Word substitutes in English exercises. Using the words ONE and ONES in English

In English there are so-called SUBSTITUTE WORDS. They are needed to avoid repeating the same word, phrase, part of a sentence, or the entire sentence. Substitute words may not be translated into Russian.

When it comes to substitute words, one more difference between Russian and English becomes clear. In English, words - substitutes clearly show how strictly the order of words in a sentence should be followed and the purpose of each word is regulated by rules that cannot be derogated from. If it is necessary to avoid the repetition of a particular word, then it is impossible, as in Russian, to simply omit it.

I will write examples in Russian so that it is clear what is at stake and highlight those places in the sentence (…), where in English the substitute word must appear.

I don't want this book, give me that (…).

I'm looking for a home, I would like ( …) with large garden and quiet location.

My phone is broken and I want to buy myself new (…).

What song do you want to listen to? - Here this (...).

I would like to buy a kilogram of apples. - Which (…)? – Red (...).

The pronoun ONE in a sentence can perform two important functions:

1) which are called indefinitely personal.

One should't get upset about stupid things. = No need to be upset because of stupid things.

2) The pronoun ONE is used instead of the previously mentioned countable noun in singular or plural. Then it is called a substitute word (“prop-word”). Uncountable nouns (milk, friendship, happiness, bread, etc.) cannot be replaced by the substitute word ONE.

The substitute word ONE differs from the indefinite pronoun ONE in that the substitute word can be preceded by a noun determiner (article, demonstrative pronoun, etc.), an adjective, and it can be used in the plural.

I will write a few sentences in English with important clarifications.

1. In short answers or in sentences, where the substitute word is ONE It has sense of singularity, it echoes the indefinite pronoun SOME.

Compare the following pairs of sentences.

Have you got any questions? Yes, I have ONE. (= a question) = Do you have any questions? Yes, there is one (question).

Have you got any question? — Yes? I have SOME. (= some questions) = Do you have any questions? – Yes, there are several (questions).

Have you got any books about animals? I'd like to borrow ONE. (a book on History) = Do you have any books about animals? I would like to borrow one (book).

Have you got any pencils? I’d like to borrow SOME.(some pencils) = Do you have any pencils? I would like to borrow some (pencils).

2. Because adjective cannot stand without a noun, then, if necessary, the substitute word ONE follows the adjective and is not translated. In this case, it can be called a “dummy”, it eliminates the “gap”. So, the adjective is often combined with the substitute word ONE and can be singular or plural.

There is a right answer and wrong ONE. = There is a correct answer and an incorrect (answer).

Your plan is a good ONE on paper. = Your plan is a good (plan) on paper.

I'd like a melon - a nice ripe ONE. = I would like a melon - good and ripe (melon).

I don't like these yellow flowers. Please give me some blue ONES. = I don't like these yellow flowers. Give me some blue (flowers).

The new designs are better than the old ONES. = New projects are better than old ones (projects).

3. Singular demonstrative pronouns THIS and THAT are used with the substitute word ONE.

Here are two apples. Will you have this one or that one? = Here are two apples. Do you want this (apple) or that (apple).

This house is as big as that one. = This house is as big as that (house).

4. The substitute word ONE is used with “Which”, especially when it comes to distinguishing the singular from the plural.

Here are some books on English history. Which one do you want? = Here are some books on English history. What (book) do you want?

I'd like a pound of apples. – Which ones? – Red ones. = I would like a pound of apples. - What (apples)? - Red (apples).

Many people think that English is a very difficult language, because it does not look like Russian. Of course, it differs in many ways, because both English and Russian have their own rules and patterns.

English is very organized compared to Russian. Each word must be in its place. Based on this, following a strict word order, it is impossible to avoid repetition and tautology. Repetition is an undesirable phenomenon in any language. That is why all languages ​​have pronouns and other ways to replace recurring proper nouns and common nouns.

There are many ways in English that help avoid repetition. One of them is the replacement of nouns with the pronoun one .

It is about him that our today's article, which will help you figure out why the numeral "one" is used so often in English, when it is completely useless.

Speaking in Russian, we can “throw out” some words from a sentence without violating its grammatical structure, but in English you cannot just take and throw out words at will. To illustrate this, let's look at an example:

I bought two books: a new one and an old one. The new one was more expensive than the old one.

As you can see, having indicated the subject at the beginning of the sentence (book), we no longer name it, but use only adjectives that refer to it. This sentence sounds great in Russian, we really speak like that in life and this is considered the norm.

But to say the same thing in English, you need to think differently, nothing can be thrown out of the sentence:

I bought two books: a new book and an old book. The new book was more expensive than the old book. — I bought two books: new book and an old book. The new book was more expensive than the old book.

As you can see, the word "book" must be used with adjectives that refer to it. Yes, indeed, no matter how ridiculous and stupid it may sound, but in English it is really necessary to repeat these words. After reading or saying such a sentence, the word book becomes simply unbearable. And how can you not come up with ways to replace to avoid repetition?

Of course, in real life, no one says that, but the need to mention the addition does not disappear from this. That's what the word one is used for.

This is how our example would sound in real life:

I bought two books: a new one and an old one. The new one was more expensive than the old one. — I bought two books: a new one and an old one. The new one was more expensive than the old one.

Now that we have replaced the word book with one , the sentence is accepted normally.

We usually perceive the word one as the numeral "one", but even more often it is used in English as a substitute word. One takes the place of a noun in the singular to avoid repeating it:

We could say I am the youngest child , but since the word children has already been used in the sentence before, the best option would be to replace child with one .

Which is your house? — The one with big windows. - Which house is yours? — The one with large windows.

One could say The house with big windows, but hardly anyone would say that in reality. There is no need to repeat the word house in the answer, as it was already mentioned in the first part of the sentence.

If the word you need to replace is in plural, then it cannot be used. In this case, the word ones will be used.

Which shoes to you like more: red ones or black ones? Which shoes do you like more: red or black?
you give me other glasses? These ones are too dark for me. Can you give me other glasses? These are too dark for me.
The green apples are cheaper than red ones. Green apples are cheaper than red ones.

The words one and ones, as a rule, are not translated, but can be combined with various determiners, and this may slightly change their meaning. Let's look at various examples:

ONE	ONES
With demonstrative pronouns
Since this is a singular number, one only matches this and that. I don't like this hat. Give me that one, please. — I don't like this hat. Give me that one, please. There are two cars in the garage: this one is mine and that one is my husband "s. - There are two cars in the garage: this one is mine, and that one is my husband's. Moreover, one is not translated into Russian.	Only these and those can be used with the substitute word ones. But unlike the substitute one, ones often drops out after demonstrative pronouns: Which jeans will you wear? These (ones) or those (ones)? What jeans will you wear? These or those?
With the article the
With the definite article, one takes on the meaning of a specific subject, and usually after the one there is an explanation: what kind of subject. The one that, which: Can you give me the newspaper, the one I bought today. Give me the newspaper, the one I bought today. - What shop offers the best prices? - The one next to the baker "s. - - Which store has the best prices? - In the one near the bakery. Sometimes you can indicate what kind of subject is being discussed by adding an adjective to the word one: I don't like the sports channel. I prefer the music one. — I don't like the sports channel. I prefer musical. He will not wear the blue shirt. He will wear the write one. He won't wear a blue shirt. He wears white.	With the definite article, ones takes on the meaning of a specific subject, and usually after the ones there is an explanation of which items. The ones usually translated into Russian as Those who: These are not your keys. Theonesonthetableareyours. These are not your keys. The ones on the table are yours. - What boxes should I take? - The ones on the floor. — What boxes should I take? - The ones on the floor. In the same way the substitute one s can be defined by an adjective with the article the: The yellow apples are sour. The red ones are sweet. - Yellow apples are sour. Reds are sweet. The blue jeans don't fit you. The black ones are much better. Blue jeans don't suit you. Black is much better.
With article A
One will be combined with the article a if you are talking about an indefinite object, of some type, it doesn’t matter to you what kind of object it is, it is just one of many similar ones: This spoon is dirty. Give me a clean one. This spoon is dirty. Give me clean. I don't want to live in a small flat. I want to find a big one. I don't want to live in a small apartment. I want to find a big one.	The word ones is plural, so it does not combine with the article a.
With the word some
The substitute one is not used with the word some.	The substitute ones is used with the qualifier some, which means "a certain amount": These spoons are dirty. Give me some clean ones. — These spoons are dirty. Give me clean ones. His shoes are too old. He wants to buy some new ones. These shoes are too old. He wants to buy new ones.
with the word other
Article an usually written together with the word other. Another one will mean one more: I liked this chocolate. I am going to take another one. — I liked this candy. I'm going to take another one. Theotherone- another, not this, the second of the proposed: This jacket is too loose. Give me the other one. This jacket is too wide. Give me another.	When we mean one more, more, more then it will be in english someotherones: If you liked these chocolates, take some other ones. If you liked those sweets, take more. If we are pointing to certain things and mean others suggested, others mentioned above, then we say the other ones: Some students were writing. The other ones were listening. — Some students wrote. Others listened.

In addition, the words one and ones are very common in the question, with the word Which..? ( Which one?) Often, when two things are pointed out and there is no need to name them, a question is asked that begins Whichone or Which ones:

Here are two books. Which one are you reading? - There are two books here. Which one are you reading?
Look at these children. Which one is the youngest? “Look at these kids. Which of them is the youngest?
You have got so many pairs of jeans. Which ones are your favourite? — You have so many jeans. Which ones are your favourites?

That's all you need to know about the word one except that it's a numeral " one".

And remember: the more practice, the easier it will be for you to use the learned rules in live communication. I wish you success!

