Famous Russian linguists.
Sergey Ivanovich Ozhegov is a man and a dictionary.
Vocabulary, compiling and editing dictionaries - this is the area of scientific activity of S.I., in which he left a noticeable and unique "Ozhegovsky" trace. It would not be an exaggeration to say that in the 1950s and 1960s there was not a single more or less noticeable lexicographical work in which S. I. would not take part - either as an editor (or a member of the editorial board), or as a scientific consultant and reviewer, or as a direct author-compiler.
He was a member of the editorial board of the Soviet Socialist Republic of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 17 volumes (M.-L.,) from the 6th to the 17th volume inclusive. He is the author-compiler and member of the editorial board of the academic "Pushkin's Dictionary of Language" in 4 volumes (M.,).
Together with and he edited the Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (from the 1st to the 12th edition inclusive); edited (together with) the reference dictionary "Russian literary stress and pronunciation" (2nd ed., M., 1959); was the initiator of the creation and editor of the academic dictionary-reference book "Correctness of Russian speech" (1st ed., 2nd ed., one of the authors of which is the author of this article.
Together with and S. I. compiled a "Dictionary for Plays (A Handbook for Actors, Directors, Translators)", which in 1949 reached the layout, but was not published under the conditions of that time (the fight against "cosmopolitanism") and was born reprint edition in 1993. Until the end of his life, S. I. was deputy chairman of the Vocabulary Commission of the Department of Literature and Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, as well as a member of the editorial board of the famous Lexicographic Collections.
on compiling dictionaries began in the late 1920s in Leningrad, when he was actively involved in editing the "Dictionary of the Russian Language" of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (the publication was not completed). Volume 5, no. 1, "D - Activity" is entirely compiled and edited by him alone.
From 1927 to 1940, first in Leningrad, and since 1936 - in Moscow, S. I. participated in the compilation of the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" - the firstborn of Soviet lexicography. Dictionary edited by prof. ("Ushakov Dictionary") was published in 4 volumes and embodied the best traditions of Russian science, the lexicographic ideas of de Courtenay,. Remarkable linguists took part in its compilation: each of whom made a noticeable and unique contribution to this great general cultural cause. S. I. was one of the main compilers of the Ushakovsky Dictionary, the right hand of the editor-in-chief and the scientific and organizational "driver" of all the work (by his own admission).
Ozhegov's dictionary begins its wonderful life. Ozhegovsky Dictionary withstood 6 lifetime editions and was repeatedly reprinted in foreign countries. Its popularity began to grow rapidly immediately after its publication. In 1952, a reprint edition appeared in China, followed shortly by an edition in Japan. It has become a reference book for many thousands of people in all corners of the globe who study Russian. Outside of Russia there is, in fact, not a single specialist in Russian studies who is not familiar with the name and its vocabulary. The latest tribute to him was the New Russian-Chinese Dictionary, published in Beijing in 1992. Its author Li Sha (Russian by origin) made an unusual book: she scrupulously, word for word, translated the entire Dictionary of the Russian Language into Chinese.
All his life, Ushakov studied, propagandized, defended the living Russian word - both dialectal, and colloquial, and literary. He was also known as a brilliant lecturer, able to simply and intelligibly talk about complex linguistic phenomena. His speech was so elegant and colorful that it gave the listener an aesthetic pleasure.
The dictionary used all the achievements of the academic tradition of that time in the field of lexicography and, as it were, summed up the results of all previous work on compiling a dictionary of the Russian literary language. He provided rich material for studying the changes that took place in the language in the first half of the 20th century, while his normative indications are especially valuable: stylistic, grammatical, spelling and orthoepic. Notes on the style of a particular word, the phraseology associated with it, make the dictionary a useful guide to the correct use of words in speech.
Completion of the lesson:
Each of the scientists lived in his time. At different times there were different difficulties. Everyone lived their lives differently. But all of them were united by love for the Russian language and the desire to glorify their country.
“Take care of our language, our great Russian language, this is a treasure, this is a property handed down to us by our predecessors.”
We ask students to explain how they understand what it means to protect the Russian language.
What gives a person books And?
If a parent reads books to a child, and he does not forget to do this every day, then by the age of 5 the child's vocabulary is 2000 words, by 7 years - 3000 words, and by the end of school - 7000 words.
Parents read books first, then children develop interest in reading.
Books teach a person to live. You can learn from your mistakes. And maybe on strangers. In his life, a person faces problems that humanity faces many times.
Anyone who read in books about a particular problem, faced with it, will have several options for choosing behavior.
Reading gives freedom of choice of feelings. A person has a favorite literary hero whom he wants to imitate. The characters in the books experience different feelings, and the readers experience them with them. He learns to feel and express different feelings.
Through reading one can understand other people.
Therefore, books have long been a source of knowledge for people.
The book has always been a companion and friend. By depriving himself of reading, a person has deprived himself of connection with the past, made himself poorer and more stupid.
Therefore, books should be protected.
"Reading is a window through which people see and know the world and themselves."
Do not litter the Russian language with foreign words.
Do not use "ugly" words.
Learn Russian and strive to speak fluently.
From the biographies of Cyril and Methodius
Among the most ancient monuments of Slavic writing, a special and honorable place is occupied by the biographies of the creators of the Slavic letters - Saints Cyril and Methodius, such as "The Life of Constantine the Philosopher", "The Life of Methodius" and "Eulogy to Cyril and Methodius".
From these sources we learn that the brothers were from the Macedonian city of Thessalonica. Now it is the city of Thessaloniki on the Aegean Sea. Methodius was the eldest of seven brothers, and the youngest was Constantine. He received the name Cyril when he was tonsured a monk just before his death. The father of Methodius and Constantine held the high post of assistant governor of the city. There is an assumption that their mother was a Slav, because the brothers from childhood knew the Slavic language as well as Greek.
