The difference between writing and speaking. Speech in human life. Oral and written speech
What is speech?
1 class
Topic. "Oral and written speech."
Purpose. To form a concept of two forms of speech - oral and written.
Equipment.Cards with terms; record player; audio recording “Bird's voices”; drawings illustrating the terms “oral” and “written language”.
DURING THE CLASSES
I. Organizational moment
II. Lesson topic post
Teacher. Do you guys want to play? Then, during my reading, try to provide a picture of what is happening.
The teacher reads a poem by Victor Lunin "Drops and Herons":
Dripping, Dripping Drops on the swamp Run, run In the swamp of a heron. Drops grab - They won’t get caught. They won’t get caught Why - they don’t know. A drop drops on water - Look, and nowhere is she Only a swamp and water. - Drops, drops! Where are you going? Herons weep bitterly: - Drowned the drops!
- Did you like the poem?
Children. Yes.
U.Around us constantly sounds any sounds. Some annoy us, others caress our ears, and many sounds we sometimes do not notice at all. And all these sounds, if you try, can be transmitted. I suggest you now take a trip to the most beautiful world - the world of sounds.
III. Work on the topic of the lesson
U.Let's portray everything that happens in a swamp. Girls will depict the sound of falling raindrops with a tap of the fingers on the desk. The boys stomp their legs - like herons running, and clapping their hands - how they catch drops.
- Imagine that someone watched our actions through the glass of windows. Could this person understand what was at stake?
D.Not. He did not hear the verbal wording.
U.Guys, shhh ... Listen ...
The teacher reads a poem:
In the morning, early in the morning I hear in a dream Like sounds from the street Knock on me: The steps of the postman The rustling of newspapers And the wind and the branches Hello and answer Horse horseshoes Measured ringing Creaky wagons Groaning and groaning And the voice of the thrush From afar And the rumble of cans And a splash of milk. I hear the mooing Sleepy cows - As if breathing Distant meadows. When they drive away Sheep under the window - I hear an echo In a forest ravine ... But the sounds are getting louder - Barking, twitter, fussing, And the sun through the shutters Finds me And whispers: "Wipe your eyes as soon as possible!" Enough to eavesdrop. Get up and look! ”
- What did you hear? What sounds disturbed the author’s dream?
Children are responsible.
- Let's try to convey all these sounds while reading the poem “Morning Sounds”.
The poem is being staged.
- What morning sounds from the street are knocking on you? Depict them, and we will try to determine their owner.
Children portray sounds.
- Who had difficulty during the game? Why?
Children are responsible.
Clarity of thought is always associated with a clear verbal wording. And now for some time we’ll mentally fasten on July day. You are in the forest. Around you is a world of bright colors. And suddenly...
- Did you like a walk in the summer forest? What is the beauty of this moment? What pictures did you mentally draw for yourself? Do you think the life of our feathered friends is so careless and joyful? What role do birds play in nature? Do birds need human help? What role do sounds they make for birds? Did you manage to determine what the birds were singing about?
Children answer the questions.
- Try to introduce the hero of the poem Sasha Black “Sparrow” and depict his actions.
Sparrow, my sparrow! Gray, brisk, like a mouse. Eyes - Beads, Feet apart Feet sideways Paws - maybe ... Jump, jump, I won’t touch You see, I chopped bread ... Furh! Fled ... what a sassy! Ate all the grains Ate all the crumbs - And I didn’t say thanks.
“Why didn't the sparrow say thanks?”
D.He can't speak.
U.I offer the game "Finish Offers."
On the desk:
- What is speech?
D.What a person pronounces.
speech.
- Why does a person need speech if you can communicate using facial expressions, gestures, onomatopoeia?
The reasoning of the children is heard.
- Speech has a socio-historical nature. People have always lived and live collectively, in society. Social life and the collective work of people make it necessary to constantly communicate, establish contact with each other, and influence each other. This communication is done through speech. Thanks to speech, people exchange thoughts and knowledge, talk about their feelings, feelings, intentions. What does a person say when opening his mouth?
D.Sounds.
U.What do these sounds add up to?
D.In words.
U.Communicating with each other, people use words, use the rules of a particular language. Many thoughts and actions cannot be expressed without words.
A card appears on the board with the word word.
- The writer Shibaev writes:
Words words words... The name is given to all - And the beast and the subject. There are plenty of things around And there are no nameless ones.
And all that the eye can see is Above us and below us And all that is in our memory It is indicated by words.
- What do the words related in meaning form?
D.Suggestions.
A card appears on the board with the word sentence.
U. In the distant, distant times, people did not know how to write and read. But they knew how to compose beautiful songs, fairy tales, various other stories. And some of them have survived to the present day. How did they do it?
D.People retold them.
U.In the old days, people transmitted all information from word of mouth. From grandparents to children, from children to grandchildren, and so from generation to generation. During the lesson, we used the work of the lips, tongue, and larynx to express and prove our judgments. All information went word of mouth. We used spoken language.
oral speech.
- Time passed. People began to try different signs to indicate spoken language in a letter. So a different form of speech arose in human life.
A card appears on the board with the words writing.
- What is necessary for writing?
D.Know the letters and be able to spell words.
U.So we built the circuit.
On the desk:
- What can you tell about this scheme?
D.Speech is spoken and written. It consists of sentences that are formed using words.
U.Why to cards word and sentence Do arrows fit on both sides?
D.Both oral and written speech consists of words and sentences.