Work from the section: "Foreign languages"
Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Tajikistan Russian-Tajik (Slavonic) University Department: English language and typological linguistics THESIS On the topic: Pronouns and substitute words in modern English Completed by: Najmiddinova Rukhshona, /_____________/__________/ F.I. O. Signature Date Supervisor: Art. Teacher Svirid O.V. /_____________/__________/ Full name Signature Date Reviewer: Professor Sobirov A.M. /_____________/___________/ Full name Signature Date Head. Department: Professor Jamshedov P.D. /_____________/___________/ Full name Signature Date DUSHANBE - 2003 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 3 Literature review 7 CHAPTER 1. PRONOUNS IN ENGLISH 9 General information 9 Personal pronouns 12 Possessive pronouns 17 Demonstrative pronouns 21 Interrogative pronouns 26 Indefinite pronouns 31 CHAPTER 2. SUBSTITUTE WORDS IN ENGLISH 45 General information 45 Substitute words for nouns 48 Substitute words for verbs 72 CONCLUSION 79 REFERENCES 81 APPENDICES 84 INTRODUCTION Pronouns and substitute words are an integral part of every language. Much less attention was paid to the words of the deputies. Many scholars, speaking of substitute words, considered the same pronouns and auxiliary verbs. The term "pronoun" is also used in relation to a wider range of words than pronouns-nouns: pronouns are words - nouns, adjectives, numerals, adverbs that make up closed, non-replenishing series and are combined by a demonstrative function (a kind of demonstrative function is a substitute function). These words have a specific abstract meaning that is concretized in the context or in the speech situation. So, for example, the word he can replace any noun husband. R. (or common. R., naming a male being), this noun can be a designation for any object: a living being, a specific object, a fact, a phenomenon. The words what, such can indicate any sign, and the words where, when, how - any circumstance with the meaning of the place, time, nature of the course of the action, respectively. Thus, among pronouns as a category of demonstrative words, pronouns proper stand out, that is, words - substitutes for names (nouns, adjectives and cardinal numbers), and pronominal adverbs. It follows from this that many pronouns are at the same time substitute words and it is impossible to draw a clear line between them. But there is a difference between the concepts of pronouns and substitute words. A pronoun is a part of speech that replaces a noun or adjective. All pronouns in English are known and classified. Observer words can replace nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. The most common are words substitutes for nouns and verbs. The purpose of this work is to give more detailed information about the words of substitutes and pronouns, which can also be words of substitutes, as well as to more clearly distinguish between pronouns and words of substitutes. This work consists of two chapters. The first chapter is called Pronouns in English. This chapter deals with pronouns. As Gordon E. M. and others note, it is difficult to give a clear definition of a pronoun, since pronouns do not name an object, but only point to it. However, in everyday speech, both formal and informal, one cannot do without pronouns. We use pronouns in our speech much more often than we ourselves notice. For example, about 50 pronouns can be used in one page of pocket books, not counting other substitute words. Or take one sentence as an example: Not a hospital bed, he realized when he woke up, because it was Annie Wilkes who had found his broken body and she had brought him to her own home, way out in the mountains. “When he woke up, he realized that it was not a hospital bed, because Annie Wilkes found his broken body and brought him to her house, far in the mountains. In this one short sentence, the author used 8 pronouns, which emphasizes that the knowledge of pronouns, how and where they can be used is very important in linguistics. However, not all pronouns are considered in this paper. At the beginning of the chapter, general information about pronouns in general is given - their classification, their grammatical categories, etc. However, only those pronouns that can also serve as substitute words are considered in more detail. The second chapter is titled "Substitute Words in the English Language". The second chapter is divided into two main sections - substitute words for nouns and substitute words for verbs. In the first section of this chapter, pronouns that can be used as substitute words are considered again, but in the second chapter they are no longer considered as pronouns, but only as substitute words. For example, demonstrative pronouns: in a sentence they can be either just pronouns or substitute words. Compare two sentences: This lady is out of her mind! This woman is out of her mind! She has a severe headache. This is no good. - She has a severe headache. This is bad. In the first sentence, the noun is lady, and this only defines and refers to the noun. In this case, this cannot be considered a substitute word; it is just a demonstrative pronoun. In the second case, this functions as a noun and is the subject of the sentence. This doesn't just point to something, it replaces another sentence - She has severe headache. The same sentence can be expressed as follows: That she has severe headache is no good. Also in the second chapter, nouns are considered, except for pronouns, replacing other words (phrases, sentences). One of these nouns are the words the former and the latter. These words replace the previously mentioned nouns to avoid repetition. There are other noun substitutes, such as thing and stuff. These words can replace anything in colloquial and literary speech, from individual words to phrases and sentences. They can refer to concrete objects or abstract concepts. Very often, without context, it is impossible to understand the meaning of a word. Thing and stuff can be synonyms. The second section deals with verb substitutes. These are mainly auxiliary verbs and linking verbs. Very often in speech, more often in colloquial speech, the semantic verb is released when repeated and only an auxiliary verb or a linking verb is used instead. The verb to do can replace all other verbs. The verb to be, being a linking verb, replaces the nominal part of the predicate. If to be is used as a semantic verb, then, when repeating, you can omit everything that comes after the predicate. For example: She was in the library. He was, too. - She was in the library. He was there too. But not only auxiliary verbs and linking verbs can be substitutes for verbs. Modal verbs cannot form the past or future tense. Therefore, in these tenses, instead of modal verbs, their equivalents are used, i.e. substitute words. The work used various sources of information, both scientific and artistic. From fiction, we have chosen books with different styles. For example, Stephen King, who writes in literary language, sometimes using colloquial speech in dialogues; Geoffrey Archie, who, as a journalist, writes in a more newspaper-like style; and finally Terry MacMillan, who writes the novel on behalf of the heroine, and so the entire book is written in the colloquial language of a South African American. Also in my work I used information from various Internet sites. Literature Review Pronouns and substitute words have been considered in the works of many contemporary linguists. Much more importance was attached to pronouns than words to substitutes. Many linguists, speaking of substitute words, considered noun pronouns, i.e. substitution of words - as one of the functions of pronouns. One of these works is “A Grammar of Present Day English” by E. M. Gordon and I. P. Krylova. In this work, pronouns are divided into two categories - noun pronouns and adjective pronouns. Only noun pronouns can be used as substitute words. Adjective pronouns can only define another noun. The work of E. E. Izrailevich and K. N. Kachalova is in many ways similar to the work of E. M. Gordon and I. P. Krylova. There are only a few differences in their work. For example, in the classification of pronouns, Gordon E. M. and others distinguish between reflexive pronouns and emphatic pronouns. Kachalova K.N. and her co-authors, however, believe that emphatic pronouns are only an additional function of reflexive pronouns. Rubtsova M. G. in her work “Teaching to read English scientific and technical literature. Lexico-Grammar Reference" considers pronouns as substitute words and attaches the main importance to the function of pronouns only in those cases when they serve as substitute words. Also in her work, she considers other substitute words, including substitute words for verbs. Auxiliary verbs and linking verbs are most often used as verb substitutes. These verbs can replace any semantic verbs. There are also substitute words for modal verbs. Since modal verbs cannot form future or past forms, they are replaced in such cases by other expressions, for example, have to, be able to, etc. Substitute words can be not only service words. There are other independent words that can be used as substitute words, such as the word thing. Berkner S.S. and his co-authors write that some vulgarisms and slang words can also be considered substitute words. “Frequency are words of broad semantics stuff, thing, story, as well as vulgarism shit. Often they are used in combination with the pronouns this thing, stuff like that. They are especially common in the speech of students, but sometimes they are also found in the speech of teachers. Similar words and phrases can be used to denote a common member of a series of homogeneous enumeration: things like that, stuff like that, shit like that. These are substitute words, their meanings can only be understood in context. CHAPTER I Pronoun IN ENGLISH GENERAL INFORMATION A pronoun is that part of speech that is used instead of a noun and an adjective. "Pronouns will include various groups of words that function as a substitute for a noun or adjective in a sentence." It is difficult to give a precise definition of a pronoun, because, unlike a noun and an adjective, a pronoun does not name any object or quality, but only points to it. Pronouns have a generalized meaning, which is explained only in a specific context or situation. Grammar categories of pronouns Different pronouns have different grammatical categories. Number: Some pronouns have separate forms for singular and plural (for example: this is these these; that that is those those). Others have the same form for singular and plural (all, all; which, which). The third pronouns have the meaning of only one number: the singular - each each; somebody - someone, or plural - both both; many. Case: Some pronouns, like nouns, have the "common" and "possessive" forms (somebody - somebody's; each other - each other's). Others have pronouns in the form of the nominative case and the so-called "objective" case (I - me; who - whom). However, most pronouns do not have any case forms (each, every, both, all, everything, etc.). Gender: Personal and possessive pronouns have separate forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter in the third person. Thus, the pronouns he and his replace nouns denoting male beings; the pronouns she and her are feminine nouns. The personal pronoun it he, she, it and the possessive pronoun its his, her are replaced by nouns denoting inanimate objects. Since nouns do not have special gender endings in English, the pronouns he, she, it, his, her, and its are the only external indicators of the gender of the nouns they replace. Often in dialogues, in order to determine the kind of person or animal that the speakers are talking about, you can hear the question “Is it a he or a she? ". Other English pronouns do not have separate gender forms, and the same pronoun form can replace both masculine and feminine nouns. For example: both both, both; this this, this. Functions of pronouns in a sentence Pronouns in English can be used in the following functions: 1. Subject: He is a doctor - He is a doctor 2. The nominal part of the predicate: The red pencil is mine - My red pencil. 3. Addition (direct, unprepositional indirect, prepositionally indirect): I have not seen him - I have not seen him. Show me the letter - show me the letter. I didn't speak to them - I didn't speak to them. 4. Definitions: I can't find my pencil - I can't find my pencil. Pronouns used in the function of the subject, the nominal part of the predicate and the object are noun pronouns, since they perform the syntactic functions of a noun. And those pronouns used in the definition function are adjective pronouns, since they perform the syntactic functions of an adjective. Many pronouns in some cases act as noun pronouns, and in others as adjective pronouns: This is the wrong person - This is not the right person. I haven't seen this person before - I haven't seen this person before. It is worth noting that although pronouns function in sentences as a noun and adjective, they cannot cover all the functions of these parts of speech, but only perform some of these functions. The following classes of pronouns are divided: Personal Possessive Reflexive Reciprocal Demonstrative Interrogative Relative Indefinite Gordon E. M. and others distinguish another group of pronouns - emphatic pronouns. However, K. N. Kachalova and others define these pronouns only as an additional function of reflexive pronouns. PERSONAL PRONOUNS In English, personal pronouns have two forms of case - nominative and object. Personal pronouns in the nominative case | | Single | Plural | |Number| | | | face | | | |1 |I |We | |2 |You |You | |3 |He/she/it |They | Personal pronouns in the nominative case perform the function of the subject and the nominal part of the compound predicate. First person pronouns are used when the speaker is talking about himself. Second person pronouns are used when referring to someone, i.e. to the listener. Third person pronouns denote the people/animals/things the speaker is talking about (but not about himself or about the (those) he is addressing). Personal pronouns, both in the nominative and in the object case, have the category of number and person. Only pronouns of the 3rd person singular have the category of gender. She, her are feminine pronouns; he, his are masculine. The pronouns it, its are considered neuter pronouns. However, the category of gender in English is not so developed and is expressed mainly using the pronouns she/her and he/his. All inanimate objects are denoted by the pronoun it, i.e. neuter pronoun. And only sometimes in some specific cases inanimate objects are denoted by the pronoun she. But she is used mainly in relation to certain objects, sometimes to personal objects, about which the speaker speaks with special trepidation, leveling them with a living being. For example: I bought a new car. She is beautiful! (I bought a new car. It's gorgeous!) or I have been through a thousand storms and stories together with this ship. Jeez, she is strong! (I've been through a thousand storms and adventures with this ship. God, how strong!) This pronoun is also used when talking about countries and cities. Exceptions exist not only for the pronoun she, but also for some other pronouns. For example, in the newspaper style of writing an article, you cannot use the pronoun I. Not a single editor will allow an article to be published in print where a journalist, expressing his opinion, uses this pronoun. It is advisable not to use 1st person pronouns at all, as this is considered unprofessional, but if it is very necessary, it is better to use the pronoun we instead of I. It is believed that we sounds more modest than I. For example: We are convinced that the Government has made a grave mistake in imposing this tax. (Literally: we are sure that the government is making a huge mistake in setting this tax) Here the journalist, using the pronoun we, means himself alone. The pronoun they also denotes people in a general sense, while not denoting any specific persons. Especially often they are used in the phrase they say. For example: They say she is going to resign. (they say she is going to resign). They don't use this for cars. (Here it is used for cars). The pronoun you is used in both the singular and the plural. The pronoun of the 2nd person singular thou (thee), corresponding to the Russian you, has long fallen out of wide use and is now found only in poetry and prose written in an exalted style. In modern literary prose, as in everyday speech, this pronoun is not used. But it would not be correct to say that it has fallen out of use completely, since in some dialects of the English language this pronoun is used not only in sublime poetry and prose, but also in colloquial speech: thou (you (nominative); thee ( you (object case).In Ireland, the personal pronoun you has a singular value, and for the plural forms yous, yez, yiz are used.The presence or absence of pronouns can also have a semantic function.For example: George came into the room and turned off the light - George came in the room and he turned off the light - Here it says that George performed two consecutive actions - he entered the room and turned off the light. George came in the room and he turned off the light - Here two separate actions are combined or dissected two related actions (for example, his arrival is reported, but a complaint is also expressed that he turned on the light).Depending on the context, you can also different ways to understand these two sentences. For example: George came into the room and turned off the light - George went into the room and (George) turned off the light. George came in the room and he turned off the light - George came into the room and he (someone else) turned off the light. | Number | Singular | Plural | | face | | | |1 |Me |Us | |2 |You |You | |3 |Him/her/it |Them | Personal pronouns in the object case These pronouns in a sentence perform the function of a direct object, corresponding in Russian to a pronoun in the accusative case (answering the questions of whom? what?), or the function of an unprepositional indirect object, corresponding in Russian to a pronoun in the dative case (to whom?) . For example: He saw me in the street - He saw me on the street. I met them at the station - I met them at the station. He showed her the picture - He showed her a picture. The combination of a pronoun in the object case with the preposition to is a prepositional indirect object and also corresponds to the Russian pronoun in the dative case. He showed the picture to her and not to me - He showed the picture to her, not to me. The combination of the pronoun in the object case with the prepositions by and with is a prepositional indirect object and corresponds to the Russian pronoun in the instrumental case (by whom? by what?): The article was translated by her and not by them - The article was translated by her, not by them. This pen is bad. I can't write with it - This is a bad pen. I can't write to her. The pronoun in the object case is used with any prepositions, being a prepositional indirect object and corresponding in Russian to pronouns in indirect cases with prepositions: This letter is for you - This letter is for you. I have read about it - I read about it. I quite agree with him - I completely agree with him. However, despite such a clear distinction between personal pronouns in the nominative case and pronouns in the objective case, cases are increasingly noticed today when pronouns in these two cases can be interchanged. This is especially common in various dialects of the English language. “The process of displacing the nominative case of personal pronouns with the object one continues. In modern language, It is I betrays a bookish stylistic connotation, while It is me is stylistically neutral. The colloquial stylistic connotation introduced by the use of the object case of personal pronouns instead of the nominative case is enhanced by the use of the relative pronoun that instead of who. Wed: colloquial: It was me that told the police and written-and-written: It was I who told the police. When they want to avoid these extremes in stylistic coloring, they use a stylistically neutral sentence with a different word order. For example: I was the one/the person who told the police". “On the other hand, the nominative case is increasingly used in colloquial style where the object case used to be used. For example: It is a wonderful moment for my husband and I. Fluctuations in the norm in such cases are evidenced by the possibility of parallel use of both cases. For example: Some people ought to be below she and Claud (OC.); The gum chewing woman got up and passed in front of her and Claud (ib.)" . In African-American English, and indeed in many others, the object pronoun even functions as the subject of a sentence. For example, if the sentence Her is a real fool (she is a real fool) is considered grammatically incorrect in standard English, then in some dialects of English this is a completely correct sentence. Interchangeable in various dialects of the English language are considered not only personal pronouns in the nominative and object cases, but also some other pronouns. For example, in Cumberland and north-east. In Lancashire, the third person plural possessive pronoun their is used instead of the personal pronoun in the object case them: All their cam again (All of them came again - They all came again. There are other new rules in spoken English. For example, in combination with the verb of prepositional pronominal combinations containing a personal pronoun, the “proximity rule” is observed, i.e. the verb is used including the person in which the nearest pronoun consists. For example: Who is going there? You and I am; Neither of us try to break it; You are the one that knows it. In some dialects of the English language in various counties of Great Britain, the use of the pronoun us instead of me is also found. For example: Send us