The future Slavic enlighteners received an excellent upbringing and education. Constantine from infancy showed extraordinary mental gifts. Studying at the Thessalonica school and not yet reaching the age of fifteen, he already read the books of the most thoughtful of the fathers of the Church - Gregory the Theologian (4th century). The rumor about the talent of Constantine reached Constantinople, and then he was taken to the court, where he studied with the emperor's son from the best teachers of the capital of Byzantium. The famous scholar Photius, the future Patriarch of Constantinople, Constantine studied ancient literature. He also studied philosophy, rhetoric (oratory), mathematics, astronomy and music. Constantine was expected to have a brilliant career at the imperial court, wealth and marriage to a noble beautiful girl. But he preferred to retire to the monastery “on Olympus to Methodius, his brother,” says his biography, “he began to live there and constantly pray to God, doing only books.”
However, Konstantin could not spend long periods of time in solitude. As the best preacher and defender of Orthodoxy, he is often sent to neighboring countries to participate in disputes. These trips were very successful for Konstantin. Once, traveling to the Khazars, he visited the Crimea. Having baptized up to two hundred people and taking with him the captive Greeks released to freedom, Constantine returned to the capital of Byzantium and began to continue his scientific work there.
Poor health, but imbued with a strong religious feeling and love for science, Konstantin from childhood dreamed of solitary prayer and book studies. His whole life was filled with frequent difficult trips, severe hardships and very hard work. Such a life undermined his strength, and at the age of 42 he became very ill. Anticipating his near end, he became a monk, changing his worldly name Konstantin to the name Cyril. After that, he lived for another 50 days, read the confessional prayer himself for the last time, said goodbye to his brother and disciples, and quietly died on February 14, 869. It happened in Rome, when the brothers once again came to seek protection from the Pope of Rome for their cause - the spread of Slavic writing.
Immediately after the death of Cyril, his icon was painted. Cyril was buried in Rome in the church of St. Clement.
Baudouin de Courtenay was one of the most influential Russian linguists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many of his ideas were deeply innovative and well ahead of their time; there is a widespread view of him as a kind of "Eastern European Saussure", which was facilitated by his role in the creation of phonology - one of the most "structuralist" sections of the science of language. Baudouin's ideas are scattered over numerous small articles that touch upon various problems of linguistics, primarily general linguistics and Slavic studies; It should be noted that the activities of such scientists as R.O. Yakobson, N.S. Trubetskoy, E. Kurilovich greatly contributed to the popularization of these ideas.
For the first time in world science, he divided phonetics into two disciplines: anthropophonics, which studies the acoustics and physiology of sounds, and psychophonetics, which studies ideas about sounds in the human psyche, i.e. phonemes; subsequently, these disciplines came to be called phonetics and phonology, respectively, although some of Baudouin's direct students tried to preserve his terminology. Introduced the terms "phoneme" and "morpheme" in their modern sense into the science of language, uniting the concepts of root and affix in the general concept of morphemes as the minimum meaningful unit of the language. One of the first refused to consider linguistics only a historical science and studied modern languages. He studied the issue of the causes of language changes, studied sociolinguistics, the theory of writing, and participated in the development of the reform of Russian spelling, carried out in 1917–1918. Edited and supplemented the dictionary of V.I.Dal. He argued with the logical approach to language, the neogrammatical concept of sound laws, and the use of the metaphor "organism" in the science of language.
Calling himself an “autodidact” and not considering himself a student of anyone, Baudouin created two large linguistic schools: Kazan (N.V. Krushevsky, V.A. Bogoroditsky, etc.) and later Petersburg (L.V. Shcherba, E. D. Polivanov and others).
VINOKUR, GRIGORY OSIPOVICH (1886–1947), Russian linguist and literary critic. Born 5 (17) November 1896 in Warsaw. In 1922 he graduated from Moscow University. Together with N.F. Yakovlev, R.O. Yakobson and a number of other linguists, he was a member of the Moscow Linguistic Circle in 1918-1924, in 1922-1924 he was its chairman. In the 1920s he worked at the State Academy of Artistic Sciences in Moscow. From 1930 he taught at the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute and other universities, participated in the compilation of a dictionary edited by D.N. Ushakov (4 vols., 1935–1940). In 1942–1947 he was a professor at the Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov. Vinokur died in Moscow on May 17, 1947. Most of the linguistic works of G.O. Vinokur are devoted to the Russian language, but his few general linguistic works ( On the tasks of the history of language, 1941 ) reflect a clear theoretical concept; according to it, linguistics is divided into the science of language and the science of individual languages; the science of language “in general” can be abstracted from history, but the science of languages should study their historical development. Vinokur’s contribution to particular sections of linguistics is significant, primarily to the theory of word formation, an important episode of which was the dispute about the principles of word articulation, initiated by Vinokur’s article 1946 "Notes on Russian word formation » . This article offered various interpretations of words with unique stems (such as raspberries, ham) and unique suffixes (like shepherd, song): the former were proposed to be considered non-derivative, in contrast to the latter. AI Smirnitsky two years later, after the death of Vinokur, substantiated their uniform interpretation (now accepted) as derivatives. Also interesting is Vinokur's article on the parts of speech in the Russian language (published posthumously in 1959), where the general principles of dividing vocabulary into parts of speech are considered and a morphological classification of parts of speech for the Russian language is built consistently, which turned out to be very different from the traditional one.
Vinokur was one of the creators of the history of the Russian literary language as a special discipline ( Russian language: historical essay, 1945). He dealt a lot with questions of stylistics and culture of speech ( Culture of language, 1929), analyzing, in particular, the theoretical foundations of stylistics as a special linguistic discipline.
Literary works of Vinokur are devoted to the poetic language, the principles of constructing scientific poetics, the language and style of A.S. Pushkin. V.V. Khlebnikov and others. He owned the initiative to create Pushkin language dictionary; he developed the concept of this dictionary and was the first leader of the work on its compilation. Many ideas (consideration of the history of language in the system, the study of the stylistic function of language, interest in poetic language, etc.) Vinokur was close to the Prague Linguistic Circle, especially to R. O. Yakobson.