IV. Securing material covered
U.What kind of speech do these puzzles recall?
The field is white, the sheep are black.
D.Paper and letters. This is a written speech.
U.The white stone has melted He left traces on the board.
D.A piece of chalk.
- This is a written speech.
U.He lives without language. Doesn’t eat and drink And he speaks and sings ...
D.Radio. This is spoken language.
U.Sheet of paper in the morning The apartment is carried to us. On one such sheet A lot of different news.
D.Newspaper. This is a written speech.
U.What kind of speech do the people in the pictures use?
On the board are four illustrations:
1. Two comrades are talking. 2. The student writes on the board. 3. The student answers at the blackboard. 4. A woman is reading a letter.
- Give examples of other situations of use of oral and written speech.
Children are responsible.
V. Lesson summary
U.Why do we need speech?
Answers children.
- Guys, on our huge planet Earth, only we humans have been given a great gift - the ability to speak, communicate with each other using the word. And I would really like you to use it only for the benefit of others. Try to be interesting interlocutors, listeners, active readers.
The differences between oral and written speech are not limited to the coding method only; oral and written speech also differ in their generation mechanisms, in the predominant use of certain language means, in expressive capabilities.
Oral speech is primary in relation to written - both historically and in the process of implementing the written text. However, the relationship between oral and written speech in the life of modern people is very complex: there is an increase in the role of written speech and the influence of the latter on oral speech, which does not always lead to its enrichment. Oq
Compare these two types of speech.
a) The degree of use clearly prevails oral speech; however, the number of recorded oral texts (sound recordings) is still small in comparison with written texts - books, magazines, manuscripts, etc. Written language has always been accepted as correct, exemplary, and it was studied by linguists; spoken language began to be studied relatively recently.
b) By the nature of generation, oral speech is always less prepared than written, it has more spontaneity, spontaneity, more random.
Written speech is usually prepared speech. It is more strict, complex in form and more complete in content, it is consistently subordinate to the literary norm; it has sharper and more accurate choice of words, larger and more complex sentences, etc. In spoken language, the syntax is simpler, there are often reservations, repetitions, ellipses, interjections, unfinished and connecting constructions, etc.
c) Oral speech has the means of sound expression: intonation, pace, pitch and timbre, pauses, logical stresses, sound power. In addition, oral speech can be accompanied by gestures, facial expressions. Written speech is all unusual, and therefore it is less expressive than oral speech (to some extent, these shortcomings are compensated for by the use of punctuation marks, quotation marks, type marks - italics, petite, etc.).
d) The norms of oral and written speech are also different: spelling requirements are presented to spelling, spelling, punctuation to writing, and calligraphic to the handwritten version.
In modern society, there is a rapid development of the variant of oral speech based on written (voiced written speech): reports, speeches, television programs, sound letters and other texts, which, before their oral implementation, are usually written and therefore have many properties of written speech: preparedness, completeness and correctness, while preserving the advantages of oral speech - sound expressiveness, facial expressions and gestures.
written speech consists of a system of signs that conventionally designate the sounds and words of oral speech, which, in turn, are signs for real objects and relationships. Gradually, this middle or intermediate connection dies away, and written speech turns into a system of signs that directly symbolize the designated objects and the relationship between them. mastery of this complex system of signs cannot be carried out exclusively mechanically; from the outside, mastery of written speech is in fact the product of a long development of the complex functions of the child’s behavior. (5.3, 155) written language is a completely different (from the point of view of the psychological nature of the processes that form it) process than the oral one, its physical and semantic side changes as compared to the oral one. The main difference: written speech is the algebra of speech and the most difficult form of complex volitional activity. (18.1, 61) the slowdown of writing causes not only quantitative, but also qualitative changes, since as a result of this slowdown, a new style and a new psychological character of children's creativity are obtained. The activity, which came first in oral speech, recedes into the background and is replaced by a more detailed peering into the described subject, by listing its qualities, attributes, etc. (11.1, 54) Difficulties in writing: it is non-antontonial, without an interlocutor. It is a symbolization of symbols; motivation is more difficult in it. Written speech is in a different relation to internal speech, it arises later than internal speech, it is the most grammatical. But it stands closer to inner speech than outer speech: it is associated with meanings, bypassing outer speech. (1.1.9, 163) The situation of written speech is a situation that requires a child to double abstraction: from the sounding side of speech and from the interlocutor. (1.2.1, 237) Written speech is more arbitrary than oral. A child must realize the sound side of a word, dismember it and arbitrarily recreate it in written characters. (1.2.1, 238 - 239, 240) the most verbose, accurate and detailed form of speech (1.2.1, 339) If we take into account the following points: speech without real sound, speech divorced from the speech activity that we have , and speech in silence, we will see that we are dealing not with speech in the literal sense, but with the symbolization of sound symbols, i.e. with double abstraction. We will see that written language refers to oral speech as algebra to arithmetic. Writing differs from spoken language in terms of motivation as well. .. in written speech, the child should be more aware of the processes of speaking. A child learns spoken language without such full awareness. A young child speaks, but does not know how he does it. In writing, he must be aware of the very process of expressing thoughts in words. (3.5, 439 - 440) See Inner Speech, Sign, Motivation, Thought, Speech, Word, Function
Initially, there was only oral, that is, sounding, speech. Then special signs were created, and written speech appeared. However, the difference between these methods of communication is not only in the means used, but also in many other ways. Let us consider in more detail the difference between written and oral speech.
