Lexicography (from the Greek lexikos - referring to the word and ... graphics
branch of linguistics dealing with the practice and theory of compiling dictionaries (See Dictionary) .
In the development of forms of practical vocabulary among different peoples, 3 similar periods are distinguished: 1) the pre-dictionary period. The main function is the explanation of obscure words: glosses (See Glossa) (in Sumer, 25th century BC, in China, 20th century BC, in Western Europe, 8th century AD, in Russia, 13th century), glossaries (collections of glosses to individual works or authors, for example, to the Vedas, 1st millennium BC, to Homer, from the 5th century BC), vocabularies (collections words for educational and other purposes, for example, trilingual Sumerian-Akkado-Hittite tablets, 14-13 centuries BC, lists of words by thematic groups in Egypt, 1750 BC, etc.). 2) Early vocabulary period. The main function is the study of the literary language, which is different for many nations from colloquial speech: for example, monolingual Sanskrit lexicons, 6-8 centuries, ancient Greek, 10 century; later - passive-type translation dictionaries, where the vocabulary of a foreign language is interpreted using the words of the national language (Arabic-Persian, 11th century, Latin-English, 15th century, Church Slavonic-Russian, 16th century, etc.), then translation dictionaries of an active type, where the source language is the vernacular (French-Latin, Anglo-Latin, 16th century, Russian-Latin-Greek, 18th century), as well as bilingual dictionaries of living languages. The first explanatory dictionaries were created in countries with hieroglyphic writing (China, 3rd century BC; Japan, 8th century). 3) The period of developed linguistics, associated with the development of national literary languages. The main function is the description and normalization of the vocabulary of the language, increasing the language culture of the society: explanatory dictionaries, many of which are compiled by state academic and philological societies (Italian dictionary of the Academy Krusk, 1612, dictionary of the Russian Academy, 1789-94, etc.), also appear synonymous, phraseological, dialectal, terminological, orthographic, grammatical and other dictionaries. The development of L. was influenced by the philosophical concepts of the era. For example, academic dictionaries of the 17th-18th centuries. were created under the influence of the philosophy of science of Bacon and Descartes. Dictionary of the French language Littre (1863-72) and other dictionaries of the 19th century. experienced the influence of positivism. Evolutionist theories of the 19th century. strengthened the historical aspect in explanatory dictionaries. In the 18-19 centuries. approved, and in the 20th century. the fourth function of linguistics is developing—the collection and processing of data for linguistic research in the field of lexicology, word formation, stylistics, and the history of languages (dictionaries of etymological, historical, frequency, reverse, related languages, languages of writers, etc.). Modern lexicography is acquiring an industrial character (the creation of lexicographic centers and institutions, the mechanization of work since 1950, etc.). Theoretical L. was formed in the second third of the 20th century. The first scientific typology of dictionaries is created by the Soviet scientist L. V. Shcherba
(1940). It was further developed in the works of many Soviet and foreign linguists (Czechoslovakia, France, the USA, etc.). The modern theory of linguistics is characterized by: a) the idea of vocabulary as a system, the desire to reflect in the structure of the dictionary the lexico-semantic structure of the language as a whole and the semantic structure of an individual word (singling out the meanings of words according to their connections with other words in the text and within semantic fields ); b) a dialectical view of the meaning of a word, taking into account the mobile nature of the connection between the signifier and the signified in a verbal sign (the desire to note shades and transitions in the meanings of words, their use in speech, various intermediate phenomena); c) recognition of the close connection of vocabulary with grammar and other aspects of the language. L. is associated with all sections of linguistics, especially with lexicology (See Lexicology) ,
many of whose problems receive a specific refraction in L. Contemporary linguistics emphasizes the important social function of dictionaries, which record the body of knowledge of the society of a given epoch. L. develops a typology of dictionaries. Monolingual L. (explanatory and other dictionaries) and bilingual L. (translation dictionaries) stand out. educational linguistics (dictionaries for language learning), scientific and technical linguistics (terminological dictionaries), etc. Lit.: Shcherba L. V., Experience of the general theory of lexicography, “Izv. USSR Academy of Sciences, OLYA, 1940, No. 3; Lexicographic collection, vols. 1-6, M., 1957-63; Kovtun L. S., Russian lexicography of the Middle Ages, M. - L., 1963; Casares H., Introduction to modern lexicography, trans. from Spanish, M., 1958; Problems in lexicography, ed. F. W. Householder and Sol Saporta, 2 ed., The Hague, 1967; Dubois J. et Cl., Introduction a la Lexicographic ie dictionnare, P., 1971; Rey-Debove J., Etude linguistique et sémiotique des dictionnaires français contemporains. La Haye - P., 1971; Zgusta L., Manual of lexicography, The Hague, 1971. V. G. Gak.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
Synonyms:See what "Lexicography" is in other dictionaries:
Lexicography… Spelling Dictionary
- (Greek). 1) the doctrine of compiling dictionaries. 2) a part of grammar that considers word production and word change. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. LEXICOGRAPHY 1) compilation of a dictionary, 2) industry ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
lexicography- and, f.lexicographie f., German. Lexicography. Theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. ALS 1. Lexicography, the science of writing dictionaries. Corypheus 1802 1 210. The concept of lexicographic type is only one of the essential pillars of systemic lexicography. Another… … Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
LEXICOGRAPHY, lexicography, pl. no, female (from the Greek lexikos dictionary and grapho I write) (philol.). Collecting the words of some language, bringing them into a system and publishing in the form of a lexicon, dictionary. Works on lexicography. || A set of printed ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
- (from the Greek lexikos referring to the word and ... graphics), a branch of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries ... Modern Encyclopedia
- (from the Greek lexikos referring to the word and ... graphics) a section of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
LEXICOGRAPHY, and, for women. Theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. | adj. lexicographic, oh, oh. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
Exist., number of synonyms: 5 lexicology (8) dictionary literature (1) ... Synonym dictionary
LEXICOGRAPHY- (from Greek lexicon - dictionary + graphō - I write). A branch of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. Practical vocabulary (vocabulary) provides the following socially important functions: a) teaching the language; b) description ... A new dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)
Lexicography- (from the Greek lexikos referring to the word and ... graphics), a branch of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. … Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
Not to be confused with lexicographic order. Lexicography (other Greek λεξικόν, lexikon “dictionary” and γράφω, grapho “I write”) is a branch of linguistics dealing with the compilation of dictionaries and their study; the science that studies semantic structure ... ... Wikipedia
Books
- Lexicography of the Modern Russian Language Praktikum, Ledeneva E.. The didactic tools of the manual are presented by materials from encyclopedic, explanatory, aspect and bilingual lexicographic publications of the last two centuries. Practical tasks...