VINOGRADOV, VIKTOR VLADIMIROVICH (1895–1969), Russian linguist and literary critic. He was born on December 31, 1894 (January 12, 1895 according to the new style) in Zaraysk. In 1917 he graduated from the History and Philology. institute in Petrograd. In the 1920s he taught at the universities of Petrograd (Leningrad), in 1930 he moved to Moscow, in the 1930s (with interruptions) he was a professor at the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute and other universities. In 1934 he was arrested in the same case with N.N. Durnovo; in 1934–1936 and 1941–1943 he was in exile. Subsequently, he held various senior positions in scientific organizations of a philological profile: dean of the philological faculty (1944–1948) and head of the Russian language department (1946–1969) of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, Academician-Secretary of the Department of Literature and Language of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1950–1963), Director of the Institute of Linguistics (1950–1954) and the Institute of the Russian Language (1958–1968) of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Editor-in-Chief of the journal “Issues of Linguistics” (1952) –1969), etc. Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR since 1946, deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR in 1951–1955; foreign member of a number of foreign academies. Vinogradov died in Moscow on October 4, 1969. Vinogradov's main works are devoted to the grammar of the Russian language ( Russian language. Grammatical Doctrine of the Word, 1947, then reprinted several times; is a systematic presentation of the theoretical grammar of the Russian language with a detailed discussion of the views of predecessors on most debatable issues), the history of the Russian literary language ( Essays on the history of the Russian literary language, 1934; 2nd revised edition, 1938), language and style of Russian writers (Studies on the language of Gogol, 1926; Language of Pushkin, 1935; Style of Pushkin, 1941; Science of the language of fiction and its tasks, 1958). Participated in the compilation of an explanatory dictionary edited by D.N. Ushakov (vols. 1–4, 1935–1940). Supervised the work on collective works, in particular, on the two-volume Grammar of the Russian language (1952–1954). From 1957 he was chairman of the International Committee of Slavists. Created a large scientific school.
Vinogradov V.V. Russian language. The grammatical doctrine of the word. M., 1972
Vinogradov V.V. Selected works. Studies in Russian grammar. M., 1975
VOSTOKOV, ALEXANDER HRISTOFOROVICH (1781–1864), Russian linguist, philologist, poet. He was born on March 16 (27), 1781 in Ahrensburg (Kuressaare) on the island of Saaremaa (now Estonia). German by origin, real name - Ostenek. He studied in St. Petersburg in the Cadet Corps, then at the Academy of Arts, from which he graduated in 1802. He worked in the Public Library, from 1831 the senior librarian of the Rumyantsev Museum. Academician since 1841, Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Tübingen (1825) and Doctor of the University of Prague (1848), member of foreign scientific societies. In the early period of his activity, he wrote poetry (Experiments lyrical and other small works in verse, 2 vols., 1805-1806); In an experiment on Russian versification (1812), highly appreciated by A.S. Pushkin, for the first time determined the size of Russian folk verse. Vostokov died in St. Petersburg on February 8 (20), 1864.
Of outstanding importance for its time was the Discourse on the Slavic language, which served as an introduction to the Grammar of this language, compiled according to the most ancient written monuments of Vostokov. This work, which was published in 1820, i.e. almost simultaneously with the works of F. Bopp, R. Rask and J. Grimm published in 1816–1819, put Vostokov on a par with the founders of comparative historical linguistics and laid the foundation for the scientific study of history Slavic languages. In the Reasoning, the relation of the Church Slavonic language to Russian was determined, three periods in the history of the Slavic languages were singled out.
In 1831, Vostokov published two educational grammars of the Russian language, a short one (Abridged Russian grammar for use in lower educational institutions) and a complete one (Alexander Vostokov's Russian grammar, more fully outlined according to the outline of his own abbreviated grammar), which was repeatedly reprinted in the 19th century. He was the first to single out in Russian words that have only one numerical form (walking, sleigh, and other varieties) and words of a common gender (such as a headman), made a number of other observations, and expressed ideas that influenced the further development of grammatical theory in Russia.
Under his editorship, important editions of documents were published: Historical acts relating to Russia, extracted from foreign archives (1841), Description of Russian and Slavic manuscripts of the Rumyantsev Museum (1842). In 1843 he published the most important Slavonic monument of the 11th century. Ostromir gospel. Participated in the compilation and editing of the Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language (vols. 1–4, 1847) and the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary (1852). Author of the Church Slavonic Dictionary (2 vols., 1858–1861) and the Church Slavonic Grammar (1863).
PESHKOVSKY, ALEXANDER MATVEEVICH (1878–1933), Russian linguist, specialist in the Russian language. Born in Tomsk on August 11 (23 according to the new style) August 1878. In 1906 he graduated from Moscow University, belonged to the school of F.F. Fortunatov. For a long time he taught Russian in gymnasiums; concentrated on scientific research rather late. Since 1921 - professor at Moscow universities (1st Moscow State University and the Higher Literary and Art Institute in 1921-1924, 2nd Moscow State University in 1926-1932). Peshkovsky died on March 27, 1933.
Most of Peshkovsky's works are devoted to the grammar of the Russian language. The main work Russiansyntax in scientific coverage(1914; 3rd revised edition 1928), which went through seven editions. This book, written in an extremely accessible form, still remains one of the most detailed and informative studies of Russian syntax and Russian grammar in general.
Without abandoning the idea of linguistics as a historical science, Peshkovsky paid much attention to the study of modern language. In his works, he combined psychological and formal approaches to language, sought to develop clear criteria for the selection and classification of language units, in particular the word (“ On the concept of a single word», 1925 ). In the article "Intonation and Grammar" (1928) posed the problem (not fully resolved to this day) of creating a special intonational grammar as a section of grammatical theory. He dealt a lot with the methods of teaching the Russian language, trying to bring pedagogical practice closer to science ( Our language, 1922–1927 and others); in a 1923 article " Objective and normative view of language» analyzed in detail the scientific and cultural background and consequences of the difference between these two points of view.
Peshkovsky A.M. Methodology of the native language, linguistics, stylistics, poetics. M., 1925
Peshkovsky A.M. Russian syntax in scientific coverage. M., 1956
POTEBNYA, ALEXANDER AFANASIEVICH (1835–1891), Russian (according to the interpretation adopted in Ukraine, Ukrainian; the Institute of Linguistics (Movoscience) of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in Kiev bears his name) linguist, literary critic, philosopher, the first major theorist of linguistics in Russia. Born on September 10 (22), 1835 in the village of Gavrilovka, Poltava province. In 1856 he graduated from Kharkov University, later he taught there, from 1875 he was a professor. Since 1877 he was a corresponding member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Main works: Thought and language"(1862)," Notes on the Little Russian dialect"(1870)," From notes on Russian grammar"(doctoral dissertation, 1874)," From the history of the sounds of the Russian language"(1880–1886), " Language and people»(1895, posthumously), " From notes on the theory of literature(1905, posthumously). Potebnya died in Kharkov on November 29 (December 11), 1891.