Definition
Writing - A graphic system that serves to consolidate and transmit information, one of the ways the language exists. Written speech is presented, for example, in books, personal and business letters, official documents.
Oral speech - a form of language, expressed in pronounced and audible statements. Communication using spoken language can occur through direct contact (friendly conversation, teacher's explanation in the lesson) or indirectly (telephone conversation).
Comparison
Deployment
Written speech is characterized as contextual. That is, all the necessary information is only in the text itself. Such a speech is often addressed to an unknown reader, and in this case one does not have to count on supplementing the content with details that are usually understandable without words in direct contact. Therefore, written speech appears in a more expanded form. It most fully reveals all the essential points, describes the nuances.
Oral speech most often involves the union of the interlocutors in a specific situation that both of them understand. With this state of affairs, many details remain unsaid. Indeed, if you say aloud what is already obvious, the speech will turn out to be boring, even boring, unreasonably long, pedantic. In other words, spoken language is situational in nature, and therefore it is less extensive than written. Often with such communication, only a hint is enough to understand each other.
Applicable Tools
The difference between written and oral speech is that the writer does not have the opportunity to influence the addressee with the means that the speaker has in his arsenal. The expressiveness of written texts is ensured by setting punctuation marks, changing fonts, using paragraphs and more.
With oral communication, much can be shown by intonation, gaze, facial expressions, various gestures. For example, the saying “goodbye” can in one situation mean “see you soon, I will wait”, and in another - “it's all over between us”. In a conversation, even a pause can be significant. And sometimes it happens that the delivered speech shock the audience, and the same words, simply written on paper, make absolutely no impression.
Construction Features
Thoughts on the letter should be stated in an extremely understandable form. After all, if in a conversation the listener has the opportunity to ask again, and the speaker can explain and clarify something, then such a direct regulation of written speech is not feasible.
Written language is subject to spelling and syntax requirements. It also has a stylistic component. For example, in a speech addressed to the listener, the use of incomplete sentences is allowed, since the rest is prompted by the situation, and incomplete constructions on the letter are in many cases considered an error.
Thinking opportunity
All responsibility for the content of the written text lies with the author. But at the same time, he has more time to think over phrases, correct them, and supplement. This also applies to such varieties of spoken language as a report and lecture, which are also prepared in advance.
Meanwhile, colloquial speech is carried out at a certain moment of communication and is aimed at specific listeners. These conditions sometimes cause difficulties for the speaker. Inability to express thoughts, ignorance of what should be said further, the desire to correct already spoken, as well as the desire to express everything at once leads to noticeable errors. This is intermittent speech or, on the contrary, the lack of fragmentation of phrases, unnecessary repetition of words, incorrect accents. As a result, the content of speech may not be fully understood.
Duration of existence
Consider the difference between written and oral speech regarding the duration of each of them. Let us turn to writing. Its important property is that the text after writing will exist for a long time regardless of the presence of the author. Even if the writer is no longer alive, important information will reach the reader.
It is precisely the fact that the passage of time does not affect writing gives humanity the opportunity to pass on accumulated knowledge from generation to generation and preserve history in the annals. Meanwhile, oral speech lives only at the moment of sounding. Moreover, the presence of the author is mandatory. The exception is statements recorded on media.
Speech Type: Written
Speech Type: Oral
Fixed graphically
Transmitted by voice
Contextual
Situational
Detailed
Less deployed
Punctuation marks, text fragmentation, font change, etc. are used.
It is complemented by gestures, appropriate facial expressions, a game of intonation
Must comply with spelling, syntax, style requirements
There are no rules specific to writing
More thought out
Spontaneous, with the exception of prepared reports, lectures
When reading, the presence of the author is not required
General characteristics of speech forms
Speech communication takes place in two forms - oral and written. They are in a complex unity and in social and speech practice occupy an important and approximately the same place in their significance. Both in the sphere of production, and in the areas of management, education, jurisprudence, art, and in the mass media, both oral and written forms of speech take place. In conditions of real communication, their constant interaction and interpenetration is observed. Any written text can be voiced, that is, read aloud, and oral - recorded using technical means. There are genres of written language such as. for example, drama, oratory, which are designed specifically for subsequent scoring. And vice versa, in literary works, stylization methods for “orality” are widely used: dialogic speech in which the author seeks to preserve the features inherent in spontaneous oral speech, monological reasoning of characters in the first person, etc. The practice of radio and television has led to the creation of a peculiar form oral speech, in which oral and voiced written speech constantly coexist and interact (for example, a television interview).
The basis of both written and oral speech is literary speech, which acts as the leading form of existence of the Russian language. Literary speech is speech designed for a conscious approach to the system of communication tools, in which orientation to certain normalized patterns is carried out. It is such a means of communication, the norms of which are fixed as forms of exemplary speech, that is, they are fixed in grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks. The dissemination of these standards is promoted by the school, cultural institutions, and mass media. Literary speech is versatile in the field of functioning. On its basis, scientific works, journalistic works, business writing, etc. are created.
However, oral and written forms of speech are independent, have their own characteristics and features.
Oral speech
Oral speech is sounding speech, functioning in the sphere of direct communication, and in a broader sense, this is any sounding speech. Historically, the oral form of speech is primary; it arose much earlier than writing. The material form of oral speech is sound waves, i.e., pronounced sounds that are the result of the complex activity of the person’s pronunciation organs. This phenomenon is associated with the rich intonational capabilities of oral speech. Intonation is created by the melody of speech, the intensity (volume) of speech, the duration, increase or decrease of the pace of speech and the timbre of pronunciation. In oral speech, the place of logical stress, the degree of clarity of pronunciation, the presence or absence of pauses play an important role. Oral speech has such an intonational variety of speech that it can convey the whole wealth of human feelings, feelings, moods, etc.
