What makes a person's speech (whether written or spoken) the most understandable? Without what would she be poor and expressionless? Of course, no adjectives. For example, if you read the word "forest" in the text without definitions, you will never understand which one is meant. After all, it can be coniferous, deciduous or mixed, winter, spring, summer or autumn. The Russian language is great. A qualitative adjective is a direct confirmation of this. In order to vividly and accurately represent any picture, we need this wonderful part of speech.
Meaning and main features
An adjective is a name that indicates the attribute of an object, that is, its properties, which contain a characteristic of quality, quantity, belonging. For example, they give a definition by color, taste, smell; denote the assessment of the phenomenon, its nature, etc. Usually they ask questions: what (th, th)? what is (-a, -o)? whose (s, s)? This is a significant (independent) part of speech.
The grammatical ones include:
- gender variability (for example, red - masculine, yellow - feminine, green - medium);
- declension by cases (check: nominative - sandy, genitive - iron, dative - morning; instrumental - evening; prepositional - about night);
- the possibility of a short form and degree of comparison (qualitative adjectives);
- mutability by numbers (for example, blue is singular, blue is plural).
Syntactic role
- The most common clause for an adjective in a sentence is a definition. It most often depends on the noun and is completely consistent with it. Consider the sentence: There were deep footprints in the snow. Traces (what?) Are deep. An adjective is a definition that depends on the subject expressed by the noun. Graphically indicated
- The ability allows the adjective to be the main member of the sentence - the subject. ( For example: The patient was admitted to the hospital in serious condition.)
- Quite often, what adjectives are found in the composition of the predicate in the form of a nominal part? Qualitative in a concise manner. ( Compare: He was weak from illness. - The boy was weak. In the first case, the main member is the verb, in the second, the adjective in the compound nominal predicate.)
Adjectives: Qualitative, Relative, Possessive
This part of speech has three categories, which differ in form and meaning. Let's consider all their signs for comparison in the table.
| Qualitative | Relative | Possessive |
This sign in an object has a different degree of manifestation in it. One can be redder or whiter, and the other smaller or larger. Only they can make up phrases with such adverbs as "not enough" and "extremely", "very" and "unusually", "too". They are able to have a short form: strong, invincible, glorious. Only qualitative adjectives can form degrees of comparison. Examples: sweeter, kindest, tallest. Complex words can be obtained from them by repetition: cute-cute, blue-blue. | The sign they designate does not contain more or less degree, like qualitative adjectives. Examples: one nail cannot be more iron than the other, and there is no earthen pot in the world. They indicate the material of which the item is made or composed: wood floor, sandy beach, gold decoration. Shows location or proximity to something: sea edge. Indicate the time: February blizzards, evening promenade, the year before last. Determine the quantity: a three-year-old child, a one and a half meter pointer. They reveal the purpose of the subject: a sewing machine, a regular bus, a loading platform. They do not have a short form and degree of comparison. | Indicate that this item belongs to someone or something. If a fox has a tail, then it is a fox, the hat can be grandmother's or father's. The main distinguishing feature is the question "whose"? |
Quality varies
It is worth dwelling in somewhat more detail on the most flexible definitions in use and word formation, which are known as qualitative adjectives. Examples of their meanings are extraordinarily varied. They may indicate:
- on the shape of the object: multifaceted, round, angular;
- its size: tall, wide, huge;
- color: orange, dark green, purple;
- smell: stinking, fragrant, odorous;
- temperature: cold, warm, hot;
- sound level and characteristics: quiet, loud, rolling;
- overall rating: necessary, useful, unimportant.
Extra exclusivity
There are also distinctive features that you need to know so as not to confuse qualitative, relative and possessive adjectives. So, the first of them have features:
- the formation of new words using the prefix "not": a sad person, an expensive product; or diminutive-affectionate suffixes: gray - grayish - grayish;
- the ability to select synonyms: cheerful - joyful; bright - shiny; antonyms: cold - hot, evil - kind;
- adverbs in -o, -e originate from quality adjectives: white - white, gentle - gentle.
More on degrees of comparison
They also have only qualitative adjectives. Examples of education of a simple comparative degree: more visible, darker, longer. The compound comparative degree is a phrase: "less" or "more" is added to the adjective: less hard, softer.