some of them - Send me some of them. Possessive Pronouns Personal pronouns correspond to possessive pronouns that express belonging and answer the question whose? whose?. Possessive pronouns have two forms: one, the adjective pronoun, and the other, the so-called absolute form, which serves as a noun pronoun. Possessive pronouns - adjectives | | Single | Plural | |Number| | | | face | | | |1 |Mu |Our | |2 |Your |Your | |3 |His/her/it |Their | The possessive pronoun in this form always comes before the noun to which it refers. Being a noun determiner, it eliminates the use of the article before this noun: My pencil is on the table - My pencil is on the table. He gave me his address - He gave me his address. If the noun is preceded by other attributes, then the possessive pronoun is placed before them: Where is my red pencil? Where is my red pencil? His elder brother lives in Leningrad - His older brother lives in Leningrad. The possessive pronoun, like the article, is placed after all and both: All my pencils are in that box - All my pencils are in that box. Both his brothers live here - Both of his brothers live here. Gordon E. M. et al. say that very often possessive pronouns replace the article before nouns denoting kinship, body parts, clothes, and other belongings of a person. Bob nodded at his wife as if he wanted to say “you?” - Bob nodded to his wife, as if to say “See?” He bit his lips, but said nothing. He bit his lips, but said nothing. And yet, there are some idiomatic phrases that use the definite article instead of a pronoun. I have a cold in the head - I have a cold in my head. He was shot through the heart - The shot went through his heart. He got red in the face - His face turned red. He took me by the hand - He took my hand. In many dialects, possessive pronouns are formed by adding the formant gender. case -s to personal pronouns both in the nominative and in the object case: we's, us's (our); thoo's, you's (your), him's, she's, them's (his, her, their). In East Anglia, that's is used instead of the literary his, her, its: that wagged that's tail. It is quite common to use a personal pronoun (both in the nominative and possessive cases) instead of the possessive. In Norfolk, the possessive form hisn is used, and in Surrey, theirn: hisn old woman; proud to tell their name. Weikhman G. A. says that there are documented cases of omission of the possessive pronoun in fiction: Shultz shook head - Shultz shook his head. | | Single | Plural | |Number| | | | face | | | |1 |Mine |Ours | |2 |Yours |Yours | |3 |His/hers/its |Theirs | Possessive Pronouns - Nouns Possessive pronouns function like a noun in what is called an absolute form. Usually the absolute form of possessive pronouns is used to avoid repetition of the noun. For example, instead of his car was broken, so he took my car, you can just say his car was broken, so he took mine. The pronoun its is rarely used in its absolute form. The pronoun yours is often used at the end of a letter as a shorthand for Sincerely yours, Truly yours, etc. Often, the absolute form of possessive pronouns is preceded by the preposition of: He is a friend of mine - He is my friend. She didn't know it was that neighbor of his. She didn't know that it was that neighbor of his. These possessive pronouns are never followed by a noun, as they themselves perform the function of a noun. In a sentence, they perform the function of the subject, complement and nominal part of the predicate: This is not my pencil, mine is blue (subject) - This is not my pencil, mine is blue. My car is not working. Can I use yours? (addition) - My machine is not working. Can I take yours? That house is mine (nominal part of the predicate) - That house is mine. The absolute form of the possessive pronoun (most often the pronoun mine) is used in poetry, in humorous and ironic statements, in positive definitions, before a vowel and before h: O mistress mine! - my lady! Dear mine! – Dear (ironic tone) With mine own hand. - with my own hands. Mine eyes.- my eyes. In many dialects of English in the counties of Great Britain, the absolute form of possessive pronouns is formed by adding the ending -n: mine, thine, hisn, hern, ourn, yourn, theirn. Double forms of absolute possessive pronouns are also used: mine's, hersen, she'sn, we'sn. In other counties, the absolute form of the possessive case is completely replaced by a simple form: That's my. Demonstrative Pronouns KN Kachalova et al. name two demonstrative pronouns: this and that. E. M. Gordon names two more demonstrative pronouns: such and same. Pronouns this and that Demonstrative pronouns this and that have the category of number: This - this, this, this these - these That - that, that, that those - those Demonstrative pronouns are used both as adjective pronouns and as noun pronouns. The demonstrative pronouns this and that as adjectives. The demonstrative pronoun-adjective, being a determiner of a noun, excludes the use of the article before the noun to which it refers. When the noun to which the demonstrative pronoun refers is preceded by other definitions, then the demonstrative pronoun, like any determiner, is placed before them: He lives in that house - he lives in that house. He lives in that white house - he lives in that white house. The pronouns this and these indicate objects that are in close proximity to the interlocutor, while that and those indicate more distant objects. This pencil is mine - This pencil is mine. That pencil is yours - That pencil is yours. The pronoun this with the word country is used in relation to the country in which the speaker or author is located. Therefore, when this combination occurs in an English newspaper, it should be translated as England, if in an American newspaper, then as America: The exports of coal from this country decreased this year - Exports of coal from this country decreased last year. This in time expressions refers to the moment of the conversation or to the current period of time, and that to the moment or period in the past or future. I'm too busy these days - I'm too busy these days (meaning the current time). He used to smoke a lot those days - He smoked a lot in those days (meaning the past tense). But the pronoun this can also be used to refer to the near future or past: Lets get together some time, say this Sunday - Let's get together somehow, say this Sunday (meaning next Sunday). Father had to go to Chicago this morning - Father had to go to Chicago this morning. Sometimes the pronouns this (these) that (those) are used emotionally in a sentence: Will this dog ever stop barking? Will this dog ever stop barking? Do you really believe those ideas? Do you really believe in these ideas? In such cases, the demonstrative pronoun is heavily stressed. The pronoun that is used as a circumstance of degree: I didn’t know he was that upset - I didn’t think he was so upset. He never gave me that much information - He never gave me so much information. Demonstrative pronouns this and that as nouns Pronouns-nouns are used in the same way as pronouns-adjectives, namely, this (these) is used in relation to objects that are closer, that (those) - to objects more distant. Often the pronoun that is used instead of the personal pronoun it: “Tell her that I miss her” “I’ll do that” - “Tell her that I miss her” “I will say” You said she was the one who stole the money. Well, that's wrong - You said she stole the money. It is not true. The pronoun that (those) also sometimes functions as a substitute word for a noun to avoid repetition. In such cases, usually after the pronoun is a prepositional phrase, participle, ing form or a whole sentence: He hang his daughter's portrait beside that of his wife's. He hung a portrait of his daughter next to that of his wife. These poems are not nearly as good as those you wrote last year - These poems are not as good as the ones you wrote last year. I entered by the door opposite to that opening into the garden - I entered through the door that is opposite the one that goes into the garden. The pronoun this in sentences often denotes the speech that follows the pronoun, and that the speech that precedes the pronoun: I’ll tell you this: Don’t go there! - I'll tell you what - don't go there! He controlled her every step and that annoyed her - He controlled her every step and it annoyed her. Pronouns such and same The pronouns such and same differ from each other in that such either defines the class of an object or indicates some degree, while same denotes the sameness, similarity of two objects / concepts. I think Jack broke these cups. He does such things when angry - I think Jack broke these cups. He does this when he's angry. I think Jack broke these cups. He did the same thing last time he got angry - I think Jack broke these cups. He did the same the last time he got angry. If such is in front of singular countable nouns, then the indefinite article is placed after the pronoun: I’ve never seen such a house before - I have never seen such a house before. Often the meaning of such is supplemented by a phrase starting with the word that or as: I was in such a hurry that didn’t even have time to go for lunch - I was in such a hurry that I didn’t even have time to have lunch. I've never seen such a handsome man as Jim's father - I've never seen such a handsome man as Jim's dad. The comparative expression such… as has the same meaning as the expression as… as: I’ve never seen such a handsome man as Jim’s father – I’ve never seen a man as handsome as Jim’s father. After the pronoun such, you can put as + infinitive: His carelessness is such as to make it unlikely that he will pass the exam - Judging by his indifference, he is unlikely to pass this exam. It should be noted that such can be combined with indefinite pronouns: I’ll do no such thing - I won’t do anything like that. He didn't say any such thing - He didn't say anything like that. Any such request is sure to be turned down - Any such request will be denied. Some such story was told to me years ago - Some such story was told to me a few years ago. Sometimes the pronoun such is part of established phrases: They export a lot of fruit, such as oranges, lemons, etc. – They export many kinds of fruits such as oranges, lemons, etc. The accused, such as he is, has kind nature and could never kill a person just for robbery - The defendant, whatever he may be, is kind by nature and could never kill a person for theft. The pronoun same is translated into Russian as that (that, that) same. It always has a definite article in front of it: We don’t have to go in the same car - We don’t have to go in the same car. The same value is often followed by a phrase beginning with as or that. He was wearing the same suit that he did last time - He was wearing the same suit that he wore the last time. She gave me the same advise as on Jessy's birthday - He gave me the same advice as on Jesse's birthday. Same can also be found in idiomatic expressions: It's all the same to me - I don't care. "How's he?" "Much the same" - "How is he?" "Almost the same". Interrogative pronouns Interrogative pronouns include who (whom), whose, what, which, how, how much (how many). Their very name already suggests that these pronouns are used in interrogative sentences. Each of these pronouns perform a different function in a sentence. Pronouns who, whom, whose Pronouns who and whom The pronouns who and whom are used in relation to persons. Who is used as a noun pronoun and performs the function of a subject or a nominal part of a predicate in a sentence: Who deleted the file from the computer? Who deleted that file from the computer? Who is that man? - Who is this person? When who is the subject, the verb after who, as in Russian, is singular 3rd person. Who is there? - Who's there? When who is the nominal part of the predicate, then the verb agrees in person and number with the noun or pronoun that expresses the subject: What are these things? - What it is? The pronoun whom performs the function of a direct object and a prepositional indirect object (in combination with prepositions). Whom can be combined with any prepositions, corresponding in Russian to the pronoun who in oblique cases with prepositions. In colloquial speech, whom is usually replaced by the pronoun who. Who (whom) did you meet there? Whom did you meet there? Who (whom) did he talk to? - Who did he talk to? You can distinguish who - subject from who - additions in word order: Who did you meet there? Whom did you meet there? Who met you there? - Who met you there? Who did you see? - Whom did you see? Who saw you? - Who saw you? The preposition referring to the pronoun whom is usually placed after the verb, and if there is an object, after the object. In these cases, whom is replaced by the pronoun who. Who (whom) did you show the letter to? Who did you show the letter to? Who (whom) are you speaking of? - Who are you talking about? Can you say To whom are you talking? But you can't say To who are you talking?, only who are you talking to? The pronoun whose The pronoun whose denotes that the object being defined belongs to someone or something. In a sentence, whose usually functions as a definition. The pronoun whose always appears immediately before the noun it refers to: Whose book is this? Whose is used as an adjective pronoun. But despite this, whose replaces either a noun or a possessive pronoun. Whose book is this? This is her book (possessive pronoun-adjective); This book is hers (noun pronoun); This is Jane's book (noun). The pronoun what What is used as a noun pronoun and as an adjective pronoun. What as a noun pronoun As a noun pronoun, what is used with the meaning what in the function of the subject or direct object and with the meaning what, which in the function of the nominal part of the predicate. What in combination with prepositions corresponds to the Russian pronoun that in oblique cases. What has happened? - What's happened? What is the population of the USA? What is the population of the USA? What is this for? - What is this for? As with the pronoun who, the verb after what is put in the singular if the pronoun refers to the subject. If the pronoun refers to the nominal part of the predicate, then the verb in person and number agrees with the subject: What are these bricks for? What are these bricks for? What is it that you need? - What do you need? What can also apply to persons, when the purpose of the question is to find out the profession or position of the person. Wed Who is this man? - Who is this person? What is this man? - What does this person do? What is also used in idiomatic expressions: What about a cigarette? - Do you want a cigarette? What is he like? - What is he like? What about you? - And you? What of it? - Well, what of it? so what? - So what? He knows what's what - He knows what's what. What as an adjective pronoun As an adjective, what is used with the meaning of what. The pronoun what always comes directly before the noun it defines and excludes the use of the article before this noun: What questions did he ask? - What questions did he ask? What books did you buy? - What books did you buy? The combination what kind of or what sort of defines the kind/sort of an object/concept/action: What sort of books does he like? What kind of books does he like? What kind of questions did he ask? What kind of questions did he ask? What is also used at the beginning of an exclamatory sentence with the meaning of what, what for. In this case, countable nouns in the singular are preceded by the indefinite article: What a nice car! - What a nice car! What a good story that was! - What a good story! It is also worth noting that the pronouns who, what, which can be given logical stress by adding ever to them: Whoever (who ever) told you that? - Who told you that? Whatever for did you go there? - Why did you go there? Whatever also has an idiomatic meaning in modern English in colloquial speech: “I saw a ghost here last nigh”. “Whatever!” “I saw a ghost here last night.” "you're lying!" The pronoun which The pronoun which is used with the meaning of which, which, who, what, when it comes to choosing from a limited number of persons or objects. Which is used for animate objects as well as for inanimate objects. The pronoun which is used both as a noun pronoun and as an adjective pronoun. As an adjective, which performs the function of a definition, and therefore excludes the use of the article before the defined. Which chapter did you read? - What chapter did you read? Which floor do you live on? What floor do you live on? The distinguishing feature of which from who and what lies precisely in the fact that when using which, we are talking about a choice from a limited one, and when using what, who there is no restriction: Who took my book? Who took my book? Which of you took my book? Which one of you took my book? Indefinite pronouns Indefinite pronouns include the pronouns some, any, no (+ their derivatives), none, much, many, little, few, all, both, either, neither, each, every (+ its derivatives), other, one. Pronouns some, any, no, none Pronouns some and any Some is used in affirmative sentences, and any in negative sentences, general questions, and conditional sentences. They are used both as adjective pronouns and as noun pronouns: Do you have any money? - Do you have money? Yes, I have some. - Yes, I have. However, in modern colloquial speech, the pronoun some is often used in general questions: Have you met any of the new students yet? Have you already met any of the new students? Have you met some of the new students yet? Have you already met some of the new students? Some and any are used with the meaning of several, some, some: A) As pronouns-adjectives before plural nouns. In this case, some and any are often not translated into Russian in separate words: He asked me some questions - He asked me a few questions. Do you have any candies left? - Do you still have candy? Sometimes some is also used before singular countable nouns with the meaning of some along with the indefinite article: I've read it in some book (=I've read it in a book) - I read this in some book. B) As noun pronouns instead of plural nouns: I gave her some medicine, because she really needed some - I gave her medicine because she needed it. He asked for some books, but she didn't have any - he asked for a few books, but she didn't have any books. Some and any are used with the meaning of a certain amount, a little, some: A) as pronouns-adjectives before uncountable nouns. In this case, these pronouns are not translated into Russian in separate words: Can I have some water? – May I have some water? Do you have any beer? - Do you have a beer? B) As noun pronouns instead of uncountable nouns: I ran out of ink. Do you have any? - I'm out of ink. Do you have ink? Some (and not any) is used in special questions, as well as in general questions in which something is proposed or some kind of request is expressed: Why didn’t you buy some cheese? Why didn't you buy cheese? Would you like some coffee? – Would you like some coffee? May I use some of your ink? – May I use your ink? Some is also used with the meaning some as an adjective pronoun before plural nouns and as a noun pronoun instead of plural nouns: Some people never get to know all the illnesses they have - Some people will never know about all their illnesses. Some men think she's ugly, some think she's extremely beautiful - Some men think she's ugly, others think she's very beautiful. When some (some) refers to a certain group of persons or objects, the preposition of is used after some: Some of my friends have never heard of Duluth - Some of my friends have never heard of Duluth. Some can be used before uncountable nouns with the meaning part: Some of the sugar was mixed with flour - Some of the sugar was mixed with flour. Some is used before numerals with a meaning of approximately, about: There were some twenty dogs in her apartment - There were about twenty dogs in her apartment. He won some five million dollars - He won about 5 million dollars. Any is used in affirmative and interrogative sentences with the meaning any, any before singular countable nouns and uncountable nouns: Any of you can use the services of this library - Any of you can use the services of this library. Any, who breaks the rules, will be fired! Anyone who breaks the rules will be fired. Pronouns derived from some and any Some and any in combination with one, body, and thing form the indefinite pronouns someone, somebody (someone, anyone), anyone, anybody (someone), something (something that -something), anything (something). Like some and any, the pronouns someone, somebody, something are used in affirmative sentences, and anyone, anybody, anything - in negative sentences, conditional sentences and general questions: Is anybody home? – Is there anyone at home? Somebody is knocking at the door. - Somebody's knocking on the door. When these pronouns perform the function of the subject, the verb is put in the singular: Somebody is giving out secret information - Someone gives out secret information. Somebody, someone, something, as well as the pronoun some itself, are used in special questions, as well as in general questions in which something is proposed or requested: Can somebody help you? – can someone help you? Anybody, anyone, anything, as well as any, is used with the meaning of anyone, anyone in both affirmative and interrogative sentences: Anybody can do that - Anyone can do that. After the pronoun anybody, the preposition of is not used. Pronouns no and The pronoun no is used as an adjectival pronoun before singular and plural nouns. No has the same meaning as not...a and not...any (before plural and uncountable countable nouns). When using no, the verb is put in the affirmative form: I have no place to go - I have nowhere to go. There's no water in the pot - There is no water in the kettle. Before nouns, the pronoun no is usually used as a subject (and not not ... a or not ... any), which translates into Russian as none, no: No information has been received from him - There was no information from him. No student has registered for the fall semester yet. – No student has yet registered for the fall session. No is not used as a noun pronoun. The pronoun none is used instead. In turn, the pronoun none is never used as an adjective pronoun: How many pictures have you taken here? None. How many photos did you take here? None. No in combination with body, one, thing forms the pronouns nobody, no one (no one), nothing (nothing), which are used only as noun pronouns. These pronouns are used with the verb in the affirmative form, since in English there can be only one negative. Nobody, no one are equal in value to not anybody, anyone, and nothing is not anything. We saw nobody there. We didn't see anyone there. There was nobody in the room - There was no one in the room. He said nothing about it - He did not say anything about it. When nobody, no one, nothing is used as a subject, the verb is singular: Nobody is asking you to go away - Nobody asks you to leave. Nothing is on the table - Nothing is on the table. No combined with where forms the adverb nowhere. Pronouns much, many, little, few Pronouns much and many Pronouns much and many are used both as adjective pronouns and as noun pronouns. Much and many as adjective pronouns are used with the meaning of a lot. Much is used before uncountable nouns, and many is used before countable ones. I don't have much time right now - I don't have much time right now. I've seen many fancy cars, but I'd never seen one like this! “I've seen a lot of good cars, but I've never seen one like this! Much and many as noun pronouns are used with the meaning: much, much, significant part, many, many. In this case, after much and many, the preposition of is usually used: I had thrown away many of those books - I threw away many of those books. Much of what you say is true - Much of what you say is true. Much and many are mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences. In affirmative sentences, they are often replaced by the expressions a lot (of), plenty (of), a great deal (of), a good deal (of), lots, good many: Have you seen much of the city yet? Have you already seen a lot in the city? Are there many cars in the parking lot? – Are there many cars in the parking lot? I learned a lot of new things there. - I learned a lot there. I've got plenty of time today - I have a lot of time today. Much can also be used as an adverb: He doesn't read very much - He doesn't read much. Pronouns little and few The pronouns little and few are used both as adjective pronouns and as noun pronouns. Little and few as adjective pronouns are used with the meaning of little. Little is used before uncountable nouns, and few before countable ones: He has few friends - He has few friends. I have little time - I have little time. Like much and many, little and few are mainly used in negative and interrogative sentences, giving way in affirmative sentences to expressions not many and not much (unless they are defined by such words as rather, very, too, so, as, how): I haven't got much time (=I have little time) - I don't have much time. But: I have very little time - I have very little time. Little as a noun pronoun is used with the meaning little, few, and the pronoun few means few: Little has been said about it - Little has been said about this. Many people were invited, but few came - Many people were invited, but few came. Little and few are also used in combination with the indefinite article. A little - a little, a few - a little, a few: Get me a few candles - Take me a few candles. Give me a little water, please - Give me some water. Little and few can be used with the definite article, meaning that little, those few, those few. The few who agreed to take part in the experiment will stay here for longer time - Those few people who agreed to participate in the experiment will stay here for more time. Use the little milk that is still good - use the small amount of milk that has not yet gone bad. The pronoun all The pronoun all is used both as an adjective pronoun and as a noun pronoun. As an adjective pronoun, all is used with the meaning of everything with plural countable nouns and with the meaning of all, all, everything with uncountable nouns. The article the, possessive and demonstrative pronouns are placed after all: All the students have passed their exams - All students have passed their exams. He spends all his free time in the reading-room - He spends all his free time in the reading room. All can define a noun with a definite article and without an article. The question of the use of the article is decided on the basis of the rules for using the article, regardless of the presence or absence of all: All flowers are beautiful - All flowers are beautiful. All the necessary documents were submitted - All the necessary documents were submitted. As a noun pronoun, all is used with the meaning of everything, everything: All said the same l said the same, or the same thing. I know all - I know everything I know everything is used more often instead of I know all. Often all is used in combination with the pronouns we, you, they. In such cases, either all comes before other pronouns, or they are combined with the preposition of, and instead of personal pronouns in the nominative case, personal pronouns in the object case are used: We all went there - We all went there. All of us were there - We were all there. In modern English, the pronouns everybody, everyone, everything are increasingly used instead of all: I know all here (I know everyone here - I know everyone here. The pronoun both, either, neither The pronoun both The pronoun both are used: A) as a pronoun- adjective. The noun being defined can be used both without the article and with the article the, which is placed after both. A possessive or demonstrative pronoun is also placed after both: Both (the) brothers live in Moscow - Both brothers live in Moscow. Both my daughters are married - Both my daughters are married. B) as a noun pronoun. Often both is used in combination with the pronouns we, you, they. In such cases, either all comes before other pronouns, or they are connected using the preposition of, and instead of personal pronouns in the nominative case, personal pronouns in the object case are used: We both knew where he lived - We both knew where he lived. Both of them left the room - They both left the room. When the predicate is expressed in a complex verb form or a combination of a modal verb with an infinitive, then both stands after the auxiliary or modal verb: They have both gone to America - They both went to America. We must both go there - We both must go there. When both is the subject of the sentence, the verb is plural: Both go the same school - Both go to the same school. In negative sentences, instead of both, neither is used: Neither of the two sisters is married yet - None of the two sisters are married yet. Pronouns either and neither The pronoun either refers to two persons or things and is used with the meaning of one or the other, one of two, any of two (three, four ...). Either is used both as an adjective pronoun and as a noun pronoun. As an adjectival pronoun, either is used before a singular countable noun: You may take either road - You can take any road. You may have either car - You can take any of the two cars. When either is used as a noun pronoun, it is often followed by the preposition of: Either of you may go there - Any of you can go there. The meaning of either is often complemented by the conjunction or. Either… or means either… or: You can tell this either to Ann or Alice - You can tell this to either Anna or Alice. The pronoun neither is the negative form of either: Either of you can go - Any of you can go. Neither of you can go - Neither of you can go. The meaning of neither often complements nor: Neither you nor your friends will go to the party - Neither you nor your friends will go to the party. Pronouns other, each and every Pronoun other The pronoun other is used both as an adjective pronoun and as a noun pronoun. As an adjectival pronoun, other is used before nouns in both the singular and the plural. Other can be preceded by a definite or indefinite article. This pronoun can also be used without any article. If it is preceded by an indefinite article, then they are written together - another: He's on the other side of the road - He is on the other side of the road. Give me another sheet of paper - Give me another sheet of paper. He has other intentions - He has other intentions. As a pronoun-noun, instead of a singular noun, another is used, and instead of a noun with a definite article - the other: The others didn’t come - others did not come. I ate all the cake. Will you give me another? - I ate a cake. Will you give me another one? The pronouns each and every The pronoun each is used in relation to a limited number of persons or objects. Each is used both as an adjective pronoun and as a noun pronoun. As an adjective, each is used before singular countable nouns: There are new houses on each side of the road - There are new houses on each side of the street. Each student in the group has to hand in an essay tomorrow - All students in the group must hand in an essay tomorrow. When each is used as a noun pronoun, the preposition of is often used: Each of you has to read this book - Each of you should read this book. The pronoun every, everyone, unlike each, is used when a limited number of persons or objects is not meant. Every is only used as an adjectival pronoun before singular countable nouns: Not every person in the USA knows English - Not everyone in the USA knows English. I see him every day - I see him every day. Each and every are used in a sentence immediately to give logical emphasis: Each and every of us has to be proud of our motherland - Each of us should be proud of our homeland. Every in combination with body, one, thing forms the pronouns everybody, everyone everyone, everyone, everything, everything everything. These pronouns are used only as noun pronouns: Everything is fine - Everything is fine. Everybody is here - Everyone is here. Pronoun one The pronoun one is used as a noun pronoun. One is used to denote an indefinite person in sentences corresponding to indefinite personal sentences in Russian. One in this case serves as the subject: One can never be sure what happens next - It is impossible to predict what will happen in the next minute. One never values ​​happiness until it is gone - Happiness is not appreciated until it is gone. Very often one is used with the verbs must, should ought, can, may: One can do whatever he wants here - Here you can do whatever you want. One is used to avoid repeating a noun in the singular when it should be repeated with a definite article, in the presence of an individualizing definition. In this case, one is preceded by a definite article: This book is more interesting than the one I read last time - This book is more interesting than the one I read last time. One is used after adjectives to replace the previously mentioned countable noun to avoid repetition: I don't like the red hat. Give me the blue one - I don't like the red hat. Give me blue. These are sweet pickles. Can I have a can of dill ones? These are sweet pickled cucumbers. Can I have a jar of salty? One is used to replace the previously mentioned noun after the pronouns this, that, which, another, the other. After the pronouns these, those, the pronoun one is not used. However, this rule is increasingly violated in modern colloquial speech: This chair is for you. I'll take that one - This chair is for you. I'll take that one. These lamps are better than those (ones) - These lamps are better than those. CHAPTER II SUBSTITUTE WORDS IN ENGLISH GENERAL INFORMATION Substitute words are words that replace other words to avoid repetition or to shorten/simplify speech. It is very difficult to draw a clear line between substitute words and pronouns, since very often pronouns serve as substitute words. However, not all pronouns can serve as substitute words; Only noun pronouns can be substitute words. These include personal pronouns in the nominative case, demonstrative pronouns, some indefinite pronouns, interrogative pronouns. “I didn’t by it (the typewriter) for antique!” “I didn’t buy this typewriter as an antique!” “Tear the pages!”said Annie. “Why on the world do you want me to do that?” "Tear the pages," Annie said. "Why do you want me to tear them apart?" I don't like this picture. That one is more beautiful. - I don't like this picture. That one is more beautiful. Who said life is easy? Who said life is easy? Interrogative pronouns replace nouns in a sentence that are unknown to the speaker. Separating the concepts of “pronoun” and “word substitute”, it is worth noting that the pronoun is that part of speech that plays the role of either a noun or an adjective in a sentence. For example, the word who, which plays the role of a noun in a sentence, is a pronoun, while the word how, which replaces an adverb in a sentence, is not a pronoun. Substituent words do not have such strict limits. The concept of "word substitute" is more extensive than the concept of "pronoun". In addition to noun pronouns, substitute words can be nouns, verbs, adjectives, and even substitute phrases. Noun: Trying to have an idea wasn't the same thing as getting an idea. “Trying to get an idea wasn't the same as getting one. Take all this stuff out of my backpack. “Get all these things out of my backpack. He would know the real stuff when he found it - He would know a real good idea if he found it. Verb: - ​​I'll wait for you outside. - I'll wait for you outside. - Yes, do that, please. Yes, wait for me there. “I still wish you were free-” “Do you?” - "I still want you to be free" "Really?" I said I was going to Jamaica and my sister was like “Yeah, that’s a great idea you have. You need to have a rest” – I said I was going to Jamaica and my sister said “Sure, great idea. You need to rest." But despite this, much more attention in linguistics is paid to pronouns than to substitute words, since pronouns are considered an important part, without which no language in the world is conceivable. Nevertheless, very often in everyday speech we use substitute words along with pronouns. In English, as in most languages, scholars have carefully studied pronouns and defined all pronouns. The same cannot be said about the words substitutes. It is almost impossible to list all the words substitutes in English. It is also impossible to describe the limits of the use of these words. For example, the word substitute thing (literally - a thing) in English can replace anything: this word can be applied to animate and inanimate objects, to concrete and abstract concepts; colloquially, the word thing can replace the whole situation previously described. For example: Jessie met Mat the other day. As you know he'd dumped her about a month ago, and that day he started shouting at her because she is dating Mickey now. That thing made Jassie's mother totally mad. Matt saw Jessie the other day. As you know, he dumped her about a month ago, and that day he started yelling at her because she was now dating Mickey. This made Jessie's mother very angry. Some scholars have written about substitute words, dividing them into just two groups. Rubtsova M. G. writes: “In the English scientific text there are often auxiliary words that are used instead of the words already mentioned in this or the previous sentence. There are substitute words for both nouns and predicate verbs. When translating sentences with such substitute words, it is usually recommended to repeat the replaced word. . Berkner S.S. and Penkov B.V. write about substitute words that very often substitute words are found in colloquial speech. Vulgarisms are often found among them. Here is what they write: “Frequency words are the broad semantics stuff, thing, story, as well as the vulgarism shit. Often they are used in combination with the pronouns this thing, stuff like that. They are especially common in the speech of students, but sometimes they are also found in the speech of teachers. Similar words and phrases can be used to denote a common member of a series of homogeneous enumeration: things like that, stuff like that, shit like that. These are substitute words, their meanings can only be understood in context. The parasitic phrase or something, or anything is found in abundance. Couldn’t tell her I "d gone home or something. “In the language of the school, there is an intensive use of the pronouns this, 'this one', these, those, 'these' to replace full-valued words, referring to them. Such units have the function of a demonstrative element , directly correlating the content of speech with some referent of the real situation (or with what the speakers know from common experience), as well as to ensure continuity in the syntactic structure. For example: One of those guys that wear those suits; he had these very broad. It should be noted that such expressions are characteristic both for the language of schoolchildren and for the spoken language in general. There are many euphemisms in school language for students who study poorly: Under-achievers, non-academic-minded, slow, disadvantaged, sub-paced, non-college-oriented, underprivileged, non-linguistic, intellectually deprived, - so far , I "ve counted more than ten different euphemisms for 'dumb kids'! [ 1, 15, Internet] NOUN SUBSTITUTES As already noted, it is difficult to draw a clear line between pronouns and substitute words. Many pronouns are also substitute words "However, it is worth noting that pronouns-adjectives, but only pronouns-nouns cannot become substitute words. Rubtsova M. G. considers such pronouns from her work. However, she does not exclude that not only pronouns can be words substitutes. Practically all personal pronouns are substitute words and usually replace nouns, but the pronouns you, they and it. The pronouns you and they The pronouns you and they are sometimes used to refer to an indefinite person. In such cases, they are indefinite pronouns rather than personal ones. The pronoun you is used to denote an indefinite person, i.e. can denote not only the person to whom the speaker is addressing, but also anyone else. In this case, you is a synonym for the pronoun one. When translating, the pronoun is omitted. She picked the machine with an ease and put it away, and you have to be very strong to do that. - She easily lifted the typewriter and put it aside, and for this you need to be very strong. You have to be a fool to believe that! You have to be a fool to believe this. You can't enter the this building without entering the code number - You cannot enter this building without entering the code number. The meaning of the sentences will not change if you put one instead of the pronoun you. She picked the machine with an ease and put it away, and one has to be very strong to do that. One has to be a fool to believe that! One can't enter the this building without entering the code number The pronoun they is used when the person who performed the action is unknown, or when the speaker is referring to an undefined group of people. In this case, like the pronoun you, the pronoun they is omitted in the translation. They say there are ghosts in this castle - They say that there are ghosts in this castle. They change the bedclothes every day in this hotel, unlike that other one - In this hotel, unlike that one, bed linen is changed every day. They call New York the Big Apple - New York is called the Big Apple. They don't take you all the way to Denver if you're innocent. “If you are not guilty, then you are not taken all the way to Denver. Using the pronoun it The pronoun it usually denotes concrete objects, abstract concepts, and animals. However, sometimes this pronoun is used to identify a stranger: When I came closer to the pool, I realized that it was Pete. - When I got closer to the pool, I realized that it was Pete. There was a knock at the door. I thought it was the postman. - There was a knock on the door. I thought it was the postman. It can also replace a preceding group of words, a sentence, a predication, or even a context. For example: Group of words: He tried to break the lock. It (breaking the lock) was not easy. He tried to break the lock. That was not easy. I think you want to stay alive even if it (staying alive) does hurt - I think you want to live, even if it hurts you. Staying there wasn't safe, but it (staying there) was the only thing he could do - Staying there wasn't safe, but that was all he could do. The music had stopped. He didn't notice it (that the music had stopped). - The music stopped playing. He didn't notice it. Had she foreseen the possibility that he might get out of the room? He doubted it (that she had foreseen the possibility that he might get out of the room). “Maybe she foresaw the possibility that he would get out of the room?” He doubted it. She was older than he for about 20 years and he knew it (that she was older than he for about 20 years) - She was almost 20 years older than him, and he knew it. Predication: He knew that his father was dying but he didn’t want to talk to anybody about it (that his father was dying) - He knew that his father was dying, but did not want to talk about it with anyone. By the then his legs were fully awake, and it (that he was able to fall asleep) wasn’t until she had come and given him another dose of the medicine that he was able to fall asleep. He had guessed before that she was a nurse, so it (that she was a nurse) wasn't a big surprise for him when she said it (that she was a nurse). Context: He studied her, then his head shook. He waited a moment and then decided not to say what he might have been going to say. He swallowed y before going on, and when he did, he returned to the conventional questions. He had watched him do it all without any interest. It is often used as an official statement about the state of the weather, time, distance and all kinds of measurements. For example: It is