Lexicography as an applied area of linguistics. Russian lexicography, its historical origins and development trends. Russian dictionary scientists.
Typology of dictionaries. Encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries. Linguistic dictionaries. Dictionaries of the onomasiological type, organized according to the principle “from the concept (theme, idea) to the word” (thematic, ideographic, synonymous, antonymic, semantic), and dictionaries of the semasiological type - “from the word to the meaning” (dictionaries of homonyms, paronyms, explanatory). Dictionaries universal (general) and specialized.
Characteristics of linguistic dictionaries:
− historical dictionaries of the Russian language;
− etymological dictionaries of the Russian language;
− dictionaries of foreign words;
− dialect dictionaries of the Russian language;
− terminological dictionaries, terminological thesauri of the Russian language;
− Russian onomastic dictionaries of various types;
− dictionaries of new words and meanings of the Russian language;
− frequency dictionaries of the Russian language;
− phraseological dictionaries of the Russian language;
− dictionaries of homonyms;
− dictionaries of paronyms;
− Russian synonymic dictionaries;
− antonymic dictionaries of the Russian language;
− dictionaries of compatibility, associative, explanatory-combinatorial.
Explanatory dictionary as the most important type of dictionary. Types of explanatory dictionaries in relation to the norm, according to the volume of the dictionary, according to their purpose, according to the arrangement of words. Explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Explanatory dictionaries of the modern Russian literary language.
Characteristics of explanatory dictionaries for various reasons:
- ways of interpreting the lexical meaning of a word in explanatory dictionaries;
- varieties of definitions in explanatory dictionaries in their correlation with the types of lexical meaning of words;
- reflection of systemic relations in explanatory dictionaries;
- representation of the semantic structure of the word in the explanatory dictionary (distinction between direct and figurative meanings, order of arrangement and grouping of meanings);
- ways to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy;
- reflection in the dictionaries of the features of the use of words;
- grammatical characteristics of the word in explanatory dictionaries;
− system of notes in explanatory dictionaries;
- presentation of phraseological units in explanatory dictionaries.
V. Dictionaries as the most important source of learning vocabulary. The value of studying lexicography for the future philologist.
Theoretical information
Topic 1 Lexicography as a science. Origins and development trends of Russian lexicography
Lexicography as an independent branch of the science of language. Theoretical and practical lexicography among other linguistic disciplines.
The concept of "lexicography" as a scientific term appeared in wide use relatively recently. For example, in the encyclopedic dictionary of Brongauz and Efron (1896) there is no dictionary entry for the word "lexicography", but there is an article on the word "lexicology". However, in the same reference book in the dictionary entry for the word "dictionary" there is a word "lexicography", where it is a synonym for the phrase vocabulary technique.
In the encyclopedic dictionary of the brothers A. and I. Granat (1916) there is already an article on the word "lexicography", which is defined as "scientific ways of processing the vocabulary of a language to compile a lexicon".
In the first edition of the "Great Soviet Encyclopedia" (1938) in an article on the word "lexicography" given: "Lexicography (Greek) - the work of compiling dictionaries." In the second (1953) and third (1973) editions, this term is interpreted as follows: "Lexicography is a branch of linguistics that deals with the practice and theory of compiling dictionaries." As you can see, this interpretation distinguishes between theoretical and practical lexicography.
Under practical lexicography today it is customary to understand the creation of dictionaries of different types, theoretical same lexicography deals with issues related to the theory of lexicography (scientific classification of dictionaries; the structure of a dictionary entry and the dictionary as a whole; dictionary elements; planning and organization of dictionary work; history of lexicography, etc.).
The history of the term reflects the formation of lexicography itself as a science. Theoretical lexicography was preceded by a centuries-old practice of compiling dictionaries, as a result of which not only the technique and art of compiling dictionaries were perfected, but also a factual basis was created for theoretical generalizations, the development of principles for compiling dictionaries of various types.
The beginning of the development of the foundations of theoretical lexicography was laid by Lev Vasilyevich Shcherba in the article "Experience in the General Theory of Lexicography" (1940). The first etude “Basic types of dictionaries” begins like this: “One of the first questions of lexicography is, of course, the question of different types of dictionaries. It has immediate practical significance and empirically has always been solved somehow and is being solved. Meanwhile, it is based on a number of theoretical oppositions, which must be revealed” [Shcherba, 1958:392]. Since then, not only numerous articles, but also monographs have been written on theoretical issues of lexicography.
Lexicography took shape as an independent linguistic discipline gradually, step by step. Today, lexicography as a science has its own subject of study (dictionaries of various types), its own special research methods, its own structure, and its place among other linguistic disciplines.
The theory of lexicography defines and structures the very concept of "lexicography", studies the typology of dictionaries, the structure and elements of dictionaries of various types, considers the issue of the sources of dictionaries, forms and methods of accumulation and storage of primary vocabulary materials, determines the specifics of planning and organizing vocabulary work.
Theoretical and practical lexicography as two sides of one science are closely connected and interdependent. However, in the period of developed lexicography, the differentiation of practical and theoretical lexicography gradually deepens, and in recent decades, specialization of individual lexicographic directions has also been outlined. So, today we can talk about the formation of special industries - educational lexicography, lexicography, developing on the basis of computer technology, onomastic lexicography.
Being a part of the science of language, lexicography is closely related to such linguistic disciplines as lexicology, semantics, stylistics, etymology, phonology, etc. With these disciplines, lexicography has a common problem. Sometimes she uses the results of their research, and often ahead of them in solving some problems. The result of such a close intersection is the emergence of numerous dictionaries that describe words from certain linguistic aspects (grammatical, morphemic, word-formation, and other dictionaries).
If the formation of theoretical lexicography dates back to the 20th century, then practical lexicography (compilation of dictionaries) has gone through a longer period of development, starting from separate dictionaries-lists in the 13th century to single- and multi-volume dictionaries of the 21st century of various genres.