The excellent degree is therefore called that, which indicates the predominance of a feature in one object over other similar ones. It can be simple: it is education using the suffixes -eish-, -aish-. For example: the most faithful, the lowest. And compound: the adjective is used in combination with the word "most": the most wonderful, the deepest.
Can adjectives change their grade?
And again it is worth remembering the broad abilities of the Russian language. Everything is possible in it. Therefore, there is nothing surprising in the fact that qualitative, relative and possessive adjectives in a certain context change their meaning by category.
For example, in the phrase "glass beads" everyone understands that we are talking about beads made of glass. But "glass arguments" are already a metaphor, they are quite fragile, fragile arguments. We can conclude: a relative adjective (first example) has passed into a qualitative one (second).
If we compare the expressions "fox hole" and "fox character", then you can see how the belonging of the animal habitation turns into the quality of human nature, which means that the possessive adjective has become qualitative.
Take, for example, two more phrases: "rabbit footprint" and "hare hat". The prints of an animal are not at all like a headdress from it. As you can see, a possessive adjective can turn into a relative one.
An adjective is a significant part of speech, which, unlike, does not mean a process, does not name an object (like a noun). The adjective enters into certain syntactic and morphological connections with the noun, defining their qualitative features.
In contact with
What are adjectives for?
It is impossible to imagine speech activity, literary creativity without adjectives. Describing an object or phenomenon, the adjective gives him a full description, reveals the quality, highlights the distinctive features.
It's hard to describe what a day could be without using adjectives.
When describing a day, adjectives give it a certain emotionally colored characteristic. The day can be warm, cold, boring, interesting, ordinary, difficult, lucky, sad, funny, special, etc.
Take the word morning. Consider what morning is like when you describe it with adjectives. It can be gloomy, sunny, summer or winter, autumn, spring, rainy and cloudy, frosty, cold or warm.
Depending on the adjective, noun-thing can be personified, look bright, lively, animated.
Attention! Translated from Latin, the term adiectivum means "adjacent", "adjacent". The meaning fully characterizes this.
The adjective is closely related with a pronoun or noun. Here it is appropriate to recall the explanation of Mitrofanushka from the famous comedy of Fonvizin. The "undersized" argued that the door is adjective because it is applied "to its place." Despite the grammatical nonsense regarding "fit", there is a certain logic in Mitrofanushka's reasoning.
Classes of adjectives
What is an adjective in, you can define its lexical and grammatical features.
How do you define a quality adjective?
Qualitative denote quality, properties, signs. They answer the question what? which? which? and point to:
- Color - blue, purple;
- Shape - oval, square;
- Options - low, wide;
- Temperature - hot, warm;
- Weight - heavy, light;
- Size - tiny, huge;
- Sound - shrill, weak;
- Space - left, far;
- Physical and intellectual properties - smart, healthy;
- Character traits - arrogant, kind;
- The general characteristic is negative, reliable.
Important! Qualitative adjectives are words that characterize objective signs inherent in a particular object, living being, phenomenon.
Relative answers the same questions as quality. Indicates:
- Material - iron, wood;
- Purpose, properties - foldable, mobile;
- Status - military, civil;
- Time - morning, evening;
- Unit of measurement - one-story, two-meter;
Possessive indicate the belonging of an object to another person (animal), answer whose question? whose? whose?:
- Grandma's table;
- Fathers jacket;
- Squirrel hollow;
- Cat bowl.
Sentences with adjectives will help to consider the role of this part of speech in the descriptive characteristic of quality. Let's study examples of combinations with the word "estate":
- Big homestead is a quality adjective denoting a certain size. Answers the question which?
- Landowners manor - possessive adjective indicates belonging. Answers the question whose?
- Wooden manor is a relative adjective denotes material and answers the question which?
Important! The meanings of all kinds of adjectives are expressed in morphological categories of gender (masculine / feminine / neuter), cases, and number (singular / plural)
.Borrowed nouns of foreign origin, passing into the Russian language, they agree with adjectives in case, gender, number, while not changing the form. For example: In the bedroom there were new beautiful blinds.