The perception of oral speech in direct communication occurs simultaneously through both auditory and visual channels. Therefore, oral speech is accompanied by enhancing its expressiveness, such additional means as the nature of the look (alert or open, etc.), the spatial arrangement of the speaker and listener, facial expressions and gestures. So, a gesture can be likened to a pointing word (an indication of an object), it can express an emotional state, agreement or disagreement, surprise, etc., serve as a contact setting tool, for example, a raised hand as a sign of greeting (while the gestures have a national-cultural specifics, so use them, especially in oral business and scientific speech, you need to be careful). All these linguistic and extralinguistic means contribute to increasing the semantic significance and emotional richness of oral speech.
Irreversibility, progressive and linear time deployment is one of the main properties of oral speech. You cannot come back at some point in oral speech once again, and because of this, the speaker is forced to think and speak at the same time, that is, he thinks as if on the go, so oral speech can be characterized by fluidity, fragmentation, division of a single sentence into several communicatively independent units, for example. “The director called. Delayed. It will be in half an hour. Start without it. ” (message of the director’s secretary for the participants in the production meeting) On the other hand, the speaker is obliged to take into account the reaction of the listener and strive to attract his attention and arouse interest in the message. Therefore, in spoken language, intonational highlighting of important points, emphasis, clarification of some parts, auto-commenting, repetitions appear; “The department / carried out a large work / during the year / yes / I must say / big and important // And educational, and scientific, and methodical // Well / educational / everyone knows // Is it necessary in detail / educational // No // Yes / also think / do not // //
Oral speech can be prepared (report, lecture, etc.) and unprepared (conversation, conversation). Prepared spoken languageit is distinguished by thoughtfulness, a clearer structural organization, but at the same time, the speaker, as a rule, strives for his speech to be informal, not “memorized”, like direct communication.
Unprepared spoken languagecharacterized by spontaneity. An unprepared oral statement (the basic unit of oral speech, similar to the sentence in written speech) is formed gradually, in portions, as you become aware of what is said, what needs to be said next, what needs to be repeated, clarified. Therefore, in unprepared oral speech there are many pauses, and the use of placeholders for pauses (words like uh, um) enables the speaker to think about the future. The speaker controls the logical-compositional, syntactic and partially lexico-phraseological levels of the language, i.e. makes sure that his speech is logical and connected, selects appropriate words for adequate expression of thought. The phonetic and morphological levels of the language, i.e., pronunciation and grammatical forms, are not controlled, are reproduced automatically. Therefore, oral speech is characterized by less lexical accuracy, even the presence of speech errors, the short length of sentences, the limitation of the complexity of phrases and sentences, the absence of participial and participial sentences, the division of a single sentence into several communicatively independent ones. The participial and participial sentences are usually replaced by complex sentences, instead of verbal nouns, verbs are used, inversion is possible.
An example is a passage from a written text: “Slightly distracting from domestic issues, I would like to note that, as the modern experience of the Scandinavian region and a number of other countries have shown, the point is not the monarchy, not the form of political organization, but the division of political power between the state and society” (The Star. 1997, No. 6). When verbally reproducing this fragment, for example at a lecture, it will of course be changed and may take approximately the following form: “If we digress from the domestic problems, we will see that it is not a monarchy at all, it is not a form of political organization. The whole thing is how to divide power between the state and society. And this is confirmed today by the experience of the Scandinavian countries. ”
Oral speech as well as written is normalized and regulated, however, the norms of oral speech are completely different. “Many of the so-called flaws in oral speech - the functioning of incomplete statements, poor structure, the introduction of interruptions, auto-commentators, contactors, reprise, vibration elements, etc. - is a prerequisite for the success and effectiveness of the oral method of communication” *. The listener cannot keep in memory all the grammatical and semantic connections of the text, and the speaker must take this into account, then his speech will be understood and comprehended. Unlike written speech, which is built in accordance with the logical movement of thought, oral speech unfolds through associative attachments.
* Bubnova G.I. Garbovsky N.K. Written and oral communication: Syntax and prosody M, 1991.S. 8.
The oral form of speech is fixed to all the functional styles of the Russian language, however, it has an undeniable advantage in the colloquial-everyday style of speech. The following functional varieties of oral speech are distinguished: oral scientific speech, oral journalistic speech, types of oral speech in the sphere of official business communication, artistic speech and colloquial speech. It should be said that colloquial speech affects all varieties of spoken language. This is expressed in the manifestation of the author's "I", a personal beginning in speech in order to enhance the impact on listeners. Therefore, in oral speech, emotionally and expressively colored vocabulary, figurative comparative constructions, phraseological units, proverbs, sayings, even colloquial elements are used.
As an example, we give an excerpt from an interview with the President of the Constitutional Court of Russia: “Of course, there are exceptions ... The mayor of Izhevsk turned to us with a lawsuit to declare the law adopted by the republican authorities unconstitutional. And the court did recognize some articles as such. Unfortunately, at first it caused irritation among the local authorities, to the extent that, as they say, it will be so, no one will give us a decree. Then, as they say, "heavy artillery" was launched: the State Duma connected. The President of Russia issued a decree ... There was a lot of noise in the local and central press ”(Business People. 1997. No. 78).