Potebnya was strongly influenced by the ideas of W. von Humboldt, but he rethought them in a psychological spirit. He studied a lot the relationship between thinking and language, including in the historical aspect, revealing historical changes in the thinking of the people. Dealing with issues of lexicology and morphology, he introduced a number of terms and conceptual oppositions into the Russian grammatical tradition. He proposed to distinguish between "further" (associated, on the one hand, with encyclopedic knowledge, and on the other hand, with personal psychological associations, and in both cases individual) and "closer" (common to all native speakers, "folk", or, as more often they say now in Russian linguistics, "naive") meaning of the word. In languages with developed morphology, the closest meaning is divided into real and grammatical.
Potebnya is also known for his theory of the internal form of the word, in which he concretized the ideas of W. von Humboldt. The internal form of a word is its “closest etymological meaning”, perceived by native speakers (for example, the word table maintains a figurative connection with lay); thanks to the internal form, the word can acquire new meanings through metaphor. It was in Potebnya's interpretation that "internal form" became a commonly used term in the Russian grammatical tradition.
One of the first in Russia, Potebnya studied the problems of poetic language in connection with thinking, raised the question of art as a special way of knowing the world. Studied the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian folklore, commented " A word about Igor's regiment» .
Created a scientific school known as the Kharkov Linguistic School; D.N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky (1853–1920) and a number of other scientists belonged to it. Potebnya's ideas had a great influence on many Russian linguists of the second half of the 19th century. and the first half of the 20th century.
USHAKOV, DMITRY NIKOLAEVICH (1873–1942), Russian linguist. Born on January 12 (24), 1873 in Moscow. In 1895 he graduated from Moscow University; a student of F.F. Fortunatov and a successor to his traditions. Professor at Moscow University and other Moscow universities. Organizer together with N.N. Durnovo and leader in 1915–1931 of the Moscow Dialectological Commission. Active participant in the Russian spelling reform project 1917–1918; in the 1930s, he headed the Spelling Commission of the People's Commissariat (Ministry) of Education and headed the Russian Language Department of the Institute of Languages and Writings of the Peoples of the USSR. Since 1939 Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Ushakov died in evacuation in Tashkent on April 17, 1942.
The main works on Russian dialectology and questions of spelling and literary pronunciation. One of the creators The experience of the dialectological map of the Russian language in Europe with the application of an essay on Russian dialectology" (1915). Under his leadership and with his direct participation, the famous " Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language "(Ushakov's Dictionary), published in four volumes in 1935–1940. Yielding to the later Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language" in 17 volumes in terms of the volume of the dictionary and the number of language examples, " Dictionary Ushakov» in many cases surpasses it in semantic correctness of interpretations and in this respect remains the best explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. In 1934 Ushakov compiled " Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language» , withstood many editions (since the 7th edition - in collaboration with S.E. Kryuchkov).
Ushakov was a major teacher and organizer of science; he trained a large number of students, including R.O. Yakobson, N.F. Yakovlev, G.O. Vinokur, P.S. Kuznetsov, R.I. Avanesov, V.N. Sidorov and others.
Ushakov D.N. Russian spelling. Essay on its origin, its relation to the language and the question of its reform. M., 1911
Ushakov D.N. A brief introduction to the science of language. M., 1913
Ushakov D.N. Educational book on the Russian language, ch. 1–2. M.– L., 1925–1926
Ushakov D.N. Collection of articles on linguistics
. M., 1941
FORTUNATOV, PHILIP FEDOROVICH (1848–1914), Russian linguist. Born on January 2 (14), 1848 in Vologda in the family of a teacher. In 1868 he graduated from Moscow University. He was engaged in the collection of dialectological material in Lithuania. Having passed the master's exam in 1871, he was sent abroad, where he attended lectures by the leading neo-grammarists G. Curtius (1820–1885) and A. Leskin in Leipzig and the founder of semantics M. Breal in Paris. Upon his return in 1875 he defended his master's thesis on the ancient Indian Vedas at Moscow University and in 1876 was elected professor in the Department of Comparative Grammar of Indo-European Languages. He held this post until his move to St. Petersburg in 1902.
For a quarter of a century of teaching in Moscow, Fortunatov read a wide variety of university courses on comparative historical grammar, general linguistics and ancient Indo-European languages and became the founder of the Moscow (it is also called the Moscow formal, or Fortunatovskaya) linguistic school. His students and students of his students (especially D.N. Ushakov) were dozens of prominent Russian and foreign linguists ( cm. MOSCOW FORMAL SCHOOL), including R. Yakobson, who did a lot to popularize the name of Fortunatov and his ideas abroad.
In 1884, on the proposal of the Moscow and Kiev Universities, Fortunatov received an honorary degree of Doctor of Comparative Historical Linguistics without defending a dissertation. In 1898 he was elected a corresponding member, and in 1902 a full member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In St. Petersburg, Fortunatov focused on working at the Department of the Russian Language and Literature of the Academy and editing academic publications. Fortunatov was also a full member of the Serbian Royal Academy, an honorary doctor of the University of Christiania (now Oslo) and a full member of the Finno-Ugric Society in Helsingfors (now Helsinki). Fortunatov died in Kosalma, not far from Petrozavodsk, on September 20 (October 3), 1914.
Fortunatov was, first of all, an Indo-Europeanist, whose activity ensured the perception of the methods of linguistic research developed by the neo-grammatists (at that time the most rigorous) by domestic comparative historical linguistics.
Fortunatov owns the first significant results in the field of historical accentology of the Baltic and Slavic languages, set out in the articles " On the Comparative Accentology of the Lithuanian-Slavic Languages" (1880) And "On stress and longitude in the Baltic languages" (1895), first of all, the so-called Fortunatov-Saussure law (which was independently and somewhat differently formulated by scientists),
explaining the transfer of stress in Slavic languages from ending to stem (Rus. hands – rku, beards – b kind) an ancient difference in the type of stress associated with the syllabic or non-syllabic nature of the sonants. There is also Fortunatov's law, formulated by him in the article L+Dental im Altindishen (Combination L+dental in Old Indian, 1881) and the transition-affirming transition of such an Indo-European combination into a simple cerebral sound in Indo-Aryan.