The concept of what happens jury, give adjectives: the jury can be city, local, school, strict, incorruptible, etc.
Attention! Sentences with adjectives combined with loan words show changes.
Foreign words remain static:
- I ended up in clean coupe.
- There was a cup on the table hot coffee.
- There were new breeches.
Variety of quality
The real polyphony of signs can be expressed by evaluative adjectives.
Let's take the word "forest". What is it like if you use adjectives to characterize it?
The forest can be green, deaf, young, old, mysterious, dense, dense, fabulous, mysterious, distant, etc.
Evaluative adjectives are able to interpret a feature by generalizing it. Examples of evaluative interpretations:
- Rationality (harmful, useful);
- Quality (good, bad);
- Emotionality (satisfaction, pleasure);
- Communication (agreement, disagreement, approval, etc.).
Important! Evaluative adjectives are qualitative adjectives that carry special, generalized semantics of quality.
- Useful class, "Live" food (rationality);
- Fiery speech, fabulous landscape (emotionality);
- Filthy sidewalk, spoiled product (quality);
- Friendly a meeting, closed person (communication).
Evaluative adjectives play a large role in the language. Depending on the meanings, they are used in colloquial everyday speech, business, literary, mass media.
Qualitative or Relative?
Having found out what adjectives are, you can consider their differences.
How to determine which adjective is qualitative, and which is relative or possessive? What is an adjective will help determine the meaning of the word and its grammatical properties.
Consider what a morning is like by describing it with adjectives.
- The morning seemed cold. (qualities)
- Morning autumn brought coolness. (rel.)
- Petino the morning started unsuccessfully.
In the first example, it is a quality attribute (temperature). Qualitative adjectives able to give a comparative characteristic: yesterday morning colder; with amoe cold morning this week. They give shades of quality: reduce properties or enhance. For example: the water seemed coldish... In addition, adverbs are formed from them: cold, beautiful etc.
In the second case - adjective relative... It carries a constant sign. It differs from the qualitative one in that it does not provide a comparison. This is not to say that tomorrow morning will be more autumnal. In addition, these adjectives can be replaced with phrases: autumn leaves are autumn leaves, autumn signs are signs of autumn.
In the third example possessive adjective Petino means belonging. Answers whose question?
Qualitative, relative and possessive adjectives
Russian 6 Categories of adjectives Qualitative adjectives
Output
The specificity of the nature of adjectives is especially clearly manifested in the Russian language, revealing the richest variety of its semantic properties.
Division of adjectives into groups in Russian and other languages
Adjectives in one way or another are divided into some categories in almost any language, including Russian. As a rule, in most languages, the classification includes two categories - qualitative and relative adjectives, for example, in English, Spanish and German there is just such a division. In the Russian language, there is also a third category - possessive, in the capacity of which the Europeans use pronouns and nouns in special forms.
Categories of adjectives
Qualitative adjectives denote, as you might guess, the quality of the word being defined - cold, warm, tall, thin, fluffy, etc. , long), in addition, they are combined with adverbs (very thin, extremely smart) and even sometimes they can form them themselves (stupid - stupid,
envious - envious).
In addition to the external signs of the noun or pronoun being defined, qualitative adjectives can also determine the character and internal traits - stupid, lazy, jealous. Relative adjectives tell about several other signs of the word being defined: the material of manufacture, time and spatial arrangement - a fur vest, yesterday's newspaper, a Turkish hat. As a rule, adjectives belonging to this category do not have grammatical features that are inherent in the first group. Finally, possessive adjectives indicate the belonging of the word being defined - fox tail, rabbit tracks, mother's lipstick. They also most often do not have morphological forms that quality adjectives can form.
Difficulties and errors in determining the discharge
It would seem that everything is very simple. But if this were so, then the Russian language would not be so difficult to learn. The fact is that quite often there is a transition of this part of speech from one category to another. Most often, the relative and possessive pass into qualitative adjectives, however, without acquiring their grammatical features, which seriously complicates the task of determining the category. Therefore, for an accurate classification, it is much more convenient to rely not only on the formation of morphological forms by this or that adjective, but also on the context and the meaning of the definition in it. So, in the phrase "hare tracks" it is obvious that we are talking about tracks belonging to a hare.