In this fragment, there are also conversational particles they say and colloquial and phraseological expressions at first, nobody decree what’s called, there was a big noise, expression heavy artillery figuratively, and inversion issued a decree. The number of conversational elements is determined by the characteristics of a particular communicative situation. For example, the speech of the speaker conducting the meeting in the State Duma, and the speech of the leader conducting the production meeting, of course, will be different. In the first case, when the meetings are broadcast on radio and television to a huge audience, you need to be especially careful in choosing colloquial language units.
Writing
Writing is an auxiliary sign system created by people that is used to fix a sound language (and therefore sound speech). On the other hand, writing is an independent communication system, which, performing the function of fixing oral speech, acquires a number of independent functions. Written speech makes it possible to assimilate the knowledge accumulated by a person, expands the scope of human communication, breaks the scope of direct
surroundings. Reading books, historical documents of different times of peoples, we can touch the history, culture of all mankind. It is thanks to the written language that we learned about the great civilizations of Ancient Egypt, the Sumerians, Incas, Mayans, etc.
Writing historians claim that writing has come a long way in the historical development from the first nicks in trees, cave paintings to the sound-letter type that most people use today, i.e. written language is secondary to oral. The letters used in the letter are signs by which the sounds of speech are indicated. The sound envelopes of words and parts of words are represented by combinations of letters, and knowledge of the letters allows them to be reproduced in sound form, i.e., to read any text. Punctuation marks used in writing serve to divide speech: dots, commas, dashes correspond to the intonation pause of oral speech. This means that letters are the material form of writing.
The main function of written speech is the fixation of oral speech, with the goal of preserving it in space and time. Writing serves as a means of communication between people in those cases whendirect communication is impossible when they are separated by space, i.e., they are located in different geographical points, and by time. Since ancient times, people, unable to communicate directly, exchanged letters, many of which have survived to this day, overcoming the barrier of time. The development of technical means of communication such as telephone has, to some extent, reduced the role of writing. But the advent of fax, and nowadays the spread of the Internet system, which help to overcome space, has again activated the written form of speech. The main property of writing is the ability to store information for a long time.
Written speech is not deployed in temporary, but in static space, which gives the writer the opportunity to think through speech, return to what has already been written, and rebuild sentences andparts of the text, replace words, clarify, carry out a long search for the form of expression of thought, turn to dictionaries and reference books. In this regard, the written form of speech has its own characteristics. Writing uses book language, the use of which is quite strictly normalized and regulated. The order of words in the sentence is fixed, inversion (changing the order of words) is not typical of written speech, and in some cases, for example, in texts of an official business style of speech, is unacceptable. A sentence, which is the main unit of writing, expresses complex logical and semantic relationships through syntax, therefore, as a rule, written speech is characterized by complex syntactic constructions, participial and participial sentences, common definitions, plug-in constructions, etc. When combining sentences into paragraphs, each of which are strictly related to the preceding and subsequent context.
Let us analyze from this point of view an excerpt from the reference manual of V. A. Krasilnikov “Industrial architecture and ecology”:
“The negative impact on the environment is expressed in the ever-increasing expansion of territorial resources, including sanitary gaps, in the emission of gaseous, solid and liquid wastes, in the generation of heat, noise, vibration, radiation, electromagnetic energy, in changing landscapes and microclimate, often their aesthetic degradation ".
This one simple sentence contains a large number of homogeneous members: in an ever-expanding expansion, in emissions, in excretion, in change; heat noise vibration etc., participle turnover including..., participle increasing those. characterized by the features mentioned above.
Written speech is focused on the perception by the organs of vision, therefore, it has a clear structural and formal organization: it has a system of page numbering, division into sections, paragraphs, a system of links, font emphasis, etc.
“The most common form of non-tariff restriction on foreign trade is a quota, or contingent. Quotation is a limitation in quantitative or value terms of the volume of products allowed to be imported into the country (import quota) or exported from the country (export quota) for a certain period. ”
This excerpt uses font, explanations, and parentheses. Often, each subtopic of a text has its own subtitle. For example, the above quote opens part Quotation one of the subtopics of the text “Foreign trade policy: non-tariff methods of regulating international trade” (ME and MO. 1997. No. 12). You can return to a complex text more than once, ponder it, comprehend what has been written, being able to look through one’s text or another with your eyes.
Written speech is distinguished by the fact that the conditions and purpose of communication find a certain reflection in the very form of speech activity, for example, a work of art or a description of a scientific experiment, a vacation application or an informational message in a newspaper. Therefore, writing has a style-forming function, which is reflected in the choice of language tools that are used to create a particular text that reflects the typical features of a particular functional style. The written form is the main form of the existence of speech in the scientific, journalistic; formal business and artistic styles.
Thus, when speaking about the fact that verbal communication takes place in two forms - oral and written ”, we must bear in mind the similarities and differences between them. The similarity lies in the fact that these forms of speech have a common basis - the literary language and in practice occupy approximately the same place. Differences are often reduced to means of expression. Oral speech is associated with intonation and melody, non-verbal, it uses a certain amount of “its” language means, it is tied more to the colloquial style. The letter uses alphabetic, graphic designations, more often a book language with all its styles and features, standardization and formal organization.