At the same time, Fortunatov did not share all the cognitive attitudes of neogrammatism, which was manifested primarily in his interest in the general theory of grammar, many of which he considered without regard to the history of the language. Fortunatov was especially active in morphology; he owns: the definition of the form of a word as a psychologically significant ability of a word to be divided into a stem and an ending; the distinction between forms of inflection and forms of word formation, as well as positive and negative (having no sound expression) forms - these ideas were further developed by structuralists into the doctrine of grammatical zero. Fortunatov also made an attempt to construct a purely formal classification of parts of speech, which differs greatly from the traditional one, and a formal definition of phrases and sentences. Knowing mathematics well, Fortunatov strove to achieve in grammar the maximum possible accuracy and rigor of description (at that time inherent only in comparative historical linguistics); later, such an absolutization of rigor would become a characteristic feature of structuralism for a long time and would play an important role in the development of linguistics.
Being a brilliant lecturer, Fortunatov, like Saussure and some other "oral" scientists, published very little; He did not leave any generalizing work. The creative heritage of the scientist consists of several dozen articles and reviews devoted to particular issues, as well as lithographed materials for students. Two volumes of Fortunatov's selected works were published only in 1956, and many works remain unpublished to this day.
Peterson M.N. Academician F.F. Fortunatov. - Russian language at school, 1939, No. 3
Fortunatov F.F. Selected Works, vols. I–II. M., 1956
Shcherba L.V. Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov in the history of the science of language. - Questions of linguistics, 1963, No. 5
Berezin F.M. History of linguistic doctrines. M., 1975
SHERBA, LEV VLADIMIROVICH (1880–1944), Russian linguist, specialist in general linguistics, Russian, Slavic and French. Born February 20 (March 3), 1880 in St. Petersburg. In 1903 he graduated from St. Petersburg University, a student of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. In 1916–1941 he was a professor at the Petrograd (Leningrad) University. Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR since 1943. In the last years of his life he worked in Moscow, where he died on December 26, 1944.
Shcherba entered the history of linguistics primarily as an outstanding specialist in phonetics and phonology. He developed the concept of the phoneme, which he adopted from Baudouin, and developed the original "Leningrad" phonological concept, whose adherents (M.I. Matusevich, L.R. Zinder, etc.) together with Shcherba formed the Leningrad phonological school. Her polemic with the Moscow Phonological School is a vivid episode in the history of Russian phonology.
Back in the pre-revolutionary years, Shcherba founded a phonetic laboratory at St. Petersburg University, the oldest of those currently existing in Russia; it currently bears his name. Author of the books: "Russian vowels in qualitative and quantitative terms" (1912), "Eastern Lusatian dialect" (1915), "Phonetics of the French language" (7th edition, 1963).
Shcherba's contribution to general linguistics, lexicology and lexicography, and the theory of writing is also significant. Important ideas are contained in his articles "On parts of speech in the Russian language" (1928), "On the triple aspect of linguistic phenomena and on the experiment in linguistics" (1931), "Experience in the general theory of lexicography" (1940), "The next problems of linguistics" ( 1946, posthumously).
Shcherba proposed an original concept of language and speech, different from the concept of F. de Saussure, introducing a distinction between not two, but three sides of the object of linguistics: speech activity, language system and language material. Rejecting the psychological approach to language characteristic of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and others, Shcherba at the same time raised the question of the speaker’s speech activity, which allows him to produce statements he had never heard before; here he anticipated some ideas of linguistics of the second half of the 20th century.
Shcherba's consideration of the question of an experiment in linguistics is also connected with the formulation of this problem. A linguistic experiment, according to Shcherba, is a test of the correctness/acceptability of a linguistic expression built by a researcher on the basis of some theoretical concept.
In this case, the arbitrator can be either the researcher himself (if a language well known to him is being studied), or a native speaker (informant), or a specially selected group of informants. Judgments about the incorrectness/unacceptability of the constructed expressions obtained during the experiment turn these expressions into negative linguistic material (Shcherba's term), which is an important source of information about the language.
Understood in this way, the linguistic experiment is the methodological basis of modern linguistic semantics and pragmatics, one of the most important research methods in field linguistics (the study of non-written languages), and partly in sociolinguistics; his understanding played a significant role in the formation of the theory of linguistic models in the 1960s.
Shcherba posed the problem of constructing an active grammar that goes from meanings to forms expressing these meanings (in contrast to the more traditional passive grammar that goes from forms to meanings).
Being engaged in lexicology and lexicography, he clearly formulated the importance of distinguishing between the scientific and "naive" meanings of the word, proposed the first scientific typology of dictionaries in Russian linguistics. As a practicing lexicographer, he (together with M.I. Matusevich) was the author of a large Russian-French Dictionary.
Shcherba L.V. Selected works on the Russian language. M., 1957
Shcherba L.V. Language system and speech activity. L., 1974
Shcherba L.V. Theory of Russian writing. L., 1983
SHAKHMATOV, ALEXEY ALEXANDOROVICH (1864–1920), Russian philologist and Slavic linguist. Born June 5 (17), 1864 in Narva (now Estonia). Very early, while still a high school student, he showed extraordinary abilities for scientific activity. In 1887 he graduated from Moscow University, where he taught. Since 1899 he has been an academician (the youngest in the history of Russian philology), since that time he has worked in St. Petersburg. An outstanding organizer of science. In 1905–1920 he headed the Department of the Russian Language and Literature of the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences. After the death of J.K. Grot, he continued his work on the academic “ Dictionary of the Russian language"; supervised the publication of the multi-volume " Encyclopedia of Slavic Philology". Participated in the preparation of the reform of Russian spelling, carried out in 1917-1918. Shakhmatov died in Petrograd on August 16, 1920.
