements of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, one can also find the legacy of an older Byzantine tradition. 
In order to remind us of what the Cross of Christ means to us, it was often depicted on a symbolic Golgotha with a skull (Adam's head) at the base. Next to him you can usually see the instruments of the passions of the Lord - a spear and a cane.
Letters INCI(Jesus the Nazarene King of the Jews), which are usually depicted on larger crosses, commemorate the inscription mockingly nailed over the head of the Savior during the crucifixion.
The inscription TsR SLVA IS XC SN BZHIY explaining under the titles reads: “ King of Glory Jesus Christ Son of God". The inscription " NIKA” (Greek word, means the victory of Christ over death).
Separate letters that can be on pectoral crosses mean “ TO” – copy, “ T”- cane, “ GG”- Mount Golgotha, “ GA” is the head of Adam. “ MLRB”- The Place of the Execution Paradise Became (that is: Paradise was once planted at the place of execution of Christ).
We are sure that many do not even realize how much this symbolism is perverted in our usual deck of cards . As it turned out in, four card suits are a hidden blasphemy against Christian shrines: baptize- this is the Cross of Christ; diamonds- nails; peaks- a copy of the centurion; worms- this is a sponge with vinegar, which the tormentors mockingly gave Christ instead of water.
The image of the Crucified Savior appeared on pectoral crosses quite recently (at least after the 17th century). Pectoral crosses depicting the Crucifixion non-canonical , since the image of the Crucifixion turns the pectoral cross into an icon, and the icon is intended for direct perception and prayer.
Wearing an icon in a form hidden from the eyes is fraught with the danger of using it for other purposes, namely as a magical amulet or amulet. The cross is symbol , and the Crucifixion is image . The priest wears a cross with a Crucifix, but he wears it in a visible way: so that everyone sees this image and is inspired to pray, inspired to a certain attitude towards the priest. The priesthood is the image of Christ. And the pectoral cross that we wear under our clothes is a symbol, and the Crucifixion should not be there.
One of the ancient rules of St. Basil the Great (4th century), which was included in the Nomocanon, reads:
“Everyone who wears any icon as an amulet must be excommunicated from communion for three years.”
As you can see, the ancient fathers very strictly followed the correct attitude to the icon, to the image. They stood guard over the purity of Orthodoxy, in every possible way protecting it from paganism. By the 17th century, it was customary to place a prayer to the Cross on the back of the pectoral cross (“May God arise and oppose Him…”), or only the first words.
Women's pectoral cross
In the Old Believers, the external difference between “ female" and " male” crosses. The “female” pectoral cross has a smoother, rounded shape without sharp corners. Around the “female” cross, a “vine” is depicted with a floral ornament, reminiscent of the words of the psalmist: “ Your wife is like a fruitful vine in the countries of your house. ” (Ps., 127, 3).
It is customary to wear a pectoral cross on a long gaitan (braid, braided thread) so that you can, without removing it, take the cross in your hands and overshadow yourself with the sign of the cross (this is supposed to be done with the appropriate prayers before going to bed, as well as when making a cell rule).
Symbolism in everything: even the three crowns above the hole symbolize the Holy Trinity! If we talk about crosses with the image of the crucifixion more widely, then the distinctive feature of the canonical crosses is the style of depicting the body of Christ on them. Widespread today on New Rite crosses the image of the suffering Jesus is alien to the Orthodox tradition .
Ancient medallions with a symbolic image According to canonical ideas, reflected in iconography and copper plastic, the body of the Savior on the Cross was never depicted as suffering, sagging on nails, etc., which testifies to His divine nature.
The manner of “humanizing” the sufferings of Christ is characteristic Catholicism and borrowed much later than the church schism in Russia. Old Believers consider such crosses worthless . Examples of canonical and modern New Believer casting are given below: the substitution of concepts is noticeable even to the naked eye.
The stability of traditions should also be noted: the collections in the photographs were replenished without the goal of showing only ancient forms, that is, hundreds of types of modern “ Orthodox jewelry ”- an invention of recent decades against the backdrop of an almost complete oblivion of the symbolism and meaning of the image of the honest Cross of the Lord.
Related illustrations
Below are illustrations selected by the editors of the site "Old Believer Thought" and links on the topic.
An example of canonical pectoral crosses from different times:
An example of non-canonical crosses from different times:
Unusual crosses, presumably made by the Old Believers in Romania 
Photo from the exhibition “Russian Old Believers”, Ryazan A cross with an unusual back that you can read about
Male cross of modern work
Catalog of ancient crosses - online version of the book " Millennium of the Cross » – http://k1000k.narod.ru
A well-illustrated article on early Christian pectoral crosses with high-quality illustrations in color and additional material on the topic on the site Culturology.Ru – http://www.kulturologia.ru/blogs/150713/18549/
Comprehensive information and photos about cast icon-case crosses from Novgorod manufacturer of similar products : https://readtiger.com/www.olevs.ru/novgorodskoe_litje/static/kiotnye_mednolitye_kresty_2/