And the hare collar is made of his skin, that is, it is already talking about the material of manufacture, and the adjective becomes relative. Iron dishes are dishes made of metal, the adjective belongs to the category of relative, and in the phrase "iron will" or "heart of gold" we are no longer talking about the material, these are already qualitative adjectives. "Hare cowardice" is another example of how loosely adjectives change category depending on the context. Therefore, in order not to be mistaken, one should first of all take into account the semantics and context, and only then rely on grammatical features.
And numbers can be short. In a sentence, an adjective is most often a definition, but it can also be a predicate. Has the same case as the noun to which it refers.
Categories of adjectives
Discharge is the only permanent morphological feature of this part of speech. There are three discharge adjectives: qualitative, relative and possessive.
Qualitative adjectives
Designate a feature that can be more or less.
As a rule, they have the following signs:
- combined with the adverbs "very" (and its synonyms) and "too" ( very big, too beautiful, extremely smart).
- from quality adjectives it is possible to form
- complex adjective by repetition ( tasty, tasty, big-big).
- cognate adjective with a prefix not- (not stupid, ugly).
- have the antonym ( stupid - smart), and sometimes the hyperonym ( big - huge)
Some qualitative adjectives do not meet all of the above criteria.
Most quality adjectives, and only they, have two forms: full ( clever, tasty) and short ( smart, tasty). The full form varies in number, gender and case. The short form is only by gender and number. In a sentence, the short form is used as a predicate, and the full form is usually used as a definition. Some quality adjectives do not have a short form ( friendly, good-natured). Others, on the contrary, do not have a full form ( glad, much, must, must)
Possessive adjectives
Designate the belonging of an object to a living creature or person ( paternal, sisters, fox). They answer the question "Whose?", "Whose?". Possessive adjectives can pass into the category of relative or qualitative: hare (possessive) hair, hare (qualitative) soul, hare (relative) trace.
General information
The boundaries of the lexical and grammatical categories of adjectives are flexible. Thus, possessive and relative adjectives can acquire a qualitative meaning: dog tail(possessive), dog pack(relative), dog life(quality).
Declination of adjectives
Adjectives are declined in cases and change in numbers, in the singular they also change in gender. The exception is short adjectives and comparative adjectives: they are not declined. In addition, there are a number of non-declining adjectives: Komi people, khaki, gross weight.
The gender, case and number of the inflected adjective depend on the corresponding characteristics of the noun with which it agrees. Non-declining adjectives are usually found after the noun, their gender, number, and case are determined syntactically by the characteristics of the corresponding noun: blazers beige.
- solid: red th, red Wow, red oh
- soft: syn ui, syn his, syn his
- mixed: great Oh, great Wow, great them.
Adjective
An adjective is an independent significant part of speech, combining words that
1) denote a non-procedural feature of the subject and answer questions which?, whose?;
2) change in gender, number and case, and some - in completeness / brevity and degrees of comparison;
3) in a sentence are definitions or a nominal part of a compound nominal predicate.
Categories of adjectives by meaning
There are three categories of adjectives by meaning: qualitative, relative, possessive.
Qualitative adjectives denote the quality, property of the object: its size ( big), form ( round), Colour ( blue), physical characteristics ( cold), as well as the propensity of the object to perform an action ( talkative).
Relative adjectives denote a feature of an object through the relationship of this object to another object ( book), action ( reading room) or other feature ( yesterday's). Relative adjectives are derived from nouns, verbs, and adverbs; the most common suffixes for relative adjectives are - n- (forest), -ov- (hedgehog), -in- (poplar-in-th), -sc- (warehouse), -l- (fluent).
Possessive adjectives denote the belonging of an object to a person or an animal and are formed from nouns by suffixes - in- (mom-in), -ov- (father-ov), -ui- (fox). These suffixes appear at the end of an adjective stem (cf. possessive adjective fathers and relative adjective paternal).