Dialogue and Monologue
Dialogue
Dialogue - it is a conversation of two or more persons, a form of speech consisting of the exchange of remarks. The basic unit of dialogue is dialogic unity - a semantic (thematic) association of several remarks, which is an exchange of opinions, statements, each of which depends on the previous one.
Pay attention to the consistent connection of the replicas forming a dialogic unity in the following example, where the question-answer form implies a logical sequence from one topic addressed in the dialogue to another (dialogue between the newspaper Delovoy Peterburg and the Mayor of Stockholm):
- Stockholm Days in St. Petersburg - is this part of the overall strategy of the city authorities?
- We spend a lot of money on international marketing. We try to represent the region to foreign investors as widely as possible.
- Who are these efforts directed at first?
- To European companies that enter the international market. Stockholm has representative offices in Brussels and St. Petersburg. The city is also represented in Tokyo and Riga. The functions of representative offices include establishing relationships with local firms.
- The city authorities somehow support these firms?
- Advice, but not money.
- How important are firms from Russia for the authorities and entrepreneurs of Stockholm?
- The interest of the Swedes in the Russian market is constantly growing. More and more Russian citizens are discovering Scandinavia. Entrepreneurs appreciated the favorable conditions for business in Stockholm. There are 6,000 companies registered in the city with Russian owners or shareholders (Business Petersburg 1998 No. 39).
In this example, we can distinguish several dialogical units, united by the following topics and representing the development of the theme of dialogue: the days of Stockholm in St. Petersburg, the expansion of international marketing, the support of foreign companies by the city authorities, and the Swedes' interest in the Russian market.
So, dialogical unity is ensured by the connection of various kinds of replicas (speech etiquette formulas, question – answer, addition, narration, distribution, consent – \u200b\u200bdisagreement), for example, in the dialogue presented above using question-answer replicas:
- How important are firms from Russia to the authorities and entrepreneurs of Stockholm?
- The interest of the Swedes in the Russian market is constantly growing.
In some cases, dialogue unity can also exist due to replicas that reveal a reaction not to the previous replica of the interlocutor, but to the general speech situation, when the participant in the dialogue asks his counter-question:
- Did you bring a report for the first quarter?
“And when will we get the new computers?”
Replicas in their general and character can depend on various factors: these are, first of all, the interlocutor’s personalities with their specific communicative-speech strategy and tactics, the general interlocutor’s speech culture, the degree of officialness of the situation, the “potential listener” factor, that is, present but not taking part in the dialogue (ordinary everyday and on-air, i.e., dialogue on radio or television) of the listener or viewer.
Here are two examples of dialogs.
The first example is a dialogue with the general director of JSC World Fair “Russian Farmer” - a captain of the 3rd rank, who resigned and took up farming (the newspaper Boy and Girl. 1996. No. I):
- Did you know where you would go?
- No, I just went nowhere. Just to leave, I tried to change my life.
- Wasn't it scary?
-I knew that I’m not lost. In the service, it was still worse. And, being a lieutenant captain, I “hacked” on the car for 2-3 evenings a week, I talked like this: it won’t be any worse. I’ll somehow earn my two hundred and odd. It is decided: it is necessary to change life!
- So, right from the ship - did you get into the village?
- Not really. At first I worked in a cooperative that specialized inand tennis, "grew up" to deputy director. But then my friends shared an interesting idea with me - the idea of \u200b\u200breviving Russian fairs. I got carried away, read several books. Five years have passed, and I am passionate about this idea, this business is no less than the former.
The second example is an interview with a corresponding member of the International Academy of Information, a professor (Moscow News. 1997. No. 23):
– Professor, I saw that employees of Russian oil and financial firms and banks are already coming to your university to test the soil. Why do they need American theoretical knowledge in the unpredictable realities of Russian business?
- On the one hand, the volume of foreign investments in all-Russian production is increasing, on the other, our enterprises are increasingly entering the international financial market, as a result, the need for specialists in the field of investment process management is growing in Russia. And so far, one can become such a specialist, at an international level, only in a prestigious Western business school.
-And maybe, the owners of Russian banks are guided by considerations of prestige: let their employees have a solid diploma, especially since your bank price is low for the bank.
- Prestige diploma - a good thing, it helps in establishing contacts with Western partners and can become a visiting card of a Russian company.
Using the example of these two dialogs, you can see that their participants (primarily the interviewees) have their own vivid communicative-speech strategy: the speech of the university professor is more logical and harmonious, and vocabulary. The replicas of the general director of the fair reflect the peculiarities of colloquial speech, they contain incomplete structures.
The so-called code of communication relationships, i.e., the type of interaction between the participants in the dialogue - the communicants, also influences the nature of the replicas.
Three main types of interaction among dialogue participants are distinguished: dependence, cooperation, and equality. We show this with examples.
The first example is a dialogue between a writer and an editorial staff member, described by S. Dovlatov in his Notebooks. This example shows relationship of dependence between the participants in the dialogue (the petitioner, in this case the writer, asks to give him the opportunity to write a review):
I go to the editorial office the next day. A beautiful elderly woman asks rather gloomily:
- What do you actually need?
- Yes, write a review.
“Are you a critic?”
- Not.
The second example is a telephone conversation between a client and an employee of a computer repair company - an example of a dialogue of the type cooperation (both the client and the employee of the company strive to solve a certain problem by joint efforts):
- The computer writes that there is no keyboard and asks to press F1. How to press something?
- So did you remove the keyboard from the connector while the power was on?
- No, they just moved the connector. And now what?