snowing. - Snowing. It is 5 o'cklock. - It's 5 o'clock now. It is very cold in the room. - The room is very cold. It is six miles to the nearest hospital from here. – The nearest hospital is 6 miles from here. The pronoun it is also used in sentences where the predicate is determined by an infinitive phrase, an ing phrase, or a predication. For example: It is stupid to act like that - It's stupid to behave like that. It won't be easy finding our way home. It won't be easy to find your way home. It was a surprise that he was going to give in. That he was about to give up was a surprise. It can also be used as an object followed by a noun or adjective, which is determined by an infinitive phrase or predication. For example: I found it difficult to explain to him what had happened. It was difficult for me to explain to him what had happened. He thought it no use to go over the subject again. - He thought it was useless to discuss this topic again. He thought it odd that they had left no message to him. He thought it odd that they didn't leave him any message. The pronoun it is also used in sentences in so-called emphatic constructions and serves to give logical stress to any word or whole phrase: It was my question that made him angry - It was my question that made him angry. It was on the terrace that he wanted them to lay the table - He wanted them to set the table on the terrace. It wasn't me who killed her! I didn't kill her! Finally, the pronoun it is used in various idiomatic expressions, where it has very little, if any, lexical meaning: Stop it - that's enough Now that you're done, beat it home - Now that you're done, go home. Possessive pronouns as substitute words In addition to personal pronouns in them. and object. cases, other words are used instead of nouns. One of these words are possessive pronouns in the so-called absolute form - mine, ours, his, hers, theirs, yours. The pronouns my, your, our, her, and their cannot be substitute words, as they are adjective pronouns, while absolute possessive pronouns are nouns. Possessive pronouns in absolute form replace the previously mentioned noun to avoid repetition, instead of combining a noun with a possessive pronoun: “This is my work. You can't make decisions what to do with it.” “No it is mine (my work) now, since you depend on me now!” - "This is my job. You can't decide what to do with her." “No, now she is mine, since you depend on me!” You can "t drive this car. It" s not yours. (your car) - You do not have the right to drive this car. She is not yours. Look at this house! It "s yours (your house) now. - Look at this house! It's yours now. Our procedure is more practical than theirs (their procedure) - Our method (procedure) is more practical than their (method). Demonstrative pronouns as words -Deputies Demonstrative pronouns (this/these, that/those) are very often used as substitute words Most often demonstrative pronouns are used as substitute words to avoid repetition Rubtsova M. G. in her book writes: Th at, those - are used instead of nouns that have a right definition, so in an English sentence that and those are followed by either a preposition (most often off), or a participle (most often Participle II), or an adjective, and not a noun, as happens if that and those are demonstrative pronouns. . This point of view is that of a mathematician rather than a physicist.- These devices are more reliable tha n those designed in our laboratory.- These instruments are more reliable than those designed in our laboratory. Her smile became a glow. Incredibly a blush rose in her cheeks. That’s what it looks like, if you build a furnace inside the mouth of one of those idols in the H. Rider Haggard Stories. Her smile turned into a radiance. Incredibly, a blush flooded her cheeks. If they built a furnace in the mouth of one of the idols from the stories of H. Rider Haggard, then it would look exactly like this. “I'll make sure you get all the books. They are a little dogeared, but that’s a sign a bok has been well read and loved, isn’t it?” “I will make sure you get all these books. They have folded pages, but this is a sign that the book has been read and loved, isn't it? The main ways of translating the word that: 1) that, that, then - if that is before the noun in singular. number; demonstrative pronoun; That car is an old one, but it is well cared for - That car is old, but well maintained. 2) which-if that is after the noun; introduces a definitive subordinate clause; Remember that guy that hit Liz? Well, he's the Mayor now! “Remember that guy who hit Liz? He is now the Mayor! 3) what - if that is at the beginning of the sentence; introduces a subordinate subject; That he lives in her house doesn't mean that he has to do whatever she says! Just because he lives at her place doesn't mean he has to do whatever she says. 4) what - if that is after the predicate; introduces an additional subordinate clause; He supposed that he had pretty well known what all this was about… - He supposed that he knew what it all meant... 5) the substitute word is translated by the previously mentioned noun, followed by a preposition or participle. Better than lying here suffering… I don’t think you belive that (that it is better than lying here,suffering), old buddy. “It's better than lying here and suffering… I don't think you believe it, old chap. Remember also the combination: now that - now when. For example: Now that rockets can escape gravity it is invalid to say that what goes up must come down - Now that rockets can escape gravity, it is incorrect to say that what goes up must come down. . “this, these are usually used as the subject, so they are followed by a verb, not a noun, as is the case when this and these are demonstrative pronouns. These substitute words replace the nouns of the preceding sentence. When translating, in cases where it is impossible to repeat the previously mentioned words, it is recommended to use auxiliary words like this, all this, all of them, all these phenomena, etc. ” These were some successful actions. “They were several consecutive actions. This confirms our earliefirms our earlie He saw she was barely listing. This was the second time she’d shown not the slightest interest in a trick of trade that would have held a class of would-be writers spellbound. He saw that she was hardly listening to him. This was the second time that oan had shown no interest in a trick that would captivate a whole class of would-be writers. Demonstrative pronouns can replace individual words, expressions, sentences, and even context: Word: “You can take any of the jackets.” Thanks. I will take this (jacket)” - “You can take any of these jackets. "Thank you, I'll take this (jacket)." “Be careful with the gun! Give me that (the gun)!” “Be careful with your weapons! Give it to me!" “I need another type of paper,” he said. “Different from this(type)? This (type) is the most expensive!” “I need a different kind of paper,” he said. “Different from this (grade)? This one is the most expensive! Phrase: “Well, honestly! I knew writers were supposed to have big egos, but I guess I didn’t understand that (having big egos) meant ungratitude, too!” “Honestly, I knew that writers have a lot of self-importance, but I don’t think I understood that it also means ingratitude!” “They are a little dogeared, but that (being dogeared) a sign a book has been well read and loved, isn’t it?” - "They have turned-up page heads, but this is a sign that the book has been read and loved, isn't it?" And you might as well stop that (getting mad)! Getting mad won't change a thing. Yes, stop being angry! It will not change anything. Sentence: “Did I say I wasn’t going to start?” “No… No, but-” “That’s (that I didn’t say I wasn’t going to start) righ...” "no... no, but..." "That's right!..." She died, and he could never live with this (that she died). She died and he couldn't live. It is worth noting that sometimes the substitute word this (these) is translated as (this/these) last/s. Gas molecules move faster than liquid molecules. They are more agitated than these. Gas molecules move faster than liquid molecules. They are in a more agitated state than these latter. However, in most cases, the word the last is used in the meaning of the last, and the former in the meaning of the first. There are also demonstrative pronouns such and same. However, only the pronoun same can be used as a substitute word. Same can be a substitute word when it functions as a noun, while such comes only as an adjective in a sentence. Despite the fact that in English same can be used as a noun, it is translated into Russian as an adjective. “What kind of juice did you take?” “Orange” “I’ll take the same (kind)” - “What juice did you take?” "orange" "I'll take the same" The spring last year was very rainy. This year will be the same (it will be rainy). Substitute words the latter and the former Among the substitute words in English are the words the former and the latter. These substitute words have the meaning "the first (of them). .. the last (of those mentioned)". They are used to avoid repetition. John told Jerry the whole story. The latter took a deep breath of relief. - John told Jerry the whole story. The latter breathed a sigh of relief. In Russian, there are equivalents for the former and the latter. However, in many cases in a Russian sentence, the replaced word should be repeated, for example: The latter procedure is much more complicated than the former one. Walker's opinion on this question, the former being a scientific worker of a well-known laboratory, and the latter director of a large plant. - We know the opinion of Dr. Arthur and Volker on this issue, and Arthur is a researcher in a well-known laboratory, and Volker is the director of a large plant. The substitute words the former, the latter are usually used in pairs instead of two nouns. However, they can also be used separately from each other if the author is only interested in the first or only the last of all (not necessarily two) subjects, phenomena mentioned earlier, for example: In this paper, we shall take the former approach. This latter case is considerably more difficult to represent. - In this article, we will use the first method. This latter case is much more difficult to reproduce. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AS SUBSTITUTE WORDS Very often, indefinite pronouns are used as substitute words. Among the indefinite pronouns used as substitute words are the pronouns some, any, none, something, many, little, few, all, both, either, neither, each, other, one and derivatives of every. Every cannot be used as a substitute word on its own, as it is not a noun. The substitute words some, any and none Some is translated into Russian as some, a few, a little, some. Some of the teachers were not satisfied with his work. Some teachers were dissatisfied with his work. Give me some apples for the kids. Give me some apples for the children. He drank some water and then began to speak - He drank some water and began to speak. “He put his brother to jail for some 500 dollars?!” “He put his brother in jail for some $500?! Any translates as any. In interrogative and negative sentences, any is omitted in translation. Any of you will be expelled from the University, if you break the rules. “Any of you who break the rules will be expelled from the university. Do you have any food left? - Do you still have food? But I don't have any kids! But I don't have kids! In a sentence, some and any can replace the previously mentioned noun to avoid repetition. In such cases, when translating, instead of the word any, you need to use the replaced word. “Do you have any new movies?” “Yes, and I'll let you borrow some.” – “Do you have any new films?” "Yes. And I'll let you see some of them." Tony saw a box full with little sample boxes of Novril. He took some and left some in the box, so that Annie wouldn't notice. Tony saw a box full of little boxes of Novril. He took some of them and left some in the box so Annie wouldn't notice. “Give me all the money you have.” “But I don't have any!” “Give me all your money.” "But I do not have money!" “Do you really like the pictures?” “They are amazing! I would love to have them.” “Well, you can have any you choose.” “Do you really like these pictures?” "They are delightful! I would really like them to be mine." "Well, you can take any of your choice." None translates as not one, not at all. Like some and any, none replaces nouns to avoid repetition. - Which of these medicines have you taken before? – None. Which of these medications have you taken before? None. “How many of my relatives came to see me when I was in the hospita? None! How many of them even wondered ever if I needed anything? None! And you say they care about me?” “How many of my relatives came to visit me at the hospital? No one! How many of them even asked if I needed anything? No one! And you say they care about me?" The substitute word something Something translates as something (something), something, something. You have to eat something. - You need something to eat. I have something for you. – I have something for you. This story is something scary! This story is terrible! In principle, something can replace the name of any object in a sentence. By something the speaker can mean anything; it may be some object, it may be some abstract phenomenon/concept. For example: I have something (a typewriter) for you. look. It is a typewriter. “I have something for you. Look. This is a typewriter. I want to tell you something (that Jane got married yesterday). Jane got married yesterday. “I want to tell you something. Jane got married yesterday. My tape recorder is out of order. Do you thing it is something (a problem) you could fix? - My tape recorder doesn't work. Do you think you can fix it? In colloquial speech, something can mean something like this: something amazing, something delightful, very beautiful / cute (about people). Did you see professor Hawk's new invention? Jeez, it's something! Have you seen Professor Hawk's new invention? This is something amazing (brilliant)! You have to meet this guy. I tell you, he is really something! - You need to get to know this guy. I'm telling you, he's really handsome. The substitute words many, much, little and few Many/much are translated into Russian as many/many. Many is used with countable nouns, and much with uncountable nouns. Little / Few - little / small amount / a little. Little is used with uncountable nouns and few with countable nouns. Many, much, little and few can replace the previously mentioned nouns to avoid repetition. Substitutes for nouns are also a little, a few. Jenny wanted to have a party till the morning, but by 3.00 a.m. everyone was tired and asleep. Many were gone, and that disappointed her. Jenny wanted to party until the morning, but by 3 a.m. everyone was already tired and asleep. Many have already left and this made her very upset. “Did you buy milk?” he asked. “Yes. A little (milk).” “Did you buy milk?” he asked. "Yes. A little". Everybody listened to him attentively, but only a few believed. Everyone listened to him attentively, but only a few people believed him. There are also words that replace other substitute words. So very often, instead of the words many / much, the words and phrases a great deal of, a big deal of, good many, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, great number of are used. “Have you ever seen Native Americans?” “Lots of them!” “Have you ever seen Indians?” "Many!" “How many times did you go out with him?” “A lot.” “How many times have you gone out with him?” "Many". A great deal of the things in the store were useless. - Many things in the pantry were not needed. Substitute words all, everyone (everybody) everything All - everything, everything Everyone (everybody) - everything Everything - everything, everything Indefinite pronouns all, everyone (everybody), everything can function in a sentence as substitute words. All these words are collective nouns and stand for some group of people or objects. All can be used in relation to both animate and inanimate objects. Usually all replaces the group of people/things mentioned earlier. He came home to find nobody there. All (the inhabitants of the house) were gone. He came home and found no one there. Everyone has already left. “...As for my family, all (the members of the family) are well…” – “As for my family, everyone lives well...” There were five cars in the house, but he couldn't use any. All (the cars) were out of gas. There were 5 cars in the house, but he could not leave in any of them. None of them had gasoline. Often the substitute word all is found in business correspondence. At the beginning of a letter that is addressed to several at once, they often write: Hi All! or Dear All! In such cases, all replaces the names of all those to whom the letter is addressed. Everyone (everybody) is also used to stand for a group of people and is synonymous with all. However, unlike all, everyone (everybody) is used only in relation to people. Everyone (the people that were in the room) was silent in the room. Everyone in the room was quiet. He still had a hope that they would find him. If he wasn’t a celebrity, then may be they would stop searching him, but everybody (the readers of the USA) knew who Paul Sheldon is and all would wonder where he disappeared. He still had hope that he would be found. If he was not a celebrity, then maybe they would have stopped looking for him, but everyone knew who Paul Sheldon was, and everyone would be interested in where he disappeared. Is everyone (group of people that were supposed to gather) here? - All here? Everything is also a synonym for all, but is used only in relation to inanimate objects. “Remember, you are going to a forest, where there are no signs of civilization. You can't buy anything there, so take everything (necessary things) with you.” “Remember, you are going into the forest, where there are no signs of civilization. You can't buy anything there, so take everything (necessary) with you." “Is something wrong?” she finally asked. “No. Everything is fine,” he said in a calm voice, though he felt he was shaking inside – “Something wrong?” she asked at last. "Not. It's all right," he replied in a calm voice, although he felt that everything inside him was trembling. Substitute words both, either, neither, each Both - both, and one and the other Either - any, one or the other Neither - neither one, neither one nor the other Each - each Both, either and neither replaces the nouns previously mentioned. Either and neither can also replace either… or… and neither… nor… “Who will go there? You or I?” “Both (you and I) will have to.” “Who will go there? You or me? "Both will have to." Jenny and Thomas were both good candidates. Both (Jane and Thomas) graduated from prestigious Universities, both had good experience, and now they both needed a job. Both Jane and Thomas were good candidates. Both graduated from prestigious universities, both had a good experience, and now they both needed a job. “Are we going to ‘Hardies’ or ‘Perkins’?” "Neither (neither 'Hardies' nor 'Perkins'). I know a better place.” “Are we going to Hardies or Perkins?” “Neither there nor there. I know a better place." “Please, God, please – let me out of this or kill me…” The roar of the engine faded off down and God did neither and he was left with his tears and pain, which was now fully awake… Lord, deliver me from this torment or take my life...” The noise of the engine subsided, but God did neither, and he was left with his tears and his pain, which had completely woken up by that time... “Tea? coffee?” “Either is good.” - "Tea or coffee?" "Anyone will do." Sometimes neither is translated as nobody. “So who of the candidates is getting the job?” he asked ready to hear any name. “Neither. David is coming back.” “So which of these candidates will get the job?” "None. David is back." Either is sometimes translated as doesn't matter/doesn't matter. “Who do you want to go with? Jamie? Kate? Ian?” “Either. It doesn't matter where I go now,” she said sadly. - Who do you want to go with? With Jamie? With Kate? With Ian? “It doesn't matter. Now it doesn’t matter where I go,” she said sadly. Each replaces the previously mentioned nouns. Each cannot stand for just one noun, and the very use of the word suggests that there are two or more nouns denoted by each. However, unlike every, each does not denote the group as a whole, but each of the components of the group individually. “Will one tent do for all three of us?” “No. These tents are too small. Each should have his own.” “Is one tent enough for three of us?” "Not. These tents are too small. Everyone should have their own." “Also take two chairs with you.” “Two chairs only for the whole ceremony?!” “Two chairs each!” “And take two chairs with you.” “Two chairs for the whole ceremony?!” "Two chairs each!" Substitute word one Basically, the substitute word one is used to avoid repeating a noun that has already been named. I'll take this car. It is much better than the one we saw last week. - I'm taking this car. It is much better than the (car) we saw last week. This snowmobile doesn't run very fast. Do you want to ride the new one? This snowmobile doesn't go that fast. Do you want to ride on a new (snowmobile)? Could one possibly play Shaherezade, when one's captor was insane? - Could someone play Scheherazade if his master was crazy? Very often the substitute word one is used in combination with this (these) and that (those). It is also worth noting that the substitute word one can be used both in the singular and in the plural. Therefore, one will only be used with countable nouns. The ribbon was a faded two-tone, red over black. He had forgotten there were such ribbons. The sight of this one called up no pleasant nostalgia. The typewriter ribbon was faded, two-tone, red on black. He even forgot that such tapes exist. The sight of this tape did not awaken pleasant memories in him. Two more of those (pills) on top of the ones you took half an