Qualitative adjectives differ from relative and possessive adjectives at all language levels:
1) only qualitative adjectives designate a feature that can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent;
2) qualitative adjectives can have antonyms ( deep - shallow);
3) only qualitative adjectives can be non-derivative, relative and possessive are always derived from nouns, adjectives, verbs;
4) nouns with the meaning of an abstract attribute ( rigor) and adverbs in - O(strictly), as well as adjectives with the suffix of subjective evaluation ( sin-enk-iy, evil-ily);
5) only qualitative adjectives have a full / short form and degree of comparison;
6) high-quality adjectives are combined with adverbs of measure and degree ( very big, but not * very readable).
Thus, we see that qualitative adjectives are grammatically opposed to relative and possessive adjectives, which, in turn, are grammatically very similar. The difference between relative and possessive adjectives is manifested only in the type of their declension (see declension of adjectives), which gives grounds for many researchers to combine them into one group of relative adjectives, into which ordinal numbers and pronominal adjectives also fall into a consistent grammatical allocation of parts of speech.
Declination of adjectives
Adjectives of all ranks have inconsistent features kind(singular), the numbers and case in which they agree with the noun. Adjectives also agree with the noun in animation, if the noun is in the form of V. p. Plural, and for the masculine gender - and the singular (cf. I see beautiful shoes and I see beautiful girls) - see noun animate.
Changing an adjective by gender, number and case is called the declension of adjectives.
Qualitative and relative adjectives are declined in the same way. This type of declension is called adjective.
In Russian, there are non-declining adjectives that mean:
1) colors: beige, khaki, marengo, electrician;
2) nationalities and languages: Khanty, Mansi, Urdu;
3) styles of clothing: pleated, corrugated, flared, mini.
Immutable adjectives are also words (weight) gross, net, (hour) peak.
Degrees of comparison adjectives
Qualitative adjectives have a variable morphological sign of degrees of comparison.
School grammar indicates that there are two degrees of comparison - comparative and excellent. It is more correct to single out three degrees of comparison - positive, comparative and excellent. A positive degree of comparison is the original form of the adjective, in relation to which we perceive other forms as expressing the greater / lesser or greater / lesser degree of the attribute.
comparative the adjective indicates that the feature is manifested to a greater / lesser extent in this subject in comparison with another subject ( Petya is taller than Vasya; This river is deeper than the other) or the same object in other circumstances ( Petya is higher than he was last year; In this place, the river is deeper than that).
The comparative degree is simple and compound.
Simple comparative degree denotes a greater degree of manifestation of a sign and is formed as follows:
positive stem + formative suffixes -e (s), -e, -she / -zhe (fast-her, higher, earlier, deep).
If at the end of the stem of a positive degree there is an element To /OK, this segment is often truncated: deep - deep.
Some adjectives have adjectives, that is, formed from a different stem, forms: bad is worse, good is better.
When forming a simple comparative degree, the prefix can be attached on- (newer). Simple comparative degree with prefix on- is used if the adjective takes the position of an inconsistent definition ( Give me a newer newspaper) and does not require the introduction into the sentence of what the given feature is compared with. If the sentence contains both what is being compared and what is being compared with, the prefix on- introduces a colloquial tone ( These boots are newer than those).
Morphological signs of a simple comparative degree are uncharacteristic for an adjective. it
1) immutability,
2) the ability to control a noun,
3) use mainly in the function of the predicate ( He's taller than his father). The position of the definition of a simple comparative degree can take only in a separate position ( Much taller than other students, he seemed almost an adult) or in a non-isolated position with a prefix on- in the position after the noun ( Buy me fresher newspapers).
Composite comparative degree denotes both a greater and a lesser degree of manifestation of a sign and is formed as follows:
element more / less + positive degree ( more / less high).
The difference between a compound comparative degree and a simple one is as follows:
1) the composite comparative degree is broader in meaning, since it denotes not only a greater, but also a lesser degree of manifestation of a sign;
2) the composite comparative degree changes in the same way as the positive degree of comparison (original form), that is, by gender, numbers and cases, and can also stand in a short form ( more beautiful);
3) a composite comparative degree can be both a predicate and a non-isolated and separate definition ( A less interesting article was presented in this magazine. This article is less interesting than the previous one..)
Superlative degree comparison indicates the highest / lowest degree of manifestation of the trait ( highest mountain) or to a very large / small degree of manifestation of a sign ( kindest person).