- The keyboard fuse on the motherboard has blown. Bring (Entrepreneur of St. Petersburg. 1998. No. 9).
The third example of a dialogue - an interview with the correspondent of the newspaper Delo (1998. No. 9) with an employee of the St. Petersburg Real Estate Registration Office - represents dialogue equality when both participants in the dialogue are conducting a conversation that is not aimed at achieving a specific result (as, for example, in the previous dialogue):
- One of the most frequently asked questions: are non-residential premises lease agreements concluded for up to one year subject to state registration?
- Any lease of real estate is subject to registration, regardless of the object and the period for which it is concluded.
- Is the agreement on joint activities subject to state registration, part of which is a real estate transaction?
- Such an agreement may be registered as an encumbrance of the rights of the owner
In the last two dialogs, such a factor as mentioned above is clearly manifested as the degree of officialness of the situation. The degree of control over one’s own speech and, accordingly, the observance of language norms also depend on this factor. In a client-employee dialogue, the degree of officiality of the situation is low and the speakers find a deviation from literary norms. Their dialogue contains elements of colloquial speech, such as frequent use of particles (click something, so you, yes no).
Any dialogue has its own structure which in most types of dialogue, as in principle and in any text, remains stable: the beginning - the main part - the ending. The reason may be the formula of speech etiquette (Good evening, Nikolai Ivanovich!) or first replica question (What time is it now?), or cue-judgment (It's a good weather today). It should be noted that the dimensions of the dialogue are theoretically unlimited, since its lower boundary can be open: the continuation of almost any dialogue is possible due to an increase in its dialogical unity. In practice, any dialogue has its ending (a replica of speech etiquette (Until!), replica consent (Yes of course!) or replica response).
Dialogue is considered as the primary, natural form of verbal communication, therefore, as a form of speech, it has received its greatest distribution in the field of colloquial speech, however, the dialogue is also presented in scientific, journalistic, and official-business speech.
Being the primary form of communication, dialogue is an unprepared, spontaneous type of speech. This statement concerns primarily the sphere of colloquial speech, where the subject of dialogue can arbitrarily change during its development. But, even in a scientific, journalistic and official-business speech, with the possible preparation of (first of all question) replicas, the development of a dialogue will be spontaneous, since in the vast majority of cases the replica-reactions of the interlocutor are unknown or unpredictable.
In dialogic speech, the so-called universal principle of saving verbal expression. This means that the participants in the dialogue in a specific situation use a minimum of verbal, or verbal, means, making up for non-verbal information through non-verbal means of communication - intonation, facial expressions, body movements, gestures. For example, going to the reception to the head and being in the reception, the employee of the company will not contact the secretary with a question like “Nikolai Vladimirovich Petrova, director of our company, is now in his office?”,or it can be limited to a nod of the head towards the cabinet door and a remark “ At home? ” When a dialogue is written in writing, such a situation necessarily unfolds and is shown by the author / writer in the form of a remark or comment.
For the dialogue to exist, on the one hand, a common initial information base of its participants is needed, and on the other hand, an initial minimum gap in the knowledge of the dialogue participants. Otherwise, the participants in the dialogue will not inform each other of new information on the subject of speech, and therefore, it will not be productive. Thus, lack of information negatively affects the productivity of dialogic speech. This factor can arise not only with a low communicative competence of the participants in the dialogue, but also in the absence of the desire of the interlocutors to enter into the dialogue or continue it. A dialogue consisting of only one form of speech etiquette, the so-called etiquette forms, has a formal meaning, is not informative, there is no need for information, but it is generally accepted in certain situations (when meeting in public places):
- Hello!
-Hi!
- How are you?
- Thanks, fine.
A necessary condition for the existence of dialogues aimed at obtaining new information is such a factor as the need for communication that arises as a result of a potential knowledge gap.
In accordance with the goals and objectives of the dialogue, the situation of communication, the role of interlocutors, the following main types of dialogues can be distinguished: household, business conversation, interviews. Let us comment on the first of them (the last two will be discussed in more detail below).
Household dialogue characterized by unplannedness, a possible deviation from the topic, the variety of topics discussed, the absence of goals and the need to make any decisions, the widespread use of non-verbal (non-verbal) means of communication, personal expression, conversational style.
As an example of everyday dialogue, we give an excerpt from the story of Vladimir Makanin "Simple Truth":
In the same almost a second, a grave gray-haired lady entered the room to Terekhov
“... You're not sleeping, I seem to hear your voice.”
- Coughing up, she asked:
-Give me, dear, matches
- You are welcome.
- The old woman wanted tea. And the matches have gone somewhere - sclerosis.
- She crouched for a minute:
“You're polite, I love you.”
- Thank.
- But Sitnikov - what a scoundrel, he decided to start a tape recorder at night looking. You heard how I finished him - something, but I can teach mind-wisdom.
And, condescending to her own weakness, she laughed.
- Senile, it must be.
This text contains all the characteristics typical for everyday dialogue: unplannedness (a neighbor accidentally went to Terekhov, although she needed matches), a transition from one topic to another (matches that an elderly neighbor lost, her positive attitude towards Terekhov, negative attitude towards another neighbor, the desire to teach young people), non-verbal means of communication (laughter of an old woman, contented with herself, who is also a sign of her disposition towards Terekhov), conversational style (syntactic constructions: matches gone somewhere - sclerosis, use of colloquial vocabulary: start a tape recorder anyone like would).
Monologue
Monologue can be defined as a detailed statement of one person.
