The content of the public administration reform of Peter 1. Administrative reforms of Peter the Great

Introduction

Chapter 1. Russia before the reforms of Peter the Great

1 Natural and geographical conditions

2 Drivers for reform

Chapter 2. The era of Peter the Great and the content of Peter's reforms

1 Reforms of Peter the Great

Chapter 3. Results and essence of Peter's transformations

1 Assessment of the essence of Peter's reforms

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

reform Peter the Great

The activities of Peter the Great as a politician and military leader, as well as his contribution to the development of Russia, are issues that are of interest and concern to historians not only of our state, but also of many other countries.

But in assessing the activities of Peter, the opinions of historians were divided. Some historians, his adherents, talk about the great achievements and influences of Peter in many areas of life, which in turn led to the rise of Russia as a great and powerful power, which the whole world started talking about after Peter. It was a kind of phenomenon, because in such a short period of time, Peter the Great, with the help of his diplomatic qualities, as well as the qualities of a good statesman and commander, was able to lead Russia out of destruction into a dynamically developing state. But at the same time, historians overlook some negative aspects of the character of Peter the Great and his activities on a different plane. Another part of historians, on the contrary, is trying to discredit the name of Peter, pointing out the ways and methods by which he achieved such successes in his political and military activities.

Studying the era of the reign of Peter the Great, we trace the process of development and formation of Russia, which passed from a barbarian kingdom to a mighty and great empire.

For this course project, the following tasks were set:

· Study of the preconditions and the very reasons for the need for Peter the Great to carry out reforms.

· Analyze the main content and meaning of the reforms.

· To reveal the results of the influence of the reforms of Peter the Great on the development of the state.

This course work consists of the following sections:

· Introduction;

· Three chapters;

Conclusions

Chapter 1. Russia before the reforms of Peter the Great

.1 Natural and geographical conditions

It is often believed that with the coming to power of Peter the Great, a new era began in Russia.

What was Russia like at the end of the 17th century? It was a huge territory that was not like the countries of the West. Russia immediately caught the eye of foreigners who visited it. Often it seemed to them that it was a backward, wild and nomadic country. Although in fact, the backwardness in the development of Russia had its own reasons. The intervention and devastation of the early 18th century left a deep mark on the economy of the state.

But not only the wars that ravaged the land led to a crisis in Russia, but also its social status of the population of that time, as well as natural and geographical conditions.

According to S.M. Solovyov, “three conditions have a particular impact on the life of the people: the nature of the country where he lives; the nature of the tribe to which he belongs; the course of external events, influences coming from the peoples that surround him. ”[No. 1, p. 28]

When assessing how the conditions of nature affect the development of states. Soloviev made such a conclusion that nature is favorable to Western countries, but the conditions of Russia are more severe. Western Europe was divided by mountains, which served as natural fortresses for it and, in some sense, protected from external attacks of enemies. On the other hand, the sea, which served as a path for the development of foreign trade of various occupations. In Russia, however, everything was different. It had no natural defenses and was open to attack by invaders.

A very large number of people lived in these open areas, who, in order to feed themselves, had to always work and periodically look for new fruitful lands, as well as more prosperous among the habitats. In the process of resettlement to lands that were empty, the state of Russia was formed.

Soloviev was sure that it was the natural and geographical conditions that had such a negative impact. Russia, according to him, “was a state that constantly had to wage a hard struggle with its neighbors, not an offensive, but defensive struggle, and not material well-being, but the country's independence, freedom of its inhabitants was upheld” [No. 2, p. 29]. During the war with the Mongol-Tatars, the Slavic people, including the Russians, acted as a protective shield for Western European countries. Therefore, Russia always had to replenish its troops in order to be able to give a proper rebuff to the invaders and reliably guard its borders.

But the state of that time could not afford to maintain a large army, since during this period trade and industry were poorly developed in Russia. Therefore, the people who served in the troops were given land, which became their estates. On the one hand, a person received his own land for his use, but on the other hand, in order to somehow develop it, the land had to be cultivated. “The state,” wrote Soloviev, “having given land to a servant, was obliged to give him permanent workers, otherwise he could not serve” [No. 3, p. 32]. Therefore, at that time, the peasants were forbidden to leave their land, because they were obliged to cultivate it in order to be able to feed the owner with his military servants.

It was this that served as the basis for the emergence of serfdom in Russia. But besides the peasants, the urban population also worked to maintain the army. They were obliged to pay very large taxes to the state treasury for the maintenance of the troops.