The excellent degree of comparison, like the comparative one, is simple and complex.
Simple superlative comparison of an adjective denotes the greatest degree of manifestation of a feature and is formed as follows:
basis of positive degree + formative suffixes -eish- / -eish-(after k, r, x, causing alternation): good-eish, Supreme
When forming a simple superlative degree of comparison, the prefix nai-: kindest.
The morphological features of a simple superlative degree of comparison of adjectives are the same as for a positive degree, that is, variability in gender, numbers, cases, the use of definition and predicate in the syntactic function. Unlike the positive degree, the simple superlative comparison of an adjective does not have a short form.
Compound superlative comparison of adjectives denotes both the greatest and the least degree of manifestation of a feature and is formed in three ways:
1) element most + positive degree ( the cleverest);
2) element most / least+ positive degree ( most / least smart);
3) simple comparative degree + element total / all (He was smarter than everyone).
Forms of a compound superlative degree, formed by the first and second methods, have morphological features characteristic of a positive degree, that is, they change in genders, numbers and cases, can have a short form ( most convenient), act both as a definition and as the nominal part of the predicate. The forms of the compound superlative degree, formed in the third way, are unchangeable and act mainly as the nominal part of the predicate.
Not all qualitative adjectives have forms of degrees of comparison, and the absence of simple forms of degrees of comparison is observed more often than the absence of compound forms.
The lack of a simple comparative and superlative degree may be due to
1) with the formal structure of the adjective: if the adjective contains a suffix that coincides with the suffixes of relative adjectives, it may not have a simple comparative degree ( emaciated - * emaciated, * emaciated, advanced - * advanced);
2) with the lexical meaning of the adjective: the meaning of the degree of manifestation of the attribute can already be expressed in the base of the adjective - in its root ( barefoot - *barefoot) or suffix ( fat-enn-th - * fatter, angry - * furious, white-ovat - * whitish, blue-enk-nd - * blue).
Composite forms of degrees of comparison are not formed only for words with a semantic restriction, that is, in the second case. So, there are no forms * more feisty, * less whitish but there are forms less emaciated, more advanced.
Completeness / brevity of adjectives
Qualitative adjectives are short and full
The short form is formed by attaching a positive degree of endings to the base: for the masculine gender, - a for women, - o / -e for average, - s / s for plural ( deep-, deep-a, deep-oh, deep-and).
A short form is not formed from quality adjectives that
1) have suffixes characteristic of relative adjectives - sc-, -ov - / - ev-, -n-: brown, coffee, fraternal;
2) indicate the colors of animals: brown, black;
3) have suffixes of subjective assessment: tall, blue.
The short form has grammatical differences from the full form: it does not change in cases, in the sentence it acts mainly as the nominal part of the predicate (cases of the type red girl, white combustible stone are phraseological archaic); the short form acts as a definition only in a separate syntactic position ( Angry to the whole world, he almost stopped leaving the house).
In the position of the predicate, the meaning of the full and short forms usually coincides, but for some adjectives the following semantic differences are possible between them:
1) the short form denotes an excessive manifestation of a trait with a negative assessment, compare: short skirt - short skirt;
2) the short form denotes a temporary sign, the full one is permanent, cf.: the child is sick - the child is sick.
There are some quality adjectives that have only a short form: glad, much, should.
The transition of adjectives from category to category
It is possible that an adjective has several meanings related to different categories. In school grammar, this is called "the transition of an adjective from category to category." So, a relative adjective can develop a meaning characteristic of qualitative ones (for example: iron detail(rel.) - iron will(quality) - metaphorical transfer). The possessive can have meanings that are characteristic of relative and qualitative (for example: Foxy burrow(amicable) - fox hat(rel.) - foxiness(quality). Qualitative adjectives used terminologically function as relative ( voiceless consonants). At the same time, the adjective retains the type of its declension, but morphological signs often change: qualitative ones lose degrees of comparison and a short form (for example, one cannot say * This consonant is deaf), and the relative ones, on the contrary, can acquire these signs ( With every word, his voice became more honey, and his habits - more and more fox.).