hour ago may drop you into a coma and then kill you, he thought. Two more pills on top of the ones you took half an hour ago could put you in a coma and then kill you, he thought. Note that one can only replace enumerable nouns, while that of can replace anything. For example: English grammar is easier than that of the German language. – English grammar is easier than German grammar. English words are shorter than German ones. – English words are shorter than German ones. In the first sentence, the pronoun one cannot be used; since grammar is one of the abstract concepts. In the second case, you can say: English words are shorter than those of the German language. One is used for both inanimate and animate objects. - Is that man Mr. Threeman? – Not that one. Truman is the one with the funny hat. Is this man Mr. Truman? - no, not this (man), but that one (man) with a funny hat. In this case, one is always preceded by a definite article. About the substitute word one Rubtsova M. G. writes: “o n e (ones) - is used instead of a noun that has a definition (usually standing before this noun, most often an adjective). Can replace a noun in plural. number, and then the form ones is used, for example: It is possible to relate this phenomenological phase diagram to a more conventional one. Among the disadvantages the following ones can be mentioned. One can relate this phenomenological phase diagram to a more conventional diagram. Among the shortcomings, the following (shortcomings) can be mentioned.” The word one can also act as: a) formal subject - stands before the predicate. Sentences of this type should either be translated as indefinitely personal sentences, or (less often) use the formal we as the subject, for example: To get good results one must work hard. This system is satisfactory when one Is studying the catalogue. To get good results, you have to work hard. This system is satisfactory when the catalog is being studied (we are studying); b) formal object - stands after the predicate, usually not translated or replaced by a formal us, for example: This enables one to observe and record all the changes. This allows (us) to observe and record all changes; Very often the word one is used in combination with the words other/another, this/these, that/those. In this case, the translation usually omits either one or the other word in combination. I don't like this painting. Give me the other one. - I don't like this picture. Give me another. Look at all these flowers. Shall we take these ones? – Look at all these flowers. Let's take these? These are not the same tablets Those ones were a little smaller! - These are not the same pills that I took. Those were smaller! Depending on the context, the translation may omit one or another. The combination another one can be translated as another or as another one. These apples are real good. I'll have another one. - These apples are very good. I'll eat another one. You can have my computer. I'll buy another one. You can take my computer. I will buy another. Substitute Words thing stuff Very common substitute words in modern English are the words thing and stuff. The most widely used word thing. Stuff can replace any inanimate objects and is translated as things into Russian. Stuff is used only in the singular and cannot mean just one thing: “You can use my backpack. But let me take my stuff (anything that may be in the backback) out of it first” – “You can take my backpack. Just let me get my things out of there first.” (The word stuff in this sentence means everything that is in this backpack). “Oh come on in. I'm sorry for the mess; I have my stuff (books, notebooks, pens, markers and so on. ) all over the room. That the way I get ready for my exams.” – “Come in. Sorry for the mess; my things (books, notebooks, pens, markers, etc.) are scattered all over the room. This is how I prepare for the exams. However, the word stuff can mean other more abstract concepts. He would know the real stuff (idea) when he found it. He would know a real good idea if he had one. “…It makes the stuff (work) you guys do look about as scary as a ride on the Central Park carousel.” "...This method will make your work look as scary as riding a carousel in Central Park." The literal translation of the word thing is a thing, but it has acquired a wider meaning. If stuff can basically mean things, then thing can mean things, unknown things, concepts, situations, etc. “He raised the stone and hit Geofrey on his head,” she said with eyes full of tears. “This thing (that he hit Geofrey on his head) will never get out of mind.” “He picked up a stone and hit Jofri on the head,” she said with tears in her eyes. "It will never get out of my head." “What's this thing?” - "What is it?" “If you really loved her – ” “You don’t tell me that. You don't know a thing about love!" “If you really loved her…” “Don't tell me that. You have no idea about love at all!” In the last sentence, a thing stands for anything. Sometimes a thing is used instead of anything to give emphatic emphasis and expressiveness. Thing in a sentence can stand for a word, a phrase, a sentence, a context, or an entire situation. For example: Word: The outcome was a thing (something) for which untold millions waited with held breath. “The result was something that millions of people were waiting with bated breath. “I didn't buy it for antique. I bought it for second hand…” “Hey, there aint no such thing (notion) as an antique typewriter…” I bought it at a used goods store.... "Hey! There is no such thing as an antique typewriter…” “My God, Annie, one of the first things (information) you find out in this business is that editors hate reading manuscripts typed on Corrasable Bond almost as much as they hate reading hand- written manuscripts.” "God, Annie, one of the first things you learn in this case is that editors hate reading manuscripts printed on Corrasable Bond paper almost as much as they hate reading handwritten manuscripts." Phrase: For that they would probably give her a medal and a lifetime membership in the Misery Chastain Fan Club (To Paul's endless displeasure, there was such a thing (Misery Chastain Fan CLub)) at the Misery Chastain Fan Club (To Paul's endless dislike, such a club existed). Do you want to turn a rocking chair over? Easiest thing (turning rocking chair over) on the world, right? “Do you want to turn over the stone chair?” Nothing is easier, right? He remembered Geoffrey saying: “You must not cry in front of her, old man – that is the one thing (crying in front of her) you must never never do.” He remembered Joffrey saying, "You shouldn't cry in front of her, old chap - that's something you should never do." Sentence: Geoffrey didn’t understand what he said, but suddenly he did know one thing – who this late coming person was. (you can also say: Geoffrey didn’t understand what he said, but suddenly he did know who this late coming person was) - Geoffrey did not understand what he said, but suddenly he understood one thing - he understood who this late guest was. The principle of the school sat by a young student and started flirting with her. This thing (that the principle sat by a young student and started flirting with her) made the teacher totally mad. The principal of the school sat next to a young student and began to flirt with her. This made the teacher very angry. VERB SUBSTITUTE WORDS Among verb substitutes, auxiliary verbs and linking verbs are most common. For example, when using simple forms of the verb (i.e., consisting of one word), the main verb is replaced by the verb do. When using complex forms of the verb, the main verb is simply omitted when repeated, and the auxiliary remains: If you study as well as you did this year ... - If you study as well as (studied) this year ... In- in Russian we can repeat the verb “learn” and we can omit it. In English, we can put the auxiliary verb do instead of the semantic one. She knows this rule and so do I. - She knows this rule, and so do I (I know). They passed the examination and so did I. - They passed the exam, and so did I (passed). I am coming and so is she. - I will come and she too (will come). I shall do it if you will. - I'll do it if you do it too. But there are other words instead of verbs. Such words often appear in colloquial speech. For example, to say in modern colloquial speech is often replaced by the expression to be like: I said “Winston, if I weren't in my right mind, I'd think you're trying to hit on me” and he was like “and you 'd be right. “I said, “Winston, if I wasn’t sane, I would have thought you were trying to hit on me,” and he said, “And you would be right.” Substituents of modal verbs Very often, modal verbs are replaced by other equivalents. Most often this happens because modal verbs themselves cannot form past or future tenses. Rubtsova M. G. writes: 1. “Modal verbs do not have the original form - the Infinitive, which means they cannot form complex (with auxiliary verbs, such as the future tense) and derivatives (for example, the participle) forms. Therefore, to form such forms, equivalents are used that have an infinitive and can form any form, any tense and mood. The words used to replace the modal verbs can and may convey the lexical content of the modal verbs: can - to be able (able - capable); may - to be allowed (to allow - allow). Substitutes for modal verbs are always followed by the infinitive of the semantic verb with the particle to ", for example: We shall be able to correct the program. He was allowed to perform the operation. We can fix this program. He was allowed to do this operation. Or: He COULD do this operation. The modal verb must has two equivalents: to be (not used in weekdays) to have These problems were to be considered together. Such a search will have to be followed. Unfortunately, some things just have to be learned by rote. These issues had to be considered together. Such a search would have to be done. Unfortunately, some things just have to be learned by heart (without understanding). 2. “It should be noted that the verb must and its equivalents to have and to be can be translated in the same way - the word must, however, they have different shades in meaning, and therefore in many cases it is recommended to use equivalents that more accurately convey them when translating content in this context. Cf.: I must go to the conference. I "m to go to the conference. I have to go to the conference. I must (I need) to go to this conference. I must (I have to) go to this conference (must according to plan, by agreement). I am forced ( I have to) go to this conference (should instead of N., who fell ill).» 3. “In cases where a combination of a modal verb and an equivalent occurs, both verbs should be translated and sometimes the first of them (modal) is recommended to be placed at the beginning of the sentence, for example”: We must be able to predict the properties of a reagent. They may have to take the value into account. Applications may also need to be preceded by research in modeling. We must be able to predict (all) the properties of the reactant. They may have to take this value into account. It may also be necessary that (practical) application be preceded by simulation studies. Auxiliary verbs and linking verbs as substitutes for semantic verbs. All auxiliary verbs and linking verbs can replace the semantic verb in the sentence. When repeated, the semantic verb is omitted and only the auxiliary or linking verb remains. Most often, the verbs to be, to do, to have act as substitutes for semantic verbs. When translating into Russian, you need to repeat the replaced word. “Didn’t your mother tell you that the most expensive is not always the best?” “No she did not…” - “Didn’t your mother tell you that the most expensive is not always the best?” “No, I didn’t…” (III, 22, 77) “Did I say I wasn’t going to start?” “No… No, but -” “That’s right. Because I am.” “Did I say I wasn’t going to start?” "No... No, but-" "That's right, because I'm going to." (III, 22, 78) Godamn! I won! No - that wasn't right. Misery had. - God! I won! No, it's not true. Misery won. (III, 22, 79) Describing substitute words for verb-predicates, Rubtsova wrote in her work: expressed only by the semantic verb). The verb do denotes tense and agrees with the subject. When translating, the replaced verb should be repeated, especially in those cases "when the tenses indicated by the semantic verb and the substitute verb do not match, for example: We shall use this letter, as Prof. N. did, for the constant V. A wise man seldom changes his mind, a fool never does. We will use this letter, as Professor N. did (used), for a constant value V. A smart person rarely changes his mind, a stupid one never (does not change); 2) the first auxiliary verb If the predicate, instead of which the substitute word is used, is polynomial (i.e., in addition to the semantic verb, it has auxiliary ones), then the first auxiliary verb is used to replace it, expressing temporal or modal characteristics.When translating into Russian, the semantic verb should be repeated, putting it in the tense indicated by the auxiliary substitute verb, for example: As science has evolved so has its meaning. We should assemble all the facts and information we can. As science develops, so does its meaning. We must collect all the facts and all the information that we can collect. 3) the service word so. If the predicate that should be repeated is a compound, the nominal part of which is expressed by an adjective, noun or adverb, then so is used as a substitute word (semantic part). When translating, you should repeat the semantic part of the predicate, for example: These data are very important for theory, and less so for practice. These data are very important for theory and less important for practice. When translating, one should not forget the meaning of the word so "also", for example: These differences are negligible, and so are the varieties of the process. These differences can be neglected, and varieties of this process can also be neglected. 4) Linking verbs do not have a semantic meaning, they carry a grammatical load (they are indicators of time, person, number) and serve to connect the subject with the semantic part of the predicate, which can be expressed by a noun, adjective, participle, infinitive, gerund and numeral. Let's give examples with only one, the most common linking verb to be: The language is a means of imparting ideas. He was liberal in his views. Language is a means of conveying ideas. He was liberal in his views. This demonstration of samples is more convincing. The problem is how to secure its advantages. This display of samples is more convincing. The problem is how to keep his (her) benefits. 5) Linking verbs also include such verbs as to become "become", to remain "remain", for example: The problem became unsolvable. Much work remains to be done. The problem has become insoluble. (Still) a lot of work remains to be done. 6) A number of verbs can act both as semantic and as a kind of linking verbs. Compare: Not is a student. He is a student. But: Not is in the laboratory. He is in the lab.. Conclusion Many pronouns and function as substitute words and the line between them is blurry, yet there is a difference between the two. Not all pronouns can serve as substitute words and not all substitute words are pronouns. Adjective pronouns cannot be substitute words. Some pronouns in a sentence can function as both a noun and an adjective. They can be substitute words only in those cases when they perform the functions of a noun. For example, the pronoun this: This car is an old model. This car is an old model. She was going blank again. He didn't like this. “She was freaking out again. He didn't like it. In the first case, this is simply a pronoun defining and referring to the noun (car). In the second case, this is a substitute word. It replaces the first sentence (She was going blank again). In addition to noun pronouns, substitute words can also be other nouns, as well as verbs that replace other verbs. There are also words substitutes for adjectives, adverbs. However, the most common and well-known are the substitute words for nouns and verbs. Some slang words are also referred to as substitute words. For example, dumb kids, in his opinion, teachers can replace with such words as under-achievers, non-academic-minded, slow, disadvantaged, sub-paced, non-college-oriented, underprivileged, non-linguistic, intellectually deprived. One of the most common noun substitutes is thing and stuff. They can replace anything in a sentence, from concrete objects to abstract concepts and entire situations. All personal micronouns are substitute words. Other substitute words are the absolute possessive pronouns, all demonstrative pronouns except some, interrogative noun pronouns, and some of the indefinite pronouns. Just as stuff and thing can replace any noun, the verb to do can replace any other verb when repeated. In addition to to do, all auxiliary verbs and linking verbs can be substitute words for verbs. The semantic verb is simply omitted when repeated and an auxiliary or linking verb is used instead. Substitute words for modal verbs are their equivalents, which, unlike modal verbs, can form past and future tenses. Both pronouns and substitute words are an integral part of every language. In some cases, they are used to avoid repetition, in other cases, to reduce speech; substitute words can replace both individual words and whole phrases and sentences. In the course of the work, it was noticed that the words substitutes it, that, this, thing, one are most often used in speech. In more than 36 examples out of 250 in this work, the substitute word it occurs. That (those) comes second after it and is used in over 25 examples. The substitute words this (these), one and thing appear in more than 15 examples in this work, although they are very often used in everyday speech. REFERENCES: I 1. Gordon E. M., Krylova I. P. A Grammar of Present Day English, M., 1980. p. 268-304 2. Veikhman G. A. New in English grammar, M., 1990. 220 p. 3. Internet: Rubtsova M. G. Learning to read English scientific and technical literature. Lexical and grammatical reference book, M., 1989 (http://www.surgery.eastcomm.ru/lib/eng/rubtsova/par1_8.htm) 4. Internet: Berkner S.S., Penkov B.V. Some lexical Semantic Features of the Language of the American High School of the Second Half of the 20th Century (Students and Teachers) / Language Communication and Social Environment, Issue 1, Voronezh, 2001 (http://tpl1999.narod.ru/WebLSE2001/BerkPenk.htm) 5. Verkhovskaya I. P., Rastorgueva T. A., Barmina L. A. English verb. Difficulties in using speech, M., 1987. 350 p. 6. Izraelevich E. E., Kachalova K. N. Practical Grammar of the English Language, M, 1953. p. 67-239 7. Ilyish B. A. The Structure of Modern English, L., 1971. p. 66-73 8. Internet: http://rusgram.narod.ru 9. Close R. A. A Reference Grammar for Students of English, M., 1979. 341 p. 10. Koblov G. Ya. English language, M., 1972. 245 p. 11. Mikhelson T. N., Uspenskaya N. V. Collection of Exercises on the Main Sections of English Grammar. Practical Guide, L., 1978. p. 182-236 12. Redford E. Why the English say so, M., 1964. 230 p. 13. Smirnova L. N. English course for scientific workers, L., 1990. 289 p. 14. Internet: http://www.anriintern.com/leseng/641_660.html 15. Internet: http://www.englspace.com/online/lesson22/index.shtml 16. Internet: http://accent. hotmail.ru/languages/english/pronoun.html 17. Internet: http://www.langust.ru/unit_ur/ureg_037.shtml 18. Internet: http://gambit.com.ru/~wolf/home/hornby .htm 19. Internet: http://sch-yuri.narod.ru/student/veikman/veik3.htm 20. Gruzinskaya I. A. Just about the main thing. Grammar of the English language, L., 2001. 360 p. 21. Dyukanova M. N. Practical grammar of the English language, M., 2001, 224 p. 22. Gee R. - Grammar of the English language, L., 2001, 46 p. 23. Sidorenko G. I. Collection of exercises on English grammar, Minsk, 2002, 232 p. 24. Internet: http://danal.by.ru 25. Internet: http://enative.narod.ru/theory/grammar.htm 26. Nativity of Christ L. Modal verbs in English. Collection of exercises, M., 2000, 336 p. 27. Kutuzov L. Practical grammar of the English language, M, 1998, 48 p. 28. Rushinskaya I. S. English Verbals and Modals, 2002 (Internet) II 29. AbyLingvo English Dictionary (computer version) 30. Oxford New Dictionary, 1996 31. Webster's Third New English Dictionary, 1996 32. Tezarus (computer version) 33 Tsvetkov M. - English-Russian Dictionary of Slang, M., 1986 III 34. Joseph Wambo. The Golden Orange, New York, 1991 35. Geoffrey Archie. Scorpions Trial, New York, 1994 36. Sidney Sheldon. Master of the Game, London, 1994 37. Stephen King. Misery, UK, 1991 38. Terry McMillan. How Stella Got Her Groove Back, New York, 1996 39. Selinger JD The Catcher in the Rye (Internet) 40. Kaufman B. Up The Down Staircase (Internet) APPENDICES Substitute nouns 1. I bought a new car . She is beautiful! - I bought a new car. She is gorgeous! 2. I have been through a thousand storms and stories together with this ship. Jeez, she is strong! - With this ship, I went through a thousand storms and adventures. God, how strong! 3. They say she is going to resign. They say she's going to resign. 4. Don't they use this for cars. Here it is used for cars. 5. He saw me in the street - He saw me on the street. 6. This pen is bad. I can't write with it - This is a bad pen. I can't write to her. 7. Her is a real fool - She is a real fool. 8. My pencil is on the table - My pencil is on the table. 9. She didn't know it was that neighbor of his.- She didn't know that it was that neighbor of his. 10. Dear mine! – Darling (ironic tone) 11. You said she was the one who stole the money. Well, that's wrong - You said she stole the money. It is not true. 12. He hang his daughter's portrait beside that of his wife's. He hung a portrait of his daughter next to that of his wife. 13. These poems are not nearly as good as those you wrote last year - These poems are not as good as those you wrote last year. 14. I entered by the door opposite to that opening into the garden - I entered through the door that is opposite the one that goes into the garden. 