A student of F.F. Fortunatov, Shakhmatov sought to apply the rigorous methods he had developed to the study of the history of the Russian language. The creative heritage of the scientist is very extensive. Shakhmatov studied the language of chronicles and the history of Russian chronicle writing, published ancient Russian monuments; under his leadership, the publication was resumed Complete collection of Russian chronicles.
He laid the foundations for the textual analysis of the monuments of Russian literature. Studied modern Russian dialects. He put forward a hypothesis about the collapse of the common Russian proto-language in the 9th-10th centuries. into South Russian, Central Russian and North Russian dialects. Author of works on phonetics, accentology, syntax of the Russian language. In the posthumously published An Essay on the Modern Russian Literary Language (1925, 4th ed. 1941) outlined his views on the correlation of syntax and morphology, insisting on the subordinate position of the latter, and also analyzed the various principles for distinguishing parts of speech in the Russian language.
Posthumously (1925–1927) was published and his largely unconventional " Syntax of the Russian language", which had a significant impact on the development of syntactic theory in Russia.
Shakhmatov A.A. Research in the field of Russian phonetics. 1893–1894
Shakhmatov A.A. Research on the most ancient Russian chronicle vaults. St. Petersburg, 1908
Shakhmatov A.A. Essay on the most ancient period in the history of the Russian language. Pg., 1915
Shakhmatov A.A. Introduction to the course of the history of the Russian language, part 1. Pg., 1916
Shakhmatov A.A. 1864–1920 L., 1930
Shakhmatov A.A. Review of Russian annals of the XIV-XVI centuries. M. - L., 1938
Shakhmatov A.A. Collection of articles and materials. M. - L., 1947
Shakhmatov A.A. Historical morphology of the Russian language. M., 1957
Likhachev D.S. Chess is a textologist. - News of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Ser. literature and language, 1964, No. 6
Avanesov's theoretical views in the field of dialectology are reflected in his "Theories of linguistic geography", as well as in "The program for collecting information for compiling a dialectological atlas of the Russian language" (1945).
Avanesov's introductory articles to "Atlas of Russian folk dialects" formed the basis of the theoretical postulates of the Moscow School of Linguistic Geography.
According to his program, Russian dialects were studied over a vast territory - from the south of the Arkhangelsk region to the Don, from the territories around Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk to the eastern banks of the Volga and the adjacent regions of the Volga region.
This work was carried out by the sector of dialectology of the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences in close cooperation with Ruben Ivanovich, who, after the merger of this sector with the sector of the history of the Russian language, headed the research.
According to the textbook by R. I. Avanesov and V. G. Orlova "Russian dialectology" philologists are being trained even now.
This approach turned out to be extremely useful for the development of the theory of writing. The classic work of Avanesov - "Phonetics of the modern Russian literary language" (1956).
Avanesov's contribution to the theory of Russian orthoepy is unique: until now, the reference book of any linguist - Russianist is his "Russian Literary Pronunciation" (1950) Collected songs donated to the Great Patriotic War
A philologist is a person who studies the spiritual component of a people, its language and culture through text.
There were scientists in Russia who contributed to the development of the theory of linguistics.
Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich
Artist and poet, one of the creators of the Russian scientific and literary language, author "Russian Grammar" and the first Russian manual on rhetoric, applied the theory of three calms to the Russian language, developed the foundations of Russian syllabic-tonic poetry.
Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov
Philologist and poet, founded comparative Slavic linguistics in Russia, established correspondences between the vowels of Slavic languages, discovered nasal vowels (yus) in Old Church Slavonic and supin in Old Russian, published for the first time "Ostromir Gospel".
Petr Vasilievich Kireevsky
Folklorist, historian and Slavophile, the largest collector of Russian folk songs.
Vladimir Ivanovich Dal
The largest Russian lexicographer of the nineteenth century, folklorist and Turkologist, author of the famous "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" and collection "Proverbs of the Russian people".
Fyodor Ivanovich Buslaev
The founder of linguistic Russian studies, he created classifications of subordinate clauses and secondary members of a sentence, identified three types of compositional connection and connection-adjacency, studied the Buslaev Psalter.
Izmail Ivanovich Sreznevsky
The largest Slavic philologist of the mid-19th century, the founder of the dialectology of the Russian language, studied and published many ancient Slavic manuscripts.
Alexander Afanasyevich Potebnya
Founder theoretical linguistics in Russia, the author of the doctrine of the internal form of the word, a pioneer in the study of the relationship between language and thinking (anticipated the emergence of psycholinguistics).
Nikolai Vyacheslavovich Krushevsky
Author of the key concept phoneme (the basic unit of phonology), first proposed a general theory of phonetic alternations and introduced the concept of language as a system of signs, a pioneer in the synchronic analysis of language.
Ivan Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay
founder of phonology and experimental phonetics, mathematical linguistics and structuralism; pioneer in the study of synchrony and living speech, developed the idea of the phoneme and the theory of alternations, founded Kazan Linguistic School.
Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov
Founder Moscow Linguistic School(“formal” or “fortunatovskaya”), distinguished between inflection and form formation, the author of Fortunatov’s laws in Indo-European studies.
Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba
The author of the phrase “Gloka kuzdra shteko boked bokra and curdled bokra”, introduced the concepts of negative language material and linguistic experiment, one of the creators of the doctrine of the phoneme, founded Petersburg phonological school.
Evgeny Dmitrievich Polivanov
The creator of the currently used Russian transcription for the Japanese language (Polivanov's system), developed the convergent-divergent theory in diachronic phonology, for the first time singled out phraseology as a separate discipline.
Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp
The founder of the comparative typological method in folklore, one of the founders of modern text theory, an outstanding researcher of Russian fairy tales, the author of the work Morphology of a Fairy Tale.
Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin
A culturologist, literary critic and philosopher of language, he introduced a number of important concepts into literary criticism (polyphonism, laughter culture, chronotope, carnivalization, menippea, and others).
Yuri Mikhailovich Lotman
Literary critic, culturologist and semiotician, founder of the semiotics of culture, major researcher of Russian poetry, introduced the concept of semiosphere, founder Moscow-Tartu Semiotic School.
Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev
Philologist, culturologist and art critic, the largest researcher of ancient Russian literature and Russian culture in the 20th century; published and commented on many literary monuments.