Periodization of the development of lexicography.
Lexicography has come a long and difficult way. “Any lexicographic activity is carried out against the background of a huge set of already created dictionaries, i.e. against the backdrop of an exceptionally rich, diverse, often contradictory lexicographic tradition” [Morkovkin, 1987:39].
In each country, the development of vocabulary has national specifics. However, there are general patterns that make it possible to single out some general stages in the development of lexicography. So, V. G. Gak in the article “On some regularities in the development of lexicography (educational and general lexicography in the historical aspect)” presented the following periodization of the development of lexicography in Europe:
Table 1
|
Period of development of lexicography |
Leading types of lexicographic products |
Dictionary Functions |
|
I.Pre-word period (beforeXVin.). |
glossaries, vocabularies, onomasticons, etc. |
explanation of obscure words. |
|
II.Early vocabulary period (XV- XVIIcenturies). |
lexicons, alphabet books, bilingual dictionaries. |
− explanation of obscure words; − educational. |
|
III.The period of developed lexicography (fromXVIIIin.). |
dictionaries of various types, especially explanatory dictionaries. |
− educational; −normalization; − descriptive − scientific. |
As you can see, the selection of each period is due to the leading functions of lexicography, associated, in turn, with the appearance of dictionaries of a certain type. So, at the dawn of lexicography, dictionaries were, first of all, a tool for learning a foreign language, a guide for getting to know a foreign speech.
This purpose was served glossaries(interpretation of gloss - incomprehensible words and expressions, usually from ancient manuscripts), vocabularies(a collection of vocables - foreign words with translation into their native language), onomasticons(dictionaries of proper names), tributaries(collections of words with symbolic meaning), arbitrariness(interpretation of incomprehensible words from book speech), etc.
In the future, lexicography began to perform more complex functions: functions associated with the implementation of interlingual communication, with language learning, with the description and normalization of the native language, with the scientific study of the language, and cultural functions. These broad possibilities appeared in lexicography in connection with the development of new types of dictionaries.
The periodization proposed by V. G. Gak demonstrates another indicative pattern - the growth in the volume of dictionaries in each subsequent period. So, in the pre-dictionary period, the volumes of vocabularies and onomasticons averaged thousands of units, in the early dictionary period, lexicons and bilingual dictionaries numbered tens of thousands of words, and explanatory dictionaries of the period of developed lexicography - hundreds of thousands of dictionary entries.
Projecting the periodization of V. G. Gak to the beginning of the 21st century, we can talk about the period of computer lexicography. Already today, a scientific direction is developing in lexicography, which is engaged in the study and creation of tools for the development and use of computer dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries created and stored on a computer basis. Such dictionaries will include about a million dictionary entries, summarizing hundred million volumes of dictionary facts, and lexicography, thus, will perform another important function - the function of human-machine communication.
The main stages in the development of Russian lexicography.
Unfortunately, there are not so many general reviews on the history of Russian lexicography. One of the first works aimed at comprehending the main lines of development of Russian lexicography is R. M. Zeitlin's manual "A Brief Essay on the History of Russian Lexicography" (1958). All subsequent works on the history of the development of Russian lexicography, as a rule, reflect the main provisions of this study.
Without setting ourselves the task of presenting a complete overview of the history of Russian lexicography (such information is contained in the available textbooks), we will give some information about the most important dictionaries of the past.
The centuries-old lexicographic practice of compiling dictionaries on Russian soil is traditionally divided into a number of temporal stages:
the period of Old Russian lexicography;
the period of appearance of the first printed dictionaries;
Russian lexicography of the XVIII-XIX centuries;
modern period of development of lexicography.
The period of ancient Russian lexicography.
The first Russian dictionary works were small lists of incomprehensible words found in ancient Russian written monuments. The creation of such collections of individual words and expressions was caused by a practical need - the incomprehensibility for the reader of that time of a number of words with an abstract or terminological meaning. The purpose of the first Old Russian dictionaries is quite clearly expressed in their titles: “Interpretation of inconveniently cognizable speech in writing ...”, “Legend about inconveniently understood speeches ...”, “Interpretation of unreasonable words”, etc.
In such collections, most often ecclesiastical terms of Greek or Hebrew origin were explained, but often Slavic book words were also among those explained. Typically, such glossaries contained from several dozen to several hundred words, arranged without any preconceived plan.
The oldest of such dictionaries, which has come down to our time, was attached to the Pilot's book, which was written in 1282 for the Novgorod archbishop Clement. This dictionary contains explanations of 174 Hebrew, Greek and Old Slavonic words.
Another Old Russian dictionary, known in a large number of lists, contains only 61 words in the earliest surviving manuscript. It is an appendix to the writings of John of the Ladder in 1431. and is called "Interpretation of inconveniently cognizable in written speeches ...". It contains various bookish, mostly Slavic words. The interpretations here are more detailed and accurate than in the dictionary of 1282, sometimes the meanings of one word are singled out, and several synonyms are usually offered as translations.
These and other similar dictionaries were rewritten in the future, subject to corrections and additions. For example, the dictionary of 1282 was replenished with new words and the number of words in its lists increased over time to 344, and in the dictionary of 1431. – up to 200. It is clear that such dictionaries bore little resemblance to their originals, and it would be more correct to speak in this case not about new editions of the old dictionaries, but about new dictionaries.
From the end of the 16th and especially during the 17th centuries, the volume of dictionaries increased significantly (manuscripts grew to 200 or more sheets). Both the nature of the explanations of words and their very arrangement in the dictionary change. The abundance of material requires a more user-friendly placement of words. Compilers are increasingly beginning to group words alphabetically, hence the name of such dictionaries - "alphabets".
During the 17th century not only the number of words included in the dictionary increases, but also their thematic composition expands, the explanatory part grows. ABC books gradually take on a distinctly pronounced encyclopedic character. Explanations in alphabet books were usually given either in the form of several synonyms or in the form of a detailed interpretation, sometimes turning into a kind of encyclopedic article: Epicurus (Epicurus) – "The philosopher of Hellenic Velmy is honest, for this reason all the philosophers who study with him epicurus narcissus."
Numerous lists of alphabet books were widely distributed in Russia throughout the 17th and even into the 18th centuries. They combined the tasks of future explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, spelling and encyclopedic dictionaries. The lexicographic techniques developed in the alphabet books prepared the next stage in the development of vocabulary in Russia.