15. I'll tell you this: Don't go there! - I'll tell you what - don't go there! 16. He controlled her every step and that annoyed her - He controlled her every step and it annoyed her 17. I’ll do no such thing - I won’t do anything like that. 18. He didn't say any such thing - He didn't say anything like that. 19. "How's he?" "Much the same" - "How is he?" "Almost the same". 20. Who (whom) did you show the letter to? Who did you show the letter to? 21. Who (whom) are you speaking of? - Who are you talking about? 22. What has happened? - What's happened? 23. What is this for? - What is this for? 24. I gave her some medicine, because she really needed some - I gave her medicine because she needed it. 25. He asked for some books, but she didn’t have any - he asked for a few books, but she didn’t have any books. 26. I ran out of ink. Do you have any? - I'm out of ink. Do you have ink? 27. Some men think she's ugly, some think she's extremely beautiful - Some men think she's ugly, others think she's very beautiful. 28. Any, who breaks the rules, will be fired! Anyone who breaks the rules will be fired. 29. Can somebody help you? – can someone help you? 30. How many pictures have you taken here? None. How many photos did you take here? None. 31. We saw nobody there. We didn't see anyone there. 32. There was nobody in the room - There was no one in the room. 33. He said nothing about it - He did not say anything about it. 34. I've seen many fancy cars, but I'd never seen one like this! “I've seen a lot of good cars, but I've never seen one like this! 35. Much of what you say is true - Much of that. What you say is true. 36. I learned a lot of new things there. - I learned a lot there. 37. I've got plenty of time today - Today I have a lot of time. 38. One can never be sure what happens next 39. One never values ​​happiness until it is gone 40. She picked the machine with an ease and put it away, and you have to be very strong to do that. - She easily lifted the typewriter and put it aside, and for this you need to be very strong. 41. You have to be a fool to believe that! You have to be a fool to believe this. 42. You can't enter the this building without entering the code number - You cannot enter this building without entering the code number. 43. They say there are ghosts in this castle - They say that there are ghosts in this castle. 44. They change the bedclothes every day in this hotel, unlike that other one 45. They call New York the Big Apple - New York is called the Big Apple. 46. ​​They don't take you all the way to Denver if you're innocent. “If you are not guilty, then you are not taken all the way to Denver. 47. When I came closer to the pool, I realized that it was Pete.- When I came closer to the pool, I realized that it was Pete. 48. There was a knock at the door. I thought it was the postman. - There was a knock on the door. I thought it was the postman. 49. He tried to break the lock. It (breaking the lock) was not easy. He tried to break the lock. That was not easy. 50. I think you want to stay alive even if it (staying alive) does hurt - I think you want to live, even if it hurts you. 51. Staying there wasn't safe, but it (staying there) was the only thing he could do - Staying there wasn't safe, but that was all he could do. 52. The music had stopped. He didn't notice it (that the music had stopped). - The music stopped playing. He didn't notice it. 53. Had she foreseen the possibility that he might get out of the room? He doubted it (that she haad foreseen the possibility that he might get out of the room). “Maybe she foresaw the possibility that he would get out of the room?” He doubted it. 54. She was older than hi for about 20 years and he knew it (that she was older than hi for about 20 years) - She was almost 20 years older than him, and he knew it. 55. He knew that his father was dying but he didn't want to talk to anybody about it (that his father was dying) - He knew that his father was dying, but did not want to talk about it with anyone. 56. By then his legs were fully awake, and it (that he was able to fall asleep) wasn’t until she had come and given him another dose of the medicine that he was able to fall asleep. By then his legs were fully awake and he didn't fall asleep until she came and gave him the medicine. 57. He had guessed before that she was a nurse, so it (that she was a nurse) wasn't a big surprise for him when she said it (that she was a nurse). He had guessed before that she was a nurse, so he wasn't too surprised when she told him that. 58. He studied her, then shook his head. He waited a moment and then decided not to say what he might have been going to say. He swallowed half his whiskey before going on, and when he did, he returned to the conventional questions. She had watched him do it all without any interest. He studied it, then shook his head. He waited a little, and then decided not to tell her what he might have been about to tell her. He drank half his whiskey before continuing, and when he continued, he returned to the questions. She watched with interest as he did it all. 59. It is six miles to the nearest hospital from here. – The nearest hospital is 6 miles from here. 60. It is stupid to act like that - It's stupid to behave like that. 61. It won't be easy finding our way home. It won't be easy to find your way home. 62. It was a surprise that he was going to give in. That he was about to give up was a surprise. 63. I found it difficult to explain to him what had happened. It was difficult for me to explain to him what had happened. 64. He thought it no use to go over the subject again. - He thought it was useless to discuss this topic again. 65. He thought it odd that they had left no message to him.- He thought it odd that they didn't leave him any message. 66. It was my question that made him angry - It was my question that made him angry. 67. It was on the terrace that he wanted them to lay the table - He wanted them to set the table on the terrace. 68. It wasn't me who killed her! I didn't kill her! 69. “This is my work. You can't make decisions what to do with it.” “No it is mine (my work) now, since you depend on me now!” - "This is my job. You can't decide what to do with her." “No, now she is mine, since you depend on me!” 70. You can "t drive this car. It" s not yours. (your car) - You do not have the right to drive this car. She is not yours. 71. Look at this house! It "s yours (your house) now. - Look at this house! It's yours now. 72. Our procedure is more practical than theirs (their procedure) - Our method (procedure) is more practical than their (method). 73. "I'll make sure you get all the books. They are a little dogeared, but that's a sign a bok has been well read and loved, isn't it?" "I'll make sure you get all these books. They're dog-eared, but that's a sign that the book has been read and loved, isn't it?" 74. That he lives in her house doesn't mean that he has to do whatever she says! had pretty well known what all this was about… 76. Better than lying here suffering… I don't think you belive that (that it is better than lying here,suffering 77. These were some successive actions.- These were some successive actions. 78. He saw she was barely listening. This was the second time she’d shown not the slightest interest in a trick of trade that would have held a class of would-be writers spellbound. He saw that she was hardly listening to him. This was the second time that oan had shown no interest in a trick that would captivate an entire class of would-be writers. 79. “You can take any of the jackets.” Thanks. I will take this (jacket)” - “You can take any of these jackets.” "Thank you, I'll take this (jacket)." 80. “Be careful with the gun! Give me that (the gun)!” “Be careful with your weapons! Give it to me!" 81. “I need another type of paper,” he said. “Different from this(type)? This (type) is the most expensive!” “I need a different kind of paper,” he said. “Different from this (grade)? This one is the most expensive! 82. “Well, honestly! I knew writers were supposed to have big egos, but I guess I didn’t understand that (having big egos) meant ungratitude, too!” “Honestly, I knew that writers have a lot of self-importance, but I don’t think I understood that it also means ingratitude!” 83. “They are a little dogeared, but that (being dogeared) a sign a book has been well read and loved, isn’t it?” - "They have turned-up page heads, but this is a sign that the book has been read and loved, isn't it?" 84. And you might as well stop that (getting mad)! Getting mad won't change a thing. Yes, stop being angry! It will not change anything. 85. “Did I say I wasn’t going to start?” “No… No, but-” “That’s (that I didn’t say I wasn’t going to start) righ...” "no... no, but..." "That's right!..." 86. Godamn! I won! No - that (that I won't) wasn't right. Misery had. - Heck! I won! No - this is wrong. Misery won. 87. She died, and he could never live with this (that she died). She died and he couldn't live. 88. “What kind of juice did you take?” “Orange” “I’ll take the same (kind)” - “What juice did you take?” "orange" "I'll take the same" 89. The spring last year was very rainy. This year will be the same (it will be rainy). 90. John told Jerry the whole story. The latter took a deep breath of relief. John told Jerry the whole story. The latter breathed a sigh of relief. 91. We have Dr. Arthur and Walker "s opinion on this question, the former ion, the former ic worker of a well-known laboratory, and the latter director of a large plant. - We know the opinion of Dr. Arthur and Walker on this issue, and Arthur is scientific an employee of a well-known laboratory, and Volker - the director of a large plant. 92. In this paper, we shall take the former approach. This latter case is considerably more difficult to represent. - In this article, we will use the first method. This latter case is much more difficult to reproduce. 93. Some of the teachers were not saticified with his work. Some teachers were dissatisfied with his work. 94. Give me some apples for the kids. Give me some apples for the children. 95. He drank some water and then began to speak - He drank some water and began to speak. 96. “He put his brother to jail for some 500 dollars?!” “He put his brother in jail for some $500?! 97. “Give me all the money you have.” “But I don't have any!” “Give me all your money.” "But I do not have money!" 98. “Do you really like the picture?” “They are amazing! I would love to have them.” “Well, you can have any you choose.” “Do you really like these pictures?” "They are delightful! I would really like them to be mine." "Well, you can take any of your choice." 99. Which of these medicines have you taken before? – None. Which of these medications have you taken before? None. 100. “How many of my relatives came to see me when I was in the hospita? None! How many of them even wondered ever if I needed anything? None! And you say they care about me?” “How many of my relatives came to visit me at the hospital? No one! How many of them even asked if I needed anything? No one! And you say they care about me?" 101. You have to eat something. - You need something to eat. 102. I have something for you. - I have something for you. 103. This story is something scary! This story is terrible! 104. I have something (a typewriter) for you. look. It is a typewriter. “I have something for you. Look. This is a typewriter. 105. I want to tell you something (that Jane got married yesterday). Jane got married yesterday. “I want to tell you something. Jane got married yesterday. 106. My tape recorder is out of order. Do you think it is something (a problem) you could fix? And the tape recorder doesn't work for me. Do you think you can fix it? 107. Did you see professor Hawk's new invention? Jeez, it's something! Have you seen Professor Hawk's new invention? This is something amazing (brilliant)! 108. You have to meet this guy. I tell you, he is really something! - You need to get to know this guy. I'm telling you, he's really handsome. 109. Jenny wanted to have a party till the morning, but by 3.00 a.m. everyone was tired and asleep. Many were gone, and that disappointed her. Jenny wanted to party until the morning, but by 3 a.m. everyone was already tired and asleep. Many have already left and this made her very upset. 110. Did you buy milk? he asked. “Yes. A little (milk).” “Did you buy milk?” he asked. "Yes. A little". 111. Everybody listened to him attentively, but only a few believed. Everyone listened to him attentively, but only a few people believed him. 112. Have you ever seen Native Americans? “Lots of them!” “Have you ever seen Indians?” "Many!" 113. “How many times did you go out with him?” “A lot.” “How many times have you gone out with him?” "Many". 114. A great deal of the things in the store were useless. - Many things in the pantry were not needed. 115. He came home to find nobody there. All (the inhabitants of the house) were gone. He came home and found no one there. Everyone has already left. 116. “...As for my family, all (the members of the family) are well…” – “As for my family, everyone lives well...” 117. There were five cars in the house, but he couldn't use any. All (the cars) were out of gas. There were 5 cars in the house, but he could not leave in any of them. None of them had gasoline. 118. He still had a hope that they would find him. If he wasn’t a celebrity, then may be they would stop searching him, but everybody (the readers of the USA) knew who Paul Sheldon is and all would wonder where he disappeared. He still had hope that he would be found. If he was not a celebrity, then maybe they would have stopped looking for him, but everyone knew who Paul Sheldon was, and everyone would be interested in where he disappeared. 119. Is everyone (group of people thar were supposed to gather) here? - All here? 120. “Remember, you are going to a forest, where there are no signs of civilization. You can't buy anything there, so take everything (necessary things) with you.” “Remember, you are going into the forest, where there are no signs of civilization. You can't buy anything there, so take everything (necessary) with you." 121. Is something wrong? she asked finely. “No. Everything is fine,” he said in a calm voice, though he felt he was shaking inside – “Something wrong?” she asked at last. "Not. It's all right," he replied in a calm voice, although he felt that everything inside him was trembling. 122. “Will one tent do for all three of us?” “No. These tents are too small. Each should have his own.” “Is one tent enough for three of us?” "Not. These tents are too small. Everyone should have their own." 123. “Also take two chairs with you.” “Two chairs only for the whole ceremony?!” “Two chairs each!” “And take two chairs with you.” “Two chairs for the whole ceremony?!” "Two chairs each!" 124. I'll take this car. It is much better than the one we saw last week. - I'm taking this car. It is much better than the (car) we saw last week. 125. This snowmobile doesn't run very fast. Do you want to ride the new one? This snowmobile doesn't go that fast. Do you want to ride on a new (snowmobile)? 126. Could one possibly play Shaherezade, when one's captor was insane? - Could someone play Scheherazade if his master was crazy? 127. The ribbon was a faded two-tone, red over black. He had forgotten there were such ribbons. The sight of this one called up no pleasant nostalgia. The typewriter ribbon was faded, two-tone, red on black. He even forgot that such tapes exist. The sight of this tape did not awaken pleasant memories in him. 128. Two more of those (pills) on top of the ones you took half an hour ago may drop you into a coma and then kill you, he thought. Two more pills on top of the ones you took half an hour ago could put you in a coma and then kill you, he thought. 129. These apples are real good. I'll have another one. - These apples are very good. I'll eat another one. 130. You can have my computer. I'll buy another one. You can take my computer. I will buy another. 131. “You can use my backpack. But let me take my stuff (anything that may be in the backback) out of it first” – “You can take my backpack. Just let me get my things out of there first.” (The word stuff in this sentence means everything that is in this backpack). 132. “Oh, come on in. I'm sorry for the mess; I have my stuff (books, notebooks, pens, markers and so on.) all over the room. That's the way I get ready for my exams.” – “Come in. Sorry for the mess; my things (books, notebooks, pens, markers, etc.) are scattered all over the room. This is how I prepare for the exams. 133. He would know the real stuff (idea) when he found it. He would know a real good idea if he had one. 134. “…It makes the stuff (work) you guys do look about as scary as a ride on the Central Park carousel.” "...This method will make your work look as scary as riding a carousel in Central Park." 135. “He raised the stone and hit Geofrey on his head,” she said with eyes full of tears. “This thing (that he hit Geofrey on his head) will never get out of mind.” “He picked up a stone and hit Jofri on the head,” she said with tears in her eyes. "It will never get out of my head." 136. “If you really loved her – ” “You don’t tell me that. You don't know a thing about love!" “If you really loved her…” “Don't tell me that. You have no idea about love at all!” 137. “I didn't buy it for antique. I bought it for second hand…” “Hey, there aint no such thing (notion) as an antique typewriter…” I bought it at a used goods store.... "Hey! There is no such thing as an antique typewriter…” 138. “My God, Annie, one of the first things (information) you find out in this business is that editors hate reading manuscripts typed on Corrasable Bond almost as much as they hate reading hand-written manuscripts.” "God, Annie, one of the first things you learn in this case is that editors hate reading manuscripts printed on Corrasable Bond paper almost as much as they hate reading handwritten manuscripts." 139. For that they would probably give her a medal and a lifetime membership in the Misery Chastain Fan Club (To Paul's endless displeasure, there was such a thing (Misery Chastain Fan CLub)) at the Misery Chastain Fan Club (To Paul's endless dislike, such a club existed). 140. Do you want to turn a rocking chair over? Easiest thing (turning rocking chair over) on the world, right? “Do you want to turn over the stone chair?” Nothing is easier, right? 141. He remembered Geoffrey saying: “You must not cry in front of her, old man – that is the one thing (crying in front of her) you must never never do.” He remembered Joffrey saying, "You shouldn't cry in front of her, old chap - that's something you should never do." 142. Geoffrey didn’t understand what he said, but suddenly he did know one thing – who this late coming person was. (you can also say: Geoffrey didn’t understand what he said, but suddenly he did know who this late coming person was) - Geoffrey did not understand what he said, but suddenly he understood one thing - he understood who this late guest was. 143. The principle of the school sat by a young student and started flirting with her. This thing (that the principle sat by a young student and started flirting with her) made the teacher totally mad. The principal of the school sat next to a young student and began to flirt with her. This made the teacher very angry. 144. If you study as well as you did this year... 145. She knows this rule and so do I. - She knows the rule and so do I (I know) 146. They passed the examination and so did I. - They passed the exam, and so did I. 147. I am coming and so is she. - I will come and she too (will come). 148. I shall do it if you will. - I'll do it if you do it too. 149. I said “Winston, if I weren’t in my right mind, I’d think you’re trying to hit on me” and he was like “and you’d be right.” “I said 'Winston, if I wasn't sane I would think you were trying to hit on me' and he said 'And you would be right'. 150. “Didn’t your mother tell you that the most expensive is not always the best?” “No she did not…” - “Didn’t your mother tell you that the most expensive is not always the best?” 151. “Did I say I wasn’t going to start?” “No… No, but -” “That’s right. Because I am.” “Did I say I wasn’t going to start?” "No... No, but-" "That's right, because I'm going to." 152. Godamn! I won! No - that wasn't right. Misery had. - God! I won! No, it's not true. Misery won. 153. “Please, Miss Wilkes? The pain - ” “Call me Annie. All my friends do.” “Please, Miss Wilkes? Pain -" "Call me Annie. All my friends call me that." 154. “There! Look what you made me do!” “I'm sorry” “Sure! You! Are!” - "Here! Look what I've done because of you!" “I'm sorry.” “Of course! You're sorry!" 155. “I sort of depend on you now.” “Yes. You do. You do, don't you Paul?” "I seem to depend on you now." “Yes, you do. You're addicted, aren't you Paul?" 156. Ah, Annie, you were lying to both of us. I knew it, and you did, too. “Oh, Annie, you lied to both of us. I knew it, and you knew it too. 157. If it means bringing Misery back, you'll do it. “If this means the return of Misery, you will return her. 158. “Do you understand that? Do you?” “Do you understand that? Understand?" 159. “Then you know what is wrong.” “I suppose I do.” “Then you know what the problem is.” "I guess I do." 160. “Her Ladyship doesn't rest well, sair, so she doesn't and I'm afraid…” 161. I hardly even like to go near the churchyard – and I have to dig a grave for the little Roydman babe tomorrow, so I do. “I don’t even want to go near the churchyard, and I have to dig little Roidman’s grave tomorrow, so I have to. 162. It sounds as if she were still alive down there and trying to work her way back up to the land o’ the living, so it does. “Sounds like she's still alive out there trying to open her way back to the land of life, that's what it sounds like. 163. “Tell her that I miss her” “I’ll do that” – “Tell her that I miss her” “I will”