That is, all layers of the state turned into its servants, which contributed to an even more severe serf system, which in turn slowed down both the economic situation and development in spirituality. Because on the numerous farmlands that were constantly expanding, very small numbers of the population worked hard. This did not create any interest in the development of labor productivity, but on the contrary, agriculture developed through the depletion of natural forces, and not their reproduction. Agriculture took up the minimum amount of expenditure. Because practically the entire state treasury went to meet the needs and development of the army. All this led to the fact that a strong state in terms of defense had practically no material base.

In addition to the difficulties in the middle of the state, historians pay attention to a number of external obstacles that hindered the development of Russia. This is that there was no direct access to the sea in Russia, which meant that it could not use the cheaper route of communication with other countries. Seas such as the Baltic and the Black, at that time belonged to other states, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire, respectively. The seas that washed from the northern part and the east could not be used in their entire capacity, the reason for this was that the regions adjacent to the seas were practically undeveloped and poorly developed.

The White Sea, too, as a route of connection with the countries of Western Europe, was practically not used. Firstly, most of the year the waters are locked under ice, and the second route from Arkhangelsk to Western European countries was twice as long as to the Baltic.

Russia through Astrakhan had a connection only with Iran and Central Asia, although these countries could have little influence on its development, since they themselves lagged behind in it.

1.2 Drivers for reform

The Russian state urgently needed changes. This was due to a number of different factors.

National sovereignty was under threat, the reason for this was the lag of the Russian state in all sectors of the economic and political life of the state, which in turn even led to a military backwardness.

The class of feudal lords, which was in military and court service, later became the mainstay of the power of that time, by no means did they meet the requirements of the country's social development. This estate lagged behind both in its socio-political and cultural development, sometimes they could not even clearly understand their rights and responsibilities, as a service class and, in principle, remained just a patriarchal social community.

In the 17th century, Russia needed an urgent change in its position. It was necessary to strengthen the position of the authorities, which was undermined by the rebellious nature of the population of that time and the social instability of this time. Also, Russia needed to improve the state apparatus and the army itself. In order to somehow raise the standard of living and culture, it was necessary to have access to the seas, which could give a more favorable economic situation, and this, in turn, required the timely mobilization of both resources and the human factor.

The spiritual sphere of life of Russians also needed transformation. The spirituality of that time was strongly influenced by the clergy, who in the 17th century suffered a crisis associated with a schism in the church. Russia urgently needed to return to the depths of European civilization, and it was also necessary to create and further strengthen a rationalistic concept that would replace religion.

Changes and transformation were impossible, in fact, it was avoidable, because everything that happened during the 17th century led directly to this. The intensive development of crafts began in the country, the first enterprises appeared, which were called manufactures, this in turn contributed to the development of foreign trade, the boundaries of which were constantly expanding. In the 17th century, a protectionist policy began to develop, which limited imports, and thereby protected the domestic market from foreign competition. All this indicated that in small steps, but the economy began to move forward. Beginning in the late 16th century and early 17th century, the state tried to erase the conventions between lean land tenure and fiefdom. At this time, several decrees were issued, according to which the estate approached the estate. What gave the state the right to expand the rights to confiscate land and not allow it to be concentrated in the hands of feudal lords or clergy.

In 1682, the state abolished the system of distribution of official positions for public office, namely military, administrative or court service, depending on the origin. The number of people who were hired increased due to the strengthening of serfdom.

In the political system, the country was an absolute monarchy and continued to develop in this direction. At this time, the Left-Bank Ukraine joined Russia, and the state was also able to enter the Holy League, thereby overcoming diplomatic barriers. The cultural change began with the transformation of the church. The clergy began to be involved in solving the day-to-day issues of world life. The upper strata of the state also changed, which approached the European one.

After analyzing all the facts, it is safe to say that the country was fully prepared for changes in all its spheres of life. But for this to happen, a push, some kind of impulse, was needed. This impetus was supposed to be a person who would stand at the very origins of power. And this is precisely such a personality that Peter the Great became. His activities, both state and military, were influenced by such a factor as his character traits and his worldview.

Chapter 2. The era of Peter I and the content of Peter's reforms

Peter the Great immediately joined the rule of the strange, expanding its borders and the development of the country as a whole. Under Peter, the struggle for the possession of the seas, namely the Black Sea, was renewed. Which opened up new opportunities for the state. And Peter was well aware of this. Therefore, in 1695 announced the collection of troops for a campaign against the Crimean Tatars. But this was done in order to hide the real goals, which were to organize a campaign against Azov. Peter took into account all the failures of foresight companies and organized an army that would move in two directions. This was the first trip to Azov. Autumn bad weather, as well as the absence of the fleet, forced the commanders to announce a retreat.