The period of the appearance of the first printed dictionaries.
In 1596, the first printed dictionary in Russia appeared in Vilna, compiled by the famous philologist of that time, priest Lavrentiy Zizaniy Tustanovsky. The dictionary is a separately published supplement to the grammar manuals of the same author - "Slovenian Grammar" and "Slovenian Alphabet" of 1596. This is a small book in which the dictionary text occupies 67 pages. The task of the author of the dictionary is formulated in the title: "Lexis, that is, the sayings are briefly collected and interpreted from the Slovenian language into a simple Russian dialect."
There are 1061 words in the book - a significant number for lexicographic works of that time. Zizaniy selected from the Slavic texts mainly bookish Slavic words and a small number of foreign words. These words are explained by the vocabulary of the living spoken language, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian words. Separate explanations are encyclopedic in nature in the spirit of ABC books: and "go -" yoke "", pa" pa– “ta” then, father “ts”, toze “metz–"common man".
"Lexis ..." was repeatedly copied by Russian scribes, the author of the next printed dictionary, Pa "mva Bery" nda, refers to it in his preface.
Pamva Berynda is a well-known Ukrainian scholar-philologist, the famous “printing master” of the 17th century, a person who was widely educated for his time.
P. Berynda's dictionary "The Lexicon of Slovene Russian and Interpretation of Names" is a significant step forward in comparison with alphabets and even with the dictionary of Lavrenty Zizania. The dictionary has a very large number of words for that time - 6982. Berynda collected material for it for 30 years, and books were the main sources for it.
Berynda set his task to collect and explain book Old Slavonic words. He entered into the lexicon every Old Slavonic word he encountered that was different from his modern use. The dictionary is divided into two parts. The first contains, with very few exceptions, actually Slavic words, the second - foreign words, mostly proper names.
Here are some examples of the interpretation of words in the "Lexicon ...": scolding–"fight, war, battle, fight"; doctor–"doctor, doctor"; clinic– « house where they treat and tyzh apothecary"; day – "day, which is contrary to night"; Ira – "goddess, wife and daughter", Jordan– "river" etc.
On the whole, the Slovene-Russian Lexicon ... is a fairly complete (for that time) and skillfully compiled dictionary. Attention is drawn to the successful selection of words, the accuracy of the explanations, usually on the material of live colloquial vocabulary, the high vocabulary technique, which has not yet been found either in the alphabet books or in the dictionary of Lavrenty Zizania. "Lexicon ..." P. Berynda had a considerable influence on subsequent Russian and Ukrainian dictionaries.
Russian lexicography XVIII-XIXcenturies.
The second half of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries did not produce anything fundamentally new in the field of creating dictionaries in Russian. During this period, the alphabet books and dictionaries of Zizania and Berynda continue to walk in the lists. However, there is a need for dictionaries contemporary of the Russian language, although it still cannot be successfully satisfied, since collecting the vocabulary of a living language requires a long time and hard work of more than one person.
Certain assistance to the compilers of future dictionaries of the Russian language in establishing the composition of their dictionaries was provided by a variety of lexicons and dictionaries that appeared at that time. During this period, various collections of private dictionaries appeared. At the beginning of the 19th century, dictionaries of Old Russian words, Slavicisms were created, materials on the vocabulary of folk dialects were collected, foreign words, terms of sciences and crafts were studied, etymological and comparative dictionaries were written, thus, new materials were accumulated for large generalizing lexicographic works.
Without setting ourselves the task of presenting a complete description of the lexicographic products that were published at that time (such information is contained in the available textbooks), we will dwell in more detail on the characteristics of the most famous and popular dictionaries of that time.
"Dictionary of the Russian Academy" (1789-1794).
On October 21, 1783, the grand opening of the Russian Academy took place. Its most important task, as was unanimously recognized by all members of the Academy, was the creation of dictionaries of the native language. In Russian magazines of that time, articles and letters from readers constantly appeared, which spoke of the necessary need for a dictionary of the native language.
Thus, the compilers of the "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" with their work responded to the numerous wishes of contemporaries. They coped with their task successfully and amazingly in a short time (work on the dictionary was carried out from 1783 to 1794).
47 members of the Russian Academy took part in the work on the dictionary, among them were outstanding scientists and writers of the 18th century (Fonvizin, Derzhavin, Knyazhnin, Dashkova, Musin-Pushkin, etc.).
"Dictionary of the Russian Academy" is called the first academic explanatory dictionary of the normative type, since this is a dictionary with a distinct normative attitude, any linguistic phenomenon is classified here from a stylistic point of view. The word usage and even the spelling of the best writers, and above all M. V. Lomonosov, are taken as the norm. The theoretical foundation of stylistic assessments in the dictionary is Lomonosov's doctrine of three styles.
In total, the dictionary contains 43,257 words (the dictionary consists of 6 volumes). The central place in it is occupied by words of a high syllable, among which Slavicisms prevail, which have litters "sl.", "Slav.", "Slavensk.", "in Slavonic" (I see lake, deer, crava, etc.). Along with Slavicisms, though to a lesser extent, the vocabulary of the living spoken language of the second half of the 18th century is reflected in the dictionary. Words of this kind were accompanied mainly by three stylistic marks: "common", "colloquial", "in ordinary language", "simply" (rich man, everyday life, miser, publicity, etc.).
There are relatively few regional words introduced into the dictionary, and they usually indicate the area in which they are used: Aranians - “high stone mountains are called in Siberia”, maral - “the name of the Siberian deer”, etc. With certain restrictions, proverbs and sayings, terms of various sciences were also introduced into the dictionary.
The “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” is the so-called word-derivative or nested dictionary, since it is built according to the alphabet of the main, root words, under which all derivatives from them were placed. This principle of word arrangement had its drawbacks. First of all, it was difficult to use it, because it was not always easy to find the right word. In addition, there was a lot of controversial, and sometimes erroneous, in the solution of word production. All these circumstances contributed to the fact that when the work on this dictionary was being completed, it was decided to immediately start creating a new academic dictionary with an alphabetical arrangement of words.
"Dictionary of the Russian Academy, arranged in alphabetical order" (1806-1822).
The first part of the second edition of the Dictionary of the Russian Academy, arranged in alphabetical order, was published in St. Petersburg in 1806. This dictionary in the history of lexicography is called the first explanatory dictionary of alphabetic type.