The objectives of the conference: to acquaint students with the contribution to linguistics of outstanding domestic linguists; to form a holistic attitude to the heritage of linguists, self-knowledge, self-development, to show the process of cognition as a value for every person; improve the linguistic competence of schoolchildren; arouse interest in the Russian language as an academic subject.
Plan of the conference: 1. Introductory speech of the teacher. 1) Creation of a creative atmosphere. Scene "Conversation between a Journalist and a Linguist". 2.Speech of students with reports on linguists: 1) Parshikova L, student of 5 "B" class. "IN AND. Dal is an outstanding linguist, compiler of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Dictionary. 2) Ivanova Elizaveta, a student of the 6th "A" class. "Baudouin de Courtenay - linguist, researcher of the phonetic structure of the Slavic languages." 3) Gorlina Anastasia, a student of the 7th "A" class. “Fortunatov F.F. - a linguist and his contribution to linguistics. 4) Labazanova Diana, student of the 8th "B" class. Vinogradov V.V. - linguist and philologist of the twentieth century. 5) Bobkov Kirill, student of the 7th "B" class. “L.V. Shcherba is an outstanding scientist and teacher. 6) Alexandrov Evgeny, student of the 5th "A" class. “V.V. Babaitseva is the author of our textbook.” 3. Round table. Exchange of experience and summing up the results of the conference
The teacher's word The personality of a scientist, discoverer, researcher, a person with an unusual bright fate and a rich inner world can become a role model for students. We have many talented scientists who are characterized by truth-seeking, refined minds, high spirituality and a sense of justice. Their lives, achievements, success can teach you a lot, arouse interest in scientific activity. The twentieth century was an era of great scientific research and discoveries in the field of Russian philology. This flourishing of science was prepared by the scientists of the ages. Many modern linguistic theories go back to the works of Lomonosov, Vostokov, Dahl. Linguistic scientists were both researchers and teachers by vocation, to their liking, and their life path became an example for students: I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay was L.V. Shcherby. Then L.V. Shcherba was carried away by science by V.V. Vinogradova and S.I. Ozhegov. Thus, scientific schools arose in which scientists preserved the traditions of their predecessors and developed fruitful ideas, did not lose ties with the past. Today we will talk about linguists and linguistic science. Russian language
Domestic linguistic science shines with the names of great Russian scientists: M.V. Lomonosov, V.I. Dal, A.Kh. Vostokov, A.A. Shakhmatov, D.N. Peshkovsky, L.V. people.
Nickname: Cossack Lugansky Date of birth: November 10 (22), 1801 Place of birth: Lugansky Zavod shtetl, Yekaterinoslav governorship, Russian Empire Date of death: September 22 (October 4) 1872 (70 years old) Occupation: doctor, lexicographer Was a sailor, doctor, civil servant, writer, participated in military campaigns, studied nature and folk customs, wrote a textbook on botany and created a museum in Orenburg. IN AND. Dahl In addition, Dahl played several musical instruments, worked on a lathe, studied homeopathy. “For whatever Dahl undertook, he managed to learn everything,” wrote his friend, the great surgeon Pirogov.
V.I.Dal was born on November 22, 1801 in Lugansk. His father came from Danes, was a well-educated man, knew medicine and many languages. Even before the birth of Volodya, he accepted Russian citizenship, was a patriot of Russia and taught this to children, teaching them lessons in history and literature. Mother - half German, half French, knew five languages. Passion for languages was a common family passion. In the house of Dahl's parents there were many books, dictionaries, a reverent attitude towards the word reigned. House in Lugansk, where V.I.Dal was born.
IN AND. Dahl studied at the Naval Cadet Corps in St. Petersburg. It was here that he showed interest in the Russian language, he compiled the first dictionary, which included 34 words of cadet jargon. In 1819, Dahl entered the service of a naval officer. In the same year, he wrote down his first word, which interested him, "REJUVENATE": So Dahl writes down the first word for his future dictionary, heard from the coachman. This word was uttered by a Novgorod peasant who was driving Dahl to his duty station. Since then, the future linguist began to enter into a notebook all the pure-folk words and expressions he heard, tried to find their roots and explain their origin.
In 1826, Dahl changed his profession and entered the medical faculty of the University of Dorpat (now Tartu). Having completed his education ahead of schedule, the 20-year-old surgeon goes to the Russian-Turkish war. Biographer Vladimir Dahl P. I. Melnikov wrote: “... he worked tirelessly and soon gained fame as a wonderful surgeon, especially an oculist. It is remarkable that his left hand was developed in the same way as his right. He could write with his left hand and do whatever he wanted, as with his right. During the war, he not only operates on soldiers and officers, but also saves the civilian population from the plague. Brilliant military doctor
Literary activity He was glorified as a writer “Russian fairy tales from oral folk tradition to civil literacy transcribed, adapted to everyday life and embellished with walking sayings by Cossack Vladimir Lugansky. Heel the first ”(1832) From 1833 to 1859, Dahl was in government service. During these years literary fame came to him. He meets V. Zhukovsky, I. Krylov, N. Gogol, A. Pushkin. V. Dal visiting A. Pushkin
The main business of Dahl's life was the creation of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. Dahl dedicated 47 years of his life to its creation. The dictionary includes more than 200 thousand words, 80 thousand of which were not previously included in dictionaries. If you just write down all the words collected by Dahl in a column, then you need 450 school notebooks. This dictionary became a huge event in the history of Russian lexicography.
A contemporary of V.I.Dal, Academician Ya.K. Grot wrote: “The Dahl Dictionary is not only a useful and necessary book, it is a wonderful book: any lover of the Russian word can read it or at least leaf through it with pleasure. How much he will find in her familiar, dear, amiable, and how much new, curious, instructive! How much will he take out from each reading of precious information both for everyday life and for literary work!