The monologue is characterized by a relative length (it may contain parts of the text that are different in volume, consisting of structurally and within the meaning of related statements) and a variety of vocabulary. The themes of the monologue are diverse and can change freely during its deployment.
There are two main types of monologue. Firstly, monologue is a process of purposeful communication, a conscious appeal to the listener and is typical primarily for the oral form of book speech: oral scientific speech (for example, a training lecture or report), judicial speech and recently received widespread oral public speech . The monologue received the most complete development in artistic speech.
Secondly, a monologue is speech alone with oneself, that is, the monologue may not be directed to the immediate listener (this is the so-called “internal monologue”) and, accordingly, is not designed for the response of the interlocutor.
The monologue can be either unprepared, spontaneous, which is typical primarily for the sphere of colloquial speech, and prepared, pre-thought out.
For the purpose of utterance, monologic speech is divided into three main types: informational, persuasive, and inducing.
Informational speech serves to transfer knowledge. In this case, the speaker must first of all take into account both the intellectual abilities of the perception of information by the listeners and the cognitive abilities.
Varieties of informational speech include various kinds of speeches, lectures, reports, messages, reports.
Here is an example of an informational speech (a message from the director of the Leisure company about the results of the international exhibition Small Business-98. Success Technology):
“The past exhibition, on the one hand, was a broad advertisement of small business in general. On the other, a demonstration of the achievements of the enterprises participating in this exhibition. With the third - the exhibition provided an opportunity to communicate with business colleagues. But the main task of such an event, I believe, is enlightening ”(Entrepreneur of St. Petersburg. 1998. No. 9).
Persuasive speech turned primarily to the emotions of the listener. In this case, the speaker must take into account his susceptibility. The persuading variety of speech includes: congratulatory, solemn, parting words.
As an example, we give the speech of the governor of St. Petersburg at the opening of the monument to N.V. Gogol:
“A truly historic event has occurred, we are opening a monument to the great Russian writer Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. We are finally doing our duty to the genius of world literature. The authors of the monument created the image of a mature, wise, self-absorbed person. “I always wrap my cloak when I walk along Nevsky Prospect,” - he wrote. That’s how we saw Gogol today. ”(Week. 1997. No. 47).
Prompt speech aims to encourage listeners to various kinds of actions. It distinguishes political speech, speech-call to action, speech-protest.
As an example of political speech, we give an excerpt from the speech of the vice-governor of St. Petersburg, a member of the political council of the Yabloko Movement:
“The most important task of the next year and a half is to stabilize the city’s debt, including with the help of international financially more profitable loans. If this task is solved, a completely different financial situation will arise in the city. At which issues of payment of salaries and pensions, implementation of the most important social programs will be better addressed.
I believe that we will succeed. ” (Nevsky columnist. 1997. No. 3).
The monologue has a certain compositional form, which depends on the genre-stylistic or functional-semantic affiliation. Speaker speech (which will be discussed separately later), an artistic monologue, an official business monologue, and other types can be attributed to the genre-stylistic varieties of the monologue, functional-semantic types - description, narration, reasoning (will also be considered separately).
Monological speech is distinguished by the degree of preparedness and formality. Oratory is always a pre-prepared monologue delivered in an official setting. However, to a certain extent, a monologue is an artificial form of speech, always striving for dialogue, in connection with this, any monologue can have the means of dialogue, for example, addressing, rhetorical questions, question-answer form of speech, that is, everything that may indicate about the speaker’s desire to increase the communicative activity of the addressee, to cause his response. (More details on the means of dialogization of monologue will be discussed in Chapter III.)
Consider the features of the construction of monological speech and its characteristics on a specific example.
“So, I have a little time. 30 minutes. Enough? Fine. So what interests you? Education is economic, but I started working in one law office, and pretty quickly from the assistant secretary I got to the deputy director. The time began favorable for those who owned the basics of economic knowledge. And I owned. But very soon I realized this, I started to do something. It so happened that philologists with knowledge of languages \u200b\u200bwere around, and I organized courses, then a translation center.
We did not immediately begin to prosper, of course, but at some point we were almost ruined.
It was not easy. But I coped with the situation. Yes, I haven’t been on vacation for five years. I don’t go abroad. My home is this office sutra until night. No, it’s not true that I don’t need anything else. Of course you need. But relationships with men are difficult.
The son remains. In the end, everything that I do - I do for him ... "(E. Shulgina - Monologues about the important // newspaper "Boy and Girl". 1997. No. 1).
This passage provides an example of an unofficial unprepared monologue - a detailed statement by one person. This monologue is a message deliberately directed to a specific listener. Thematically, he is distinguished by a certain uniformity: this is a woman’s message about her life - education, work, problems, family. For the purpose of the statement, it can be described as informational. The monologue under consideration has a certain structure: introduction (So, I have a little time. 30 minutes. Enough? Fine; So what interests you?), in which the speaker defines the topic of his speech ( What are you interested in?), the main part is the actual story of life, and the conclusion is the final part of the monologue, where the speaker, summing up the above, claims that in the end he does everything for his son.
Thus, monologue and dialogue are considered as two main types of speech, differing in the number of participants in the act of communication. Dialogue as a way of exchanging thoughts between communicants in the form of replicas is the primary, natural form of speech, in contrast to the monologue, which is a detailed statement of one person. Dialogic and monologic speech can exist both in written and in oral form, however, written speech is always based on monologic, and oral is dialogical.
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