There were significantly more words in the dictionary – 51 388. Changes in interpretations, in stylistic and grammatical characteristics, in phraseology were very insignificant. And although this dictionary was more convenient to use, some shortcomings of the first edition were corrected in it, it is not better than the first edition, since it practically does not reflect the language of the early 19th century. This dictionary did not reflect the living norms of the literary style of the early nineteenth century.
Despite all the shortcomings of the Academy's dictionaries (orientation to outdated stylistic norms of the language, lack of facts of live speech of the beginning of the 19th century, errors in the interpretation of the meanings of words, in matters of word formation, etc.), these publications made an important contribution to the theory and practice of lexicographic work.
Educational Dictionary of the Russian Language by P. I. Sokolov.
The dictionary of the Russian language for students was compiled by a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences P. I. Sokolov (1766-1835). This dictionary contains about 80,000 words, that is, almost 30,000 words more than in an elementary academic dictionary. Unlike the latter, it contains a significant number of foreign words in common use at that time. (boat, buffet, newspaper, patriot), as well as quite a lot of both obsolete and vernacular and some modern words (herald, dizziness, unfounded, highlander, etc.).
In general, the lexicographic work of P. I. Sokolov does not represent anything fundamentally new - it is only a skillful compilation of an alphabetic academic dictionary, which has been repeatedly emphasized by researchers. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the dictionary has many individual improvements, successful lexicographic finds. These include the correction of a number of errors in academic dictionaries, the clarification of the meanings of words, the skillful reduction of a number of ponderous and wordy wordings of the dictionary of 1806-1822.
"Dictionary of Church Slavonic and Russian" (1847).
In April 1841, by special order, the Russian Academy was included in the newly established Second (verbal) Department of the Academy of Sciences.
In 1842, the Department began work on an alphabetical dictionary and in 1847 published all four volumes of the Dictionary of Church Slavonic and Russian, compiled by the Second Department of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Outstanding linguists, including A. Kh. Vostokov, took part in compiling the dictionary.
The "Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language" was not a normative dictionary, but was a thesaurus or "treasury of the language". The dictionary included the words of the first written monuments, modern works of Russian literature, Church Slavonicisms, neologisms, terms, regional words. In total, the dictionary contained almost 115,000 words (the dictionary consists of 4 volumes), i.e. twice as many as in the latest Dictionary of the Russian Academy.
Interpretations of meanings are built in the dictionary on completely different principles than it was in the old academic dictionaries with their semi-encyclopedic methods of explaining the meanings of words. In the new dictionary, definitions are methods of philological interpretation of the meanings of a word and its use in individual specific cases.
Much better than in all previous dictionaries, polysemantic words, phraseology and illustrative examples are developed.
Dictionary of the Church Slavonic language of A. Kh. Vostokov (1858-1861).
The abundance of Church Slavonicisms in the dictionary of 1847 did not relieve the task of creating a special dictionary of the Old Church Slavonic language. The two-volume "Dictionary of the Church Slavonic language" was created by A. Kh. Vostokov, who collected materials for it for forty years.
Vostokov in the most detailed way, with his characteristic thoroughness, studied and painted more than 130 manuscripts of the 11th-18th centuries, he also studied all the monuments of ancient Slavic literature published by that time. Vostokov had to deal with a huge number of contexts relating to different eras and localities. The author of the dictionary determined the meanings of Slavic words by comparing several places from different texts, and the meanings of words translated from Greek, the exact meaning of words in the corresponding Greek originals.
Precious observations are scattered in the dictionary, information on the history of individual words among different Slavic peoples, excerpts from various manuscripts are given, and at the same time the dictionary is compiled very concisely, there is nothing superfluous in it either in translations, or in notes, or in illustrative examples.
Dictionary of the Old Russian language by I. I. Sreznevsky (1890-1912).
At the beginning of the 19th century, attempts to create a somewhat satisfactory dictionary of the Old Russian language were unsuccessful. The need for such a dictionary was especially keenly felt by writers, linguists, historians, and lawyers. Materials for this work were accumulated gradually and throughout the century, and they were collected not only by linguists.
From the forties of the XIX century, I. I. Sreznevsky began to gradually collect vocabulary materials, which formed the basis of his future famous work - a dictionary of the Old Russian language.
Sreznevsky began work on the Old Russian dictionary with the creation of dictionaries for individual monuments of Old Russian writing. So, a dictionary was compiled for the "Life of Boris and Gleb" and some other works of ancient Russian literature. At the same time, Sreznevsky wrote out all the words that interested him from other monuments that he worked on. All these dictionaries and dictionary works were subsequently included in the Materials for the Dictionary of the Old Russian Language.
In 1880, Academician I. I. Sreznevsky died before he had time to fully process the materials for the dictionary. The Department of the Russian Language and Literature, taking into account the need and great value of Sreznevsky's materials, decided to print the dictionary in the form in which it remained. Since the dictionary was not printed exactly as the author intended, it was decided to call it “Materials for a Dictionary of the Old Russian Language Based on Written Monuments”.
The words in "Materials ..." are arranged in alphabetical order. Grammatical forms (except for the first person of the verb), grammatical and stylistic marks are not given, which is a well-known drawback of the dictionary. Interpretations of the meanings of words are replaced by bringing modern synonyms. Within each meaning in abundance, with exact references to sources, usually in chronological order, examples of the use of this meaning of the word are given.
Created on the basis of a huge number of sources, the work of I. I. Sreznevsky is the largest and best of the dictionaries of the Old Russian language, it fully reflects the vocabulary of the Russian language of the XI-XIV centuries.
"Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dahl (1863-1866).
"The Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl is an exceptional phenomenon and, in a way, the only one. It is unique not only in design, but also in execution. Lexicography knows no other similar work. Its creator was not a linguist by profession.
An outstanding connoisseur of the Russian word, V. I. Dal was a sensitive connoisseur and caring collector of Russian speech in its most diverse manifestations: a well-aimed original proverb, saying, riddle, fairy tale found in him an attentive collector and careful keeper. Hence the extraordinary fullness with which folk speech creativity is reflected in the dictionary compiled by him.