Morphological analysis of the adjective
Morphological analysis of the adjective is carried out as follows scheme:
1. Adjective. Initial form.
2. Morphological features:
a) permanent:
Bit by value,
The degree of comparison (for qualitative ones, for which this feature is constant),
Full / short form (for quality ones, for which this feature is permanent);
b) non-permanent:
The degree of comparison (for qualitative ones, for which this feature is unstable),
Full / short form (for quality ones, in which this feature is inconsistent),
Genus (singular),
Death (for full).
Pronoun as part of speech
The pronoun is an independent non-significant part of speech that indicates objects, signs or quantities, but does not name them.
The grammatical features of pronouns are different and depend on which part of speech is substituted by the pronoun in the text.
Pronouns are classified by meaning and grammatical features.
Ranks of pronouns by meaning
There are 9 categories of pronouns by meaning:
1. Personal: ... Personal pronouns indicate participants in the dialogue ( me, you, we, you), persons not participating in the conversation, and objects ( he, she, it, they).
2. Returnable: myself... This pronoun indicates the identity of the person or thing named by the subject, the person or thing named by the word myself (He will not offend himself. Hopes fell short).
3. Possessive: my, your, your, our, your, his, her, them... Possessive pronouns indicate that an object belongs to a person or another object ( This is my portfolio. Its size is very comfortable).
4. Indicative: this, that, such, such, so much, this(outdated), this(obsolete). These pronouns indicate a sign or number of objects.
5. Definitive: himself, most, all, everyone, everyone, any, other, different, every(outdated), every kind(obsolete). Definitive pronouns indicate a sign of an object.
6. Interrogative: who, what, what, who, whose, how much... Interrogative pronouns serve as special interrogative words and indicate persons, objects, signs and quantities.
7. Relative: the same as interrogative, in the function of connecting parts of a complex sentence (union words).
8. Negative: nobody, nothing, nobody, nothing, nobody, nobody... Negative pronouns express the absence of an object or feature.
9. Undefined: someone, something, some, some, a few, as well as all pronouns formed from interrogative pronouns with the prefix something- or suffixes - then, -or, -sometime.
Categories of pronouns by grammatical features
By their grammatical features, pronouns correlate with nouns, adjectives and numerals. Pronoun nouns indicate a person or an object, pronominal adjectives indicate a sign of an object, and pronominal numerals indicate quantity.
TO pronouns-nouns include: all personal pronouns, reflexive myself who and whatnobody, nothing, nobody, nothing, somebody, something, somebody and etc.).
TO pronouns-adjectives includes all possessive, all attributive, indicative this, that, such, such, this, this, interrogative-relative which, which, whose and derived from them negative and indefinite ( no, nobody, some, some, some and etc.).
TO pronouns-numerals include pronouns so many, how and formed from them ( some, some and etc.).
Pronouns also include pronouns-adverbs, that is, words that indicate a sign of actions ( where, when, there, for some reason and etc.). These pronouns complement the categories of the attributive ( everywhere, always), indexes ( So, there), interrogative, relative ( where, why), undefined ( somewhere, ever) and negative ( nowhere, never) pronouns.
On the one hand, there is a basis for such a combination of all pronouns: indeed, the pronoun as a part of speech does not have grammatical unity and is singled out on the basis of its referential function: pronouns do not name objects, attributes, quantities, circumstances, but point to them, referring us either to extra-linguistic reality, speech situation (pronoun I am calls the person who is currently speaking, the phrase Give methat the book can be understood when pointing with the hand at a certain book), or to the previous or subsequent text ( Here is the table.He (= table) wooden. Human,which the (= person) I need, did not come- reference to the previous context ... I want to say aboutvolume that I won't come- referring to the following context).
On the other hand, there is an established linguistic tradition to refer to a pronoun as a part of speech only those pronouns that are used “instead of a name,” that is, instead of a noun, adjective or numeral. It is this tradition that we adhere to in our description. Pronoun adverbs are described by us as an unremarkable category of adverbs (see adverb).
Grammatical features of pronouns-nouns
Pronouns include the following pronouns: personal me, you, he, she, it, we, you, they, returnable myself, interrogative-relative who and what and derived from them negative and indefinite ( nobody, nothing, nobody, nothing, somebody, something, somebody, something, something and etc.).