Generalizing words with homogeneous terms- 1. If the homogeneous members of the sentence are preceded by a generalizing word (or phrase), then a colon is placed in front of them, for example: And on the sides, the steppe, which has died out from the heat: tiredly fallen grasses, dull, lifelessly shining salt marshes, ... ... A guide to spelling and style

Proverbs (substitutes for verbs), pronomials, proadjectives, proadverbs (various categories of pronouns) either have a deictic (indicative) function or provide coherence of speech: replacing full-meaning words in connected speech, they serve the purpose ... Explanatory Translation Dictionary

Word- The word is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, having a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each ... ... Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary

Kurdyumov, Vladimir Anatolievich- Vladimir Anatolyevich Kurdyumov Date of birth: May 13, 1965 (1965 05 13) (47 years old) Place of birth: Moscow Country ... Wikipedia

Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR- IN AND. Lenin, the first chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR (abbr.: official chairman ... Wikipedia

United Russia- This term has other meanings, see United Russia (meanings). "EP" request is redirected here; see also other meanings. "United Russia" ... Wikipedia

178th Missile Regiment- 178 rp ... Wikipedia

Government body- (State authority) A state authority is a subdivision of the apparatus of state power, designed to manage affairs in the country Signs of state bodies, types of state bodies, state authorities of Russia, ... ... Encyclopedia of the investor

NTV- This term has other meanings, see NTV (meanings). NTV JSC NTV Television Company ... Wikipedia

Books

• The world. 1 class. Thematic control of students' knowledge. Federal State Educational Standard, Barylkina L.P., Perova O.D. The benefit is aimed at early ... Buy for 164 rubles
• Notebook. Thematic control of students' knowledge. The world. Grade 2 Federal State Educational Standard, Barylkina L.P. The manual was developed in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard and was compiled taking into account the requirements of the program on the subject "The World Around" for elementary school students. Materials of the manual are recommended ...

Substitute words are words that stand in for other words to avoid repetition or to shorten/simplify speech. It is very difficult to draw a clear line between substitute words and pronouns, since very often pronouns serve as substitute words. However, only noun pronouns can be substitute words. These include personal pronouns in the nominative case, demonstrative pronouns, some indefinite pronouns, and interrogative pronouns.

I didn't it (the typewriter) for antique! – I did not buy this typewriter as an antique!

“Tear the pages!” said Annie. “Why on the world do you want me to do that?” “Tear the pages,” said Ann. “Why do you want me to tear them up?”

Who said life is easy? Who said life is easy?

Interrogative pronouns replace nouns in a sentence that are unknown to the speaker.

Separating the concepts of “pronoun” and “substitute word”, it is worth noting that a pronoun is that part of speech that plays the role of either a noun or an adjective in a sentence. For example, the word who, which plays the role of a noun in a sentence, is a pronoun, while the word how, which replaces an adverb in a sentence, is not a pronoun.

Substitute words do not have such strict redistributions. The concept of “word-substitute” is more extensive than the concept of “pronoun”. In addition to noun pronouns, substitute words can be nouns, verbs, adjectives, and even substitute phrases.

Noun: Trying to have an idea wasn't the same thing as getting an idea. - Trying to get an idea was not the same as getting it. Take all this out of my backpack. - Get everything out of my backpack.

He would know the real stuff when he found it. He would know the truth if he found it. Verb: - ​​I'll wait for you outside. - I'll wait for you outside.

– Yes, do that, please. Yes, wait for me there.

“I still wish you were free”. “Do you?” “I still want you to be free.” "Truth? ”

I said I was going to Jamaica and my sister was like: “Yeah, that’s a great idea you have. You need to have a rest.” “I said I was going to Jamaica and my sister said, “Sure, great idea. You need to rest".

But, despite this, much more attention in linguistics is paid to pronouns than to substitute words, since pronouns are considered an important part, without which no language in the world is conceivable. However, very often in everyday speech we use substitute words along with pronouns.

In English, as in most languages, scientists have carefully studied pronouns and defined all of them. The same cannot be said about substitute words. It is almost impossible to list all the substitute words in English. It is also impossible to describe the limits of the use of these words. For example, the substitute word thing (literally - a thing) in English can replace anything: this word can be applied to animate and inanimate objects, to concrete and abstract concepts; colloquially, the word thing can replace the whole situation previously described. For example: Jessie met Mat the other day. As you know he "d dumped her about a month ago, and that day he started shouting at her because she is dating Mickey now. That thing made Jessie's mother totally mad. - Jessie saw Matt the other day. As you know, he dumped her about a month ago, and on that day he started yelling at her for now dating Mickey, which really pissed off Jessie's mom.

Some scholars have written about substitute words, dividing them into just two groups. M. G. Rubtsova writes: “In the English scientific text there are often auxiliary words that are used instead of the words already mentioned in this or the previous sentence. There are substitute words for both nouns and predicate verbs. When translating sentences with such words as substitutes, it is usually recommended to repeat the replaced word.

In the language of the school, there is an intensive use of the pronouns this, “this one”, these, those, “these ones” to replace full-valued words, referring to them. Such units have the function of an index element.

It should be noted that such expressions are characteristic both for the language of schoolchildren and for the spoken language in general.

As mentioned above, it is difficult to draw a clear line between pronouns and substitute words. Many pronouns are also words - substitutes. However, it is worth noting that pronouns-adjectives cannot become substitute words, but only pronouns-nouns.

Almost all personal pronouns are substitute words. As a rule, they replace nouns. Consider further the pronouns you, they, it as substitutes for nouns in English.

Pronouns you and they

The pronouns you and they are sometimes used to refer to an indefinite person. In such cases, they are indefinite pronouns rather than personal ones.

The pronoun “you” is used to denote an indefinite person, i.e. can denote not only the person to whom the speaker is addressing, but also any other. In this case, "you" is a synonym for the pronoun "one". When translating, the pronoun is omitted.

You can't enter this building without entering the code number. – This building cannot be entered without entering a code number.

You have to be a fool to believe that! You have to be a fool to believe this. The meaning of the sentences does not change if you put “one” instead of the pronoun “you”.

One can't enter this building without the code number.

One has to be a fool to believe that!

The pronoun "they" is used when the person who performed the action is unknown, or when the speaker is referring to an indefinite group of people. In this case, just like the pronoun “you”, the pronoun “they” is omitted in the translation.

They change the bedclothes every day in this hotel, unlike that other one. In this hotel, unlike that one, bed linen is changed every day.

They don't take you all the way to Denver if you're innocent. “If you are not guilty, then you are not taken all the way to Denver.

Use of the pronoun it

The pronoun it usually denotes concrete objects, abstract concepts, and animals. However, sometimes this pronoun is used to identify the identity of a stranger:

When I came closer to the pool, I realized that it was Pete. When I got closer to the pool, I saw that it was Pete.

"It" can also replace a preceding group of words, a sentence, a predication, or even a context. For example:

Group of words: He tried to break the lock. It (breaking the lock) was not easy. He tried to break the lock. That was not easy.

I think you want to stay alive even if it does hurt. “I think you want to live, even if it hurts you.

Predication: By the then his legs were fully awake, and it (that he was able to fall asleep) wasn’t until she had come and given him another dose of the medicine that he was able to fall asleep.

Context: He studied her, and then shook his head. He waited a moment and then decided not to say what he might have been going to say. He swallowed before going on, and when he did, he returned to the conventional questions. He had watched him do it all without any interest.

"It" is often used as an official statement about the state of the weather, time, distance, and all kinds of measurements. For example:

It is snowing. - Snowing.

It is 5 o'clock. - It's 5 o'clock now.

It is six miles to the nearest hospital from here. – The nearest hospital is 6 miles from here.

The pronoun "it" is also used in sentences where the predicate is determined by an infinitive phrase, an ing phrase, or a predication.

For example:

It's stupid to act like that. - It's stupid to act like that.

It won't be easy finding our way home. It won't be easy to find your way home.

"It" can also be used as an object followed by a noun or adjective, which is determined by an infinitive phrase or predication. For example:

He thought it no use to go over the subject again. He considered it useless to discuss this topic again.

He thought it odd that they had left no message to him. He thought it would be strange that they didn't leave him any message.

The pronoun “it” is also used in sentences in the so-called emphatic constructions and serves to give logical stress to any word or whole phrase:

It was on the terrace that he wanted them to lay the table. He wanted them to set the table on the terrace.

It was my question that made him angry. It was my question that made him angry.

And finally, the pronoun "it" is used in various idiomatic expressions, where it has very little, if any, lexical meaning:

Stop it. - Enough.

Now that you're done, beat it home. “Now that you are done, go home.

Possessive pronouns as substitute words

In addition to personal pronouns, other words are used instead of nouns in the nominative and object cases. One of these words are possessive pronouns in the so-called absolute form - mine, ours, his, hers, theirs, yours. The pronouns my, your, our, her, and their cannot be substitute words because they are adjective pronouns, while absolute possessive pronouns are nouns.

Possessive pronouns in absolute form replace the previously mentioned noun to avoid repetition instead of combining a noun with a possessive pronoun:

“This is my work. You can't make a decision what to do with it.” “No it is mine now, since you depend on me now!” - "This is my job. You can't decide what to do with her." “No, now she is mine, since you depend on me!”

Look at this house! It's yours now. - Look at this house! He is yours now.

Our procedure is more practical than theirs. “Our method is more practical than theirs.

You can't drive this car. It's not yours. You are not allowed to drive this car. She is not yours.

Demonstrative pronouns as substitute words

Demonstrative pronouns (this/these, that/those) are very often used as substitute words. Most often, demonstrative pronouns are used as substitute words to avoid repetition.

This point of view is that of a mathematician rather than a physicist. - This point of view is the point of view of a mathematician, not a physicist.

Her smile became a glow. Incredibly a blush rose in her cheeks. That’s what it looks like, if you build a furnace inside the mouth of one of those idols in the H. Rider Haggard Stories. Her smile turned into a radiance. Incredibly, a blush flooded her cheeks. If they built a furnace in the mouth of one of the idols from the story of H. Rider Haggard, then it would look exactly like this.

I'll make sure you get all the books. They are a little dog-eared, but that's a sing a book has been well read and loved, isn't it? “I will make sure you get all these books. They have dog-eared pages, but this is a sign that the book has been read and loved, isn't it?

The main ways to translate the word that:

1) “That”, “that”, “that” - if that is in front of a noun in the singular;

demonstrative pronoun;

That car is an old one, but it is well cared for. That car is old, but well maintained.

2) "Which" - if that is after the noun; introduces a definitive subordinate clause;

Remember that guy that hit Liz? Well, he's the Mayor now! “Remember that guy who hit Liz? He's the mayor now!

3) “That”, “what” - if that is at the beginning of the sentence; introduces a subordinate subject;

That he lives in her house doesn't mean that he has to do whatever she says! Just because he lives at her place doesn't mean he has to do whatever she says.

4) "What" - if that is after the predicate; introduces an additional subordinate clause;

He supposed that he had pretty well known what all this was about...

5) The substitute word is translated by the previously mentioned noun, followed by a preposition or participle.

Better than lying here suffering… I don’t think you believe that (that it is better than lying here, suffering), old buddy. “It’s better than lying here and suffering…”

I don't think you believe it, old man.

Also a combination: now that - now, when.

For example:

Now that rockets can escape gravity it is invalid to say what goes up must come down. “Now that rockets can overcome gravity, it is wrong to say that what goes up must fall.

These, this are usually used as the subject, so they are followed by a verb, not a noun, as is the case when this and these are demonstrative pronouns. When translating, when it is impossible to repeat the previously mentioned words, it is recommended to use auxiliary words like “this”, “all of them”, “all this”, “all these phenomena”, etc.

These were some successful actions. “They were several consecutive actions.

He saw she was barely listening. This was the second time she'd shown not the slightest in a trick of trade that would have held a class of would be writers spellbound. He saw that she was hardly listening to him. This was the second time she had shown no interest in a trick that would have captivated a whole class of would-be writers. Demonstrative pronouns can replace individual words, expressions, sentences, and even context:

Word: “You can take any of the jackets.” Thanks. I will take this.” “You can take any of these jackets.” Thanks, I'll take this one."

Phrase: “Well, honestly! I knew writers were supposed to have big egos, but I guess I didn’t understand that meant ingratitude, too!” “Honestly, I knew that writers have a lot of self-importance, but I don’t think I understood that it also means ingratitude!” Sentence: “Did I say I wasn’t going to start?” “No… No, but” “That’s

right…” – “Did I say I wasn’t going to start?” “no… no, but…” “That's right!...” It is worth noting that the substitute word this (these) can be translated as “this last”, “these last”.

Gas molecules move faster than liquid molecules. They are more agitated

than these. “Gas molecules move faster than these last ones.

However, in most cases, the word the last is used in the meaning of “last”, and the former is used in the meaning of “first”.

There are also demonstrative pronouns such and same. However, only the pronoun same can be used as a substitute word.

Same can be a substitute word when functioning as a noun, while such is only used in a sentence.

as an adjective. Despite the fact that same can be used as a noun in English, it is translated into Russian as an adjective.

“What kind of juice did you take?” "Orange". "I'll take the same." - "What juice did you take?" -"Orange". - "I'll take the same one."

Substitute words the latter and the former

Among the substitute words in English there are the words the former and the latter. These substitute words have the meaning "first ... last." They are used to avoid repetition.

John told Jerry the whole story. The latter took a deep breath of relief. John told Jerry the whole story. The latter breathed a sigh of relief.

In Russian, there are equivalents of the words the former and the latter. However, in many cases in a Russian sentence, the replaced word should be repeated, for example:

The latter procedure is much more complicated than the former one. The last procedure is much more difficult than the first.

The substitute words the former, the latter are usually used in pairs instead of two nouns. However, they can also be used separately from each other if the author is only interested in the first or only the last of all the objects, phenomena mentioned earlier, for example:

In this paper, we shall take the former approach. This latter case is considerably more difficult to represent. In this article, we will use the first method. This latter case is much more difficult to reproduce.

Thus, we examined the features of the functioning of substitute words in the English language. The materials of this article can be used to teach English grammar, lexicology and translation from English into Russian.

Literature

1. Rubtsova M. G. Learning to read English scientific and technical literature. Lexical and grammatical reference book. - M., 1989.
2. Sydney Sheldon. Master of the Game. – London, 1994.
3. Slepovich V.S. Translation course: textbook for university students. – Minsk: Tetra Systems, 2005.
4. Stephen King. Misery. – London, 1991.
5. Salinger J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. – M.: AST, 2004.
6. Terry McMillan. How Stella Got Her Groove Back. – New York, 1996.