V. I. Dal intended to base his Dictionary on the folk language, but he did not close access to the words of the book-written language and even “foreign words”, with the distribution and use of which he generally struggled. They had to find a place in the Dictionary and all the words of regional and local usage. Church Slavonic and obsolete words were also introduced, but their number was limited by an eye to their usage in the living language. A particularly valuable fund in the Dictionary of V. I. Dahl should be considered a huge number of words related to crafts, crafts, folk medicine, and natural science.
A lot of information contained in the Dictionary of V. I. Dahl goes far beyond the purely philological order. These are exceptionally valuable ethnographic materials, the interpretation of which often has an encyclopedic character. So, for example, with the word bast shoes not only all the typical types of bast shoes are characterized, the parts of which the bast shoes consist, but even the method of making this kind of footwear, which is outdated in our time, is indicated. At the word suit V. I. Dal explains up to fifty names of horse suits; at the word mushroom- dozens of types of mushrooms; at the words mast, sail not only the names of various types of masts and sails are given, but their purpose is also explained.
The words in the dictionary of V. I. Dahl are arranged according to the nesting method: words with the same root are grouped into nests, and a verb or name is placed at the head of such a group of “single nests”. The chosen method of word arrangement, according to V. I. Dahl, contributes to the comprehension of the spirit of the language and reveals the laws of its word formation.
Having some advantages, the method of constructing a dictionary chosen by Dahl was also fraught with difficulties, which easily led to shortcomings and blunders. The possibility of such mistakes was also due to the fact that V.I. Dal was not a theoretical linguist. He arbitrarily combined into one nest such words that are clearly incompatible; this applied equally to the words of Russians and the words of foreign languages. Got into one nest simple And space, smolder And blight; under the word Act were placed: actor, accident, excise and action. On the other hand, words that clearly gravitate towards each other, such as wild And game, sign And icon, circle And circle and others like it. The most significant drawback of the nested construction of a dictionary is that such a dictionary loses the qualities of a convenient reference book: sometimes the desired word is hidden so far that it becomes difficult to search for it even for a person with good philological training.
Describing the ways of revealing the meaning of the interpreted word, Dahl has a negative attitude towards the method of interpreting the meaning with the help of detailed definitions. Without completely abandoning detailed definitions of the meaning of a word, especially when it comes to material interpretations, Dahl widely uses the selection of a group of synonyms and words for the interpreted word, more or less similar in meaning, which are intended to convey the meaning of the interpreted word. This technique, preferred by the compiler of the Explanatory Dictionary, limited his possibilities; it did not allow revealing the sum of meanings in a word, clearly separating one meaning from another, and showing the possibility of shades of meanings.
In addition, when interpreting this or that word, V. I. Dal often arbitrarily approximates it with another word that is not at all its permanent synonym or belongs to another dialect. So, for example, in the "Explanatory Dictionary" with the word peppy there are words designed to convey its meaning: hefty, healthy, portly, prominent; the word is bean interpreted in the dictionary using an imaginary synonym proletarian.
Noting the great merits of Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary, one should not lose sight of its shortcomings. When using this dictionary, one must be fully aware of what requirements the dictionary cannot satisfy, what should not be expected from it. First of all, of course, this is not a dictionary of the modern literary language. The Russian literary language has grown immeasurably over the long period that separates us from the time of the appearance of the Dahl Dictionary.
In no case should one rely on Dahl's Dictionary in search of lexical and grammatical norms of the modern Russian literary language. First of all, this is a dictionary - thesaurus, that is, a dictionary that broadly represents the living Russian language in all its diverse forms of manifestation and with all the features that are inherent in it, depending on the place where it is used.
The decisive struggle of V. I. Dal with foreign borrowings in the Russian language, as well as the desire to show its great word-formation possibilities, found a peculiar expression in the method of interpreting “foreign words”. The compiler of the dictionary, in search of equivalent words to replace them, and sometimes simply in order to enrich the vocabulary of the language, resorted to word creation. This is how the words were born: agreement (harmony), zhivulya (automatic), dexterity (gymnastics), help (help, help), pichuga (be kind) and some others.
Separate shortcomings and imperfections did not prevent V.I. Dal’s “Explanatory Dictionary” from taking an honorable and lasting place in the history of Russian culture. Previous dictionaries set themselves the task of preserving the lexical resources of the historical past. In contrast to them, V. I. Dal creates a dictionary of the living Russian language. “As a treasury of a well-aimed folk word, the Dahl Dictionary will always be a companion not only of a writer, philologist, but also of any educated person interested in the Russian language” (V. V. Vinogradov).
CModern period of development of lexicography.
The modern period of development of lexicography is considered to be from the middle of the twentieth century to the present.
The range of dictionaries available today is unusually wide. According to statistics, over the past century, more than 6 thousand dictionaries of various types have been published in our country: explanatory, spelling, dictionaries of foreign words, folk dialects, historical and etymological, bilingual and multilingual, and many others. New types of dictionaries have appeared - dictionaries of the writer's language, dictionaries of new words, school dictionaries, educational dictionaries for foreigners studying Russian, frequency dictionaries, etc. - and even whole new areas of lexicography, which include computer lexicography.
Further development and improvement of the efficiency of research work in the field of lexicography, the creation of fundamentally new dictionaries is associated with the processing of continuously increasing volumes of linguistic, socio-economic, scientific, historical and other information. The flow of this information is so great that the traditional methods of its accumulation, systematization and processing are clearly not enough.
The complexity is associated with the coverage of a large amount of material, a huge number of lexical units, often polysemantic, which need to be presented as fully as possible, i.e. reflect the lexical composition "in breadth". On the other hand, each lexical unit must be illustrated by a sufficient number of materials. This is necessary so that the conclusions that will be made about the semantics of the word, its compatibility, grammatical and stylistic features, are not accidental. Thus, it is necessary to reflect the state of the lexical-phraseological system "in depth".
An effective solution to this problem is associated with the transfer of a number of labor-intensive operations for the collection, primary processing and storage of information using computer technology. For example, in the vocabulary card index, on the basis of which the 17-volume and 4-volume dictionaries (BAS and MAC) were prepared, there are more than 7 million quote cards. Manual processing of such sources is very time-consuming. Using a computer to prepare vocabulary materials greatly facilitates this work.
Currently, a lot of work is being done to create the Machine Fund of the Russian language. According to the definition of Yu. N. Karaulov, the Machine Fund of the Russian language is a complex automated system that is capable of solving not only information retrieval, but also research linguistic problems.