What do we, ordinary native speakers, know about horse suits? It is possible that a black horse is called a crow, and a red horse is called bay. And Dahl gives more than 50 names of suits! Here and podvlasya, and playing, and nightingale, and isabella, and porcelain, and even chankiray. To find out about this, you had to serve in the army, see how they go round horses in Cossack villages, rub oneself among the gypsies, hang around near the horse dealers at fairs. HORSE - well. horse, - daughter, - darling; horse, night; horses; generally a horse; esp. not a stallion and not a mare, gelding. by use it happens: draft, riding, pack; and the first: root, harness, breathing, remote (saddle and hand) ... In the article you can find proverbs and sayings related to the horse. The Cossack does not eat himself, but feeds the horse. Do not feed the horse with dough, but do not nud ride. Do not treat the horse with riding, but feed it with dough; do not stroke with your hand, sprinkle with flour.
WINDOW cf. window, window, window, window, diminishes. window, window; window, window; opening in the wall for light; in huts and shacks, it is sometimes a simple hole, plugged almost completely in winter; in Sib. on kavk. etc., the window is covered with a peritoneum, in our case, they make it a window, with glass windows; in the huts of peasants, a portage window, a window or opening of a quarter and a half, with a portage, a shutter retractable from the inside, for questioning those who come, for giving alms, for expelling smoke in chicken huts, for which sometimes there is a special smoke window, a smokehouse. A red window, slanting and with a window; peasants usually have three of them: the front window, at the red corner; mean or ·own. red, decorated more than others with carvings; the third, or judgment room, where is the crockery and the concoction. Venetian window, triple, three windows in one. A blind window, closed up, boarded up, or false, not through, made for the view from the outside. Dormer, on the roof, in the attic or ceiling. Reading this article, you can learn a lot about the life of the Russian peasant. At first it was a simple hole in the house, covered with peritoneum (i.e. the bladder of animals) SMOKE WINDOW. The window served to interrogate those who came to give alms, to release smoke in the huts when they drowned in black. Usually a peasant's house had three windows. Front - at the red corner. Medium or red, decorated more than others with carvings. The third or judgment, where they cooked, i.e. were cooking. Proverbs. You can't throw a spoon out the window for nothing. God willing, he will give it to the window. It is better to file through the window than to stand under the window.
Dahl's position on foreign words is interesting. At the beginning of the 19th century, modern Russian was dominated by French and German. Vladimir Ivanovich considered many foreign words to be “dry clothespins” on the living body of his native speech. Including foreign words in his dictionary, he carefully looked for, and sometimes he himself invented, suitable Russian replacements for them. So, instead of the word INSTINCT, he suggested using the word WAKE-UP, and instead of HORIZON, he recommended a whole series of Russian (as a rule, dialectal) synonyms: KOROGOZOR, NEBOZEM, SKY, VEIL, CLOSE, OZOR, OVID. In general, for one foreign word there are ten Russian words with different shades. How richer is our language! This proves the sincerity of Dahl's patriotic feelings, who want to raise the prestige of folk speech to the shield.
CONCLUSION: The explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language brought Dahl immortality. You can’t call what he created otherwise than a feat - a feat of his whole life. He collected words that can be called native placers of pearls. What does V.I. Far nowadays? What is the attractive force of his personality and talent? IN AND. Dal is dear and necessary to us both as the author of a unique dictionary, which none of the Slavic peoples has, and as a person who accomplished a scientific and patriotic feat by creating this dictionary. Monument to V.I. Dahl
Final word from the teacher. 1. The appeal of schoolchildren to the history of linguistic science, the main milestones in its development, the personalities of linguistic scientists, the identification of the features of the scientific views of the ascetics of science makes the process of studying the Russian language in the gymnasium more fruitful, increases interest in the subject and the general education of students in grades 5-9. 2. The result of purposeful and systematic work on the formation of the linguistic competence of schoolchildren is the development of the personality of students, the development of value ideas and the formation of a view of their native language. 3. Familiarization with the biographies of prominent Russian linguists contributes to the formation of a positive attitude towards linguistic science among students.
L.V. Shcherba is the founder of the PFS. His students are Verbitskaya, Vinogradov. Shcherba developed the ideas of Baudouin DeCourtane. A phoneme is a phonetic unit in which the properties of sounds are generalized on the basis of a functional criterion - the ability to make sense; the word is a symbolic unit.
The function of the phoneme is to distinguish between the material shells of words, i.e. a phoneme is that sound unit that can independently distinguish word forms. This role can be played by units that are recognized by a native speaker as different sounds, and which are isomerized by the speaker's linguistic consciousness. A phoneme is a unit that corresponds to the pronunciation intention of the speaker. Allophones are sounds that represent a phoneme. Phonemes are those shades of sounds that are least dependent on the surrounding allophones. In cases where different sounds cannot be used to distinguish between words, then the sounds use the same phoneme (baby children: two different phonemes).
A.A. Reformatsky is the founder of the IDF. A phoneme is the smallest phonetic unit of a language. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit. Phonemes must distinguish different morphemes and identify the same morpheme. Position - any pronunciation conditions (place of stress, proximity of sounds ..). Neutralizing phonemes - the coincidence of two or more phonemes in a certain pronunciation condition in the same sound (water - water, herbs - grass; a, o - plate). A strong phonetic position is the fulfillment of its functions by the phoneme (there is no neutralization), a weak phonetic position is neutralization.
A.A. Potebnya - stood at the origins of historical grammar, semiotics, linguistic poetics. He founded the doctrine of the "internal form" of the word, the main idea of which is the recognition of the existence of an image of meaning.
S.I. Ozhegov is one of the compilers of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”. He continued to develop the ideas of Vinogradov and Shcherba.
I.A. Baudouin De Courtenay was the first to substantiate the theory of phonemes and phonetic alternation, the differences between diachrony and synchrony, considering them inextricably linked.
F.F. Fortunatov is the founder of the formal-linguistic direction in the study of language. He made a great contribution to the preparation of the reform of Russian spelling, which was carried out after his death.
E.D. Polivanov 1891-1938 - an outstanding Soviet linguist, whose work was far ahead of its time. Polivanov is considered one of the first Soviet sociolinguists. A staunch internationalist and fighter for the development of small languages. The author of the system of Cyrillic transliteration of the Japanese language, known as the Polivanov system. He was the first to develop the linguistic foundations for teaching the Russian language to those for whom it is not native.
R.O. Yakobson is a Russian and American linguist and literary critic. He created (with the participation of N.S. Trubetskoy) a new branch of linguistics - phonology, the subject of which is the differential features of sounds that make up phonemes.