These pronouns have grammatical features similar to grammatical features of nouns, but they also have certain differences from significant nouns. You can ask questions to them who? or what?, in the sentence, these words act mainly as subjects or additions.
Consider the morphological features of noun pronouns.
Personal pronouns have a morphological feature faces:
1 person: i, we;
2nd person: you you;
3rd person: he, she, it, they.
The morphological sign of the face of pronouns is expressed out of words - the personal endings of the verb in the present or future tense of the indicative mood and the forms of the imperative mood of the verb, that is, those verb forms that have the morphological sign of the person:
1 person: I go-u, we go-eat;
2nd person: you go-eat, go-and-, you go, go-and-those;
3rd person: he, she, it goes, let it go, they go, let it go.
For the rest of the pronouns-nouns, as well as for all significant nouns, it is not customary to determine the face.
Personal pronouns have a morphological feature the numbers... Personal pronouns are unique ( me, you, he, she, it) and plural ( we you they) numbers. When listing personal pronouns, all three complexes give these eight words, from which we can conclude that each of the eight personal pronouns is an independent word. However, with regard to the interpretation of the sign of number in the complexes, there are disagreements. In complex 1, nothing is said about the change of personal pronouns in terms of numbers, however, in terms of morphological analysis of the pronoun, the number is placed in non-constant signs. Complex 2 says that personal pronouns “are singular. and many others. numbers ". In complex 3, it is indicated that the pronouns 1 and 2 of the person do not change in numbers (i.e. I am and we- different words), and the 3rd person pronouns change (i.e. he and they are forms of one word).
In linguistics, it is usually believed that number is a constant feature of pronouns-nouns, that is, pronouns I am and we, you and you, he, she, it and they- different words. This is due to the fact that between the words I am and we, you and you there is no ratio “one object - many objects, each of which is called a singular form”, which is normal for a change in number, that is, it cannot be said that we- it's a lot I am, insofar as we- this is I am(the speaker) and someone else.
Thus, we will describe personal pronouns as words with a constant singular or plural.
Pronouns-nouns have a constant feature kind... This question, like the question of number, is poorly covered in school textbooks. On the one hand, as already mentioned, the list of personal pronouns contains 8 words, that is, words he, she and it are considered different words. On the other hand, 3rd person pronouns change by gender. The gender of the remaining personal pronouns is not mentioned.
We will proceed from the following provisions. All personal pronouns have a constant gender characteristic, which, like in the case of significant nouns, is expressed out of words.
Pronouns I am and you general kind: I, you came- - I, you came.
Pronoun he male: he came-.
Pronoun she female: she came.
Pronoun it neuter: it came-oh.
Plural pronouns we, you, they not characterized by genus.
We can talk about the animate nature of personal pronouns, since the V. n. In them coincides with the R. n. ( there is no you - I see you).
All personal pronouns change according to cases, i.e. lean... Personal pronouns are declined in a special way, and the forms of their indirect cases are formed from another stem (the so-called suppletivism):
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I. p. I am | ||||||||
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me |
you | |||||||
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you | ||||||||
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me |
you | |||||||
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me / me |
you / you |
us |
you | |||||
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(about me |
(about you |
(about him |
(about him |
(about her |
(about) us |
(about you |
(about them |
In indirect cases with a preposition, the 3-person pronouns are added n: from him, to them, from her... No addition occurs with derived prepositions during, thanks, according to, in spite of and etc.: thanks to her, according to him.
Returnable pronoun-noun myself has no gender and number. It declines in the same way as a personal pronoun you, except that the pronoun myself does not have a form I. p.
Interrogative-relative pronouns who and what in school textbooks are not characterized in terms of gender and number, however, it can be noted that the pronoun who masculine singular ( who's come- but not * who came or * who came and), and the pronoun what- neuter singular ( what happened).
Pronouns who and what negative and undefined pronouns have the same characteristics as pronouns who and what... Feature of indefinite pronouns someone and something is that someone only has the form of an I. p., and something- I. p. And V. p. A negative pronouns no one and nothing, on the contrary, do not have the form of I. p.