What is the structure of the Machine Fund of the Russian language? Such a fund is, first of all, a huge systematized data bank. Its important component is the General Glossary, which is a set, a collection of dictionaries from different dictionaries of the Russian language. Various types of dictionaries, grammars, reference books, etc. are entered into the computer's memory. Thus, a kind of "dossier" on the word is formed - its lexical, grammatical, derivational, stylistic, phonetic and other characteristics. The machine fund also contains information about the individual author's use of the word in the work of a particular writer.
Another important part of the Machine Fund is the “illustrative and text fund”: a huge array of collected scientific, journalistic, literary and artistic texts, examples from colloquial speech, etc.
All this information at any time can be quickly retrieved from a computer in a complete systematized form without a long search for it in numerous dictionaries, reference books and texts.
However, the Machine Fund is not just an "archive" of ready-made information about the language, but a research "laboratory" in which, on the basis of data entered into a computer, the Russian language is studied in various aspects. Thus, the use of computer technology makes it possible to mechanize the process of preparing both large, fundamental dictionaries of the Russian language, and short general and educational dictionaries. The first experiences of creating computer-based dictionaries have already been made. For example, a “Russian Semantic Dictionary” (thesaurus) was created on the basis of machine construction. Using technology, a rhyming dictionary and a frequency dictionary of the language of M. Yu. Lermontov were created, which were included in the Lermontov Encyclopedia (1981).
At the same time, it seems that the role of computers in the creation of dictionaries will increase. The use of the latest technologies in lexicography creates conditions for a qualitatively new stage in the development of this branch of linguistic knowledge.
Lexicography is not just a technique, not just a practical activity in compiling dictionaries, and not even an art, but an independent scientific discipline that has its own subject of study (dictionaries of various types), its scientific and methodological principles, its own theoretical problems, its place among others. language sciences.
The main and most important features of science, any scientific discipline are the following: the presence of a system of knowledge and the need for their objective study. These two essential features are interconnected, closely intertwined, because only then can a system of knowledge adequate to reality be built when this reality is objectively studied. As applied to lexicography, it looks like this.
Like any science, lexicography has two sides: scientific-theoretical and practical-applied. The first one (theoretical lexicography) poses general theoretical problems and works on their solution. The second (practical lexicography) deals directly with the compilation of dictionaries of various types based on theoretical solutions to the main problems. Of course, the division of lexicography into two parts is highly arbitrary.
These two aspects of lexicography always go together, they are interconnected: a theoretical lexicographer cannot engage in bare theorizing without working on specific material, without participating in some kind of practical lexicographic work; and, conversely, no practical lexicographer can immerse himself only in his purely empirical work, without knowing the latest problems of lexicography as a science. Nevertheless, the fundamental distinction between the two sides of lexicography is extremely important.
Until recently, lexicography has been considered one of the most conservative areas of linguistics. This was explained not only by the specifics of the subject (a dictionary, which is designed to ensure the continuity of “language conditions”, requires many years of work), but also by the well-known technical backwardness and methodological imperfection of vocabulary.
Lexicography has so far been characterized by labor-intensive manual methods:
- 1) collection of linguistic material by excerpting written sources (i.e., writing texts on cards) in order to create a vocabulary card index;
- 2) use of available dictionaries and their file cabinets;
- 3) collection and processing of data of oral colloquial speech, which are necessary when compiling synchronous dictionaries (especially dialect and spoken language dictionaries).
Overcoming the negative traditions of the past, modern lexicography acquires an industrial character.
The transition to a new track is caused by the expansion of the scope of research and the tasks of the scientific and technological revolution. New, more efficient methods are gradually "conquering" lexicography as well.
The use of computers ensures the automation of dictionary work, making it possible to collect, store, accumulate and process a variety of lexicographic information, and create special machine dictionaries. Without modern computing technology, statistical lexicography and lexicometry are inconceivable - a new auxiliary discipline that measures various parameters of the lexico-semantic system.
Use of photocopying and microfilming of vocabulary cards to expand the card index.
Various methods of questioning (survey of informants, also conducted on radio and television, socio- and psycholinguistic tests and experiments, tape recordings of oral speech, etc.).
New in production technology, in the design and distribution of dictionaries (multi-color and offset printing, rotaprint, ormig, xerox; dictionaries published in separate editions; “lexicon magazines”, supplements to large dictionaries, “word service”, etc.).
Modern lexicography strives for a clear distinction between such concepts as vocabulary (the lexical-semantic system of the language) and vocabulary (the model of this system). The vocabulary of a language is a finite (at any given moment) set of language elements, an open dynamic sign system that is potentially communicative in nature. A dictionary is a finite subset (it is always some part of the vocabulary), a closed static system of an informative-nominative type, which is a non-sign way of organizing vocabulary. The most important feature inherent in both vocabulary and vocabulary lies in the systemic nature of the elements and the relationships between them.
From the above, we can conclude that the term "lexicography" currently has three meanings: 1) a science, more precisely, a special area of linguistics that studies the principles of compiling dictionaries of various types; 2) the practice of vocabulary itself, i.e. compilation of dictionaries; 3) a set of dictionaries of a given language.
Material prepared by A. A. Taraskin
The word "lexicography" is of Greek origin, lexikos - related to the word, vocabulary and grapho - I write. Therefore, lexicography means: "I write words" or "I write dictionaries". In the modern sense, lexicography is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, mainly linguistic, linguistic, in contrast to non-linguistic, encyclopedic ones.
Lexicography as a scientific term appeared in wide use relatively recently. For example, in the encyclopedic dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron (1896) there is no entry for the word "lexicography", but there is an entry for the word "lexicology". In fairness, it should be noted that in the article "dictionary" of the same reference book there is the word "lexicography", where it is a synonym for the phrase "dictionary technique".
In the encyclopedic dictionary of the brothers A. and I. Granat (1916) there is already an article on the word "lexicography", which is defined as "scientific methods of processing the verbal material of a language for compiling a lexicon." Note in this definition the emphasis on "scientific methods of processing".
In the first edition of the "Great Soviet Encyclopedia" (1938) in the article on the word "lexicography" it is given: "Lexicography (Greek), the work of compiling dictionaries." And only in the second (1953) and third (1973) editions this term is interpreted quite modernly: "Lexicography is a branch of linguistics that deals with the practice and theory of compiling dictionaries." (TSB, 3rd ed. 1973, vol. 14).
On the other hand, there is no entry for the word "lexicography" in either Encyclopedia Britannica or Encyclopedia Americana, although both have entries for the word "dictionary". The absence of the term "lexicography" in such reputable modern reference books as the British and American Encyclopedias is by no means accidental. This is explained, firstly, by the youth of lexicography as a science, and, secondly, by the fact that even among linguists themselves there is still a dispute whether lexicography is a science, more precisely, a part of the science of language, or is it just a technique for compiling dictionaries, at best , the art of their composition.
Prominent Spanish lexicographer X. Casares in his well-known book "Introduction to Modern Lexicography" (which is translated into Russian) states that lexicography is the technique and art of compiling dictionaries. (Recall the definition of "lexicography" in the first edition of the TSB: "the work of compiling dictionaries.")
The famous English lexicographer, author of the famous reference books on English and American slang, Eric Partridge, who devoted his whole life to compiling dictionaries, did not accidentally name his latest book, the fruit of many years of research in the field of vocabulary, as follows: “The noble art of lexicography as an object of study and the experience of its passionate adherent."
Even F. Gove, editor-in-chief of the third edition of Webster's Dictionaries (1461), the largest lexicographic enterprise of our time, writes in the key article “Advances in Linguistics and Lexicography”: “Lexicography is not yet a science. Apparently, they will never be science. However, this is a complex, slick and sometimes all-consuming art that requires subjective analysis, arbitrary decisions and intuitive proofs.
Lexicography as one of the sciences of language
There is, however, another point of view on lexicography. Its supporters believe that lexicography is not just a technique, not just a practical activity in compiling dictionaries, and not even an art, but an independent scientific discipline that has its own subject of study (dictionaries of various types), its own scientific and methodological principles, its own theoretical problems, its place among other sciences of language.
For the first time this point of view on lexicography was clearly expressed by the well-known Soviet linguist Academician L. V. Shcherba. In the preface to the Russian-French Dictionary (1936), he wrote: “I consider it extremely wrong that our qualified linguists have a dismissive attitude towards dictionary work, thanks to which almost none of them have ever done it (in the old days, casual amateurs did it for a penny, not who had absolutely no special training) and thanks to which she received such an absurd name "compilation" of dictionaries. And indeed, our linguists, and even more so our "compilers" of dictionaries overlooked that this work should have a scientific character and in no way consist in a mechanical comparison of some ready-made elements.
Developing the provisions put forward in 1936, L.V. Shcherba published an article in 1940 (which later became widely known abroad), in which he began to develop the main theoretical questions of lexicography using a large amount of factual material. L.V. Shcherba thought of writing several articles (etudes, as he called them) on the general theory of lexicography, in which he intended to discuss such important problems as the main types of dictionaries, the nature of the word, the meaning and use of the word, the construction of a dictionary entry in connection with semantic, grammatical and stylistic analysis of the word, etc. However, premature death prevented the implementation of this plan. L.V. Shcherba wrote only the first sketch, “Basic Types of Dictionaries,” which began with the following well-known now statement: “One of the first questions of lexicography is, of course, the question of different types of dictionaries. It is based on a number of theoretical oppositions, which must be revealed. Since then, the thesis that lexicography is not only the practice of compiling dictionaries, but also a theoretical scientific discipline, has firmly become one of the starting points of the Soviet lexicographic school.
Here, however, one can ask the question: does the antinomy "science or art" have such a big turning point for lexicography? After all, it is clear that in both cases the compilation of dictionaries should be dealt with, because they are needed; You need a lot of good and different dictionaries. It should be answered with all certainty that this issue is of fundamental importance, and here's why.
What is science in general? What are its most important features? The main and most important features of science, any scientific discipline are the following: the presence of a system of knowledge and the need for their objective study. These two essential features are interconnected, closely intertwined, because only then can a system of knowledge adequate to reality be built when this reality is objectively studied. As applied to lexicography, it looks like this.
If we accept the thesis that lexicography is an art, then the doors open to a subjective understanding of the tasks and subject of lexicography, techniques and methods of its study, and a subjective solution of its problems. It is unlikely that such an approach will be fruitful and certainly not scientifically objective. If we accept the thesis that lexicography is just a technique for compiling dictionaries, a kind of purely practical activity, then we will have to transfer to other sciences (lexicology, semantics, stylistics, etymology, etc.) the solution of all theoretical issues, and lexicography will have to use only ready-made solutions of these sciences. It is unlikely that this will be fruitful, because other sciences of the language are not familiar enough with the state of affairs in lexicography. Consequently, they will solve the problems of lexicography from their own positions, from their own points of view, and therefore it will be detrimental to lexicography. Thus, the thesis that lexicography is a science is the only correct and most fruitful one. From this it follows that lexicography as a science has its own subject of study, its own special research methods, its structure, its place among other linguistic disciplines.
Like any science, lexicography has two sides: scientific and theoretical and practical applied. The first one (theoretical lexicography) poses general theoretical problems and works on their solution. The second (practical lexicography) deals directly with the compilation of dictionaries of various types based on theoretical solutions to the main problems. Of course, the division of lexicography into two parts is highly arbitrary. These two sides of lexicography always go together, they are interconnected: a lexicographic theoretician cannot engage in bare theorizing without working on concrete material, without participating in some kind of practical lexicographic work; and, conversely, no practitioner of lexicography can immerse himself only in his purely empirical work, without knowing the latest problems of lexicography as a science. Nevertheless, the fundamental distinction between the two sides of lexicography is extremely important.
From the above, we can conclude that the term "lexicography" currently has three meanings: 1) a science, more precisely, a special area of linguistics that studies the principles of compiling dictionaries of various types; 2) the actual practice of vocabulary, that is, the compilation of dictionaries; 3) a set of dictionaries of a given language.
Being a part of the science of language, lexicography is closely related to such linguistic disciplines as lexicology, semantics, stylistics, etymology, phonology, etc. Lexicography has common problems with these disciplines. Sometimes she uses the results of their research, and often ahead of them in solving some problems.
Thus, gradually, step by step, lexicography takes shape as an independent linguistic discipline, becoming equal among other linguistic sciences.