In preparation for a new campaign, the main efforts were focused on building a fleet that would allow the Azov fortress to be cut off from the sea, and thereby deprive the Turks of reinforcements. It was decided to build ships of two types: sea galleys and river plows. The second Azov campaign began in May 1696 and on June 19, 1696 the Turks surrendered. The conquest of the Azov fortress was the impetus at the beginning of the formation of Russia as a sea power.

The beginning had been made, now it was necessary to obtain access to the Black Sea. And to consolidate the successful operation and to implement new plans, Peter had to create a large and powerful navy. For this, decisions were made to organize the construction of this fleet, in addition, Peter the First sent noble youth abroad to study marine sciences, with their subsequent use in the management of the Russian fleet.

At the same time, diplomats were sent abroad to participate in the negotiations in order to find allies among European countries and organize an alliance with them. The purpose of this alliance was to take joint actions against Turkey, as well as to join in material support for further hostilities. Peter himself was personally a member of the embassy, ​​but in addition to the goals of negotiations, he also pursued the goal of studying maritime affairs.

After his return, Peter, under the impression of his trip, became actively involved in the activities of the state. He began changes simultaneously and in all areas. At the very first feast, Peter the Great cut off the beard of several boyars and after that, he ordered everyone to shave. Subsequently, shaving was replaced by a tax. If a nobleman wanted to wear a beard, he was obliged to pay a certain tax per year for it. In the future, innovations also affected clothing, when the long dresses of the boyars were replaced by short and all comfortable suits. In the fashion of all nobles, the maximum approached the European. So initially, Peter divided the population into two groups: one is the "top" of society, which was supposed to live, dress in European style, the other - all the rest, whose life has not changed, and they lived in the old way.

Peter the Great kept the calendar, the new year began on January 1. On the eve of this, it was ordered to decorate the houses outside and congratulate each other on the new year.

In 1699, Peter the Great issued a decree on the formation of an institution in the city of Moscow, which would be called the Town Hall or the Burgomaster's Chamber. The responsibilities of the Town Hall were to manage merchant affairs, as well as affairs that concerned the city itself. This, in turn, caused some displeasure on the part of the merchants, who were always afraid of ruin from the courts and the governors of this administration. An example of such management was the Ship Chamber. It was created immediately after the capture of Azov and the purpose of this chamber is to collect taxes from merchants for the construction of a fleet. Later, on the example of the same commission, the Town Hall was formulated, the mayors sat in it, they, in turn, were elected by merchants and artisans. The taxes, which were collected by officials by order of the court, were transferred into the hands of elected people. In general, although the new institution was elective and its purpose was to govern the merchants, in essence this management represented the interests of the commercial and industrial class.

Also, the result of Peter the Great's trip abroad was that shipbuilding specialists and not only were invited to serve in Russia. Peter the Great was able to purchase weapons, which also positively influenced the development of the army. For how many, although the army was quite large, it was poorly armed.

The innovations also affected the education of the population. Russia was in dire need of qualified personnel. At that time, there were no such institutions in Russia itself; many young men went abroad to master new sciences. A little later, the Russian Empire had its own Novigatsk school, it was opened in 1701, in the city of Moscow. A printing house was opened in Amsterdam, which printed books in Russian. At the same time, the first Russian order of the Holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called was founded.

The reform began in the management of the Russian state. Under Peter, there was a transition to a new state form of government, such as an absolute monarchy. The power of Peter the Great was practically not limited to anything. Peter was able to replace the Boyar Duma with the Senate, which controlled from above. Thus, he saved himself from the last boyar claims and deprived them of any political competition. He got rid of the same competition on the part of the church, with the help of the Synod.

At the same time, at the end of 1699, a reform was committed in the military sphere. Much attention was paid to the creation of a regular and qualified army. 30 new regiments were formed. The army, as before, was recruited mainly from the peasants. But if earlier they spent on their own uniforms, then for Peter, each recruit was given a green uniform and weapons - rifles with bayonets. Since there were few experienced commanders at that time, they were replaced for some time by foreign officers.

Simultaneously with the beginning of the reforms, Peter was preparing for a war against Sweden. He was sure that its conquest was absolutely necessary for Russia to develop normally in the future. This was facilitated by the favorable situation of that time. European countries have formed a coalition in order to return their lands previously captured by the same Sweden. Russia, having signed a peace treaty with Turkey in 1700 for 30 years, also joined the war. Thus began the Great Northern War, which dragged on for 21 years.

From the very beginning, Russia and its allies were defeated. This was due to the fact that Sweden, although it was a small country, but its army and preparation for military action was at the highest level, compared to its rival strength. In addition, the king of Sweden at that time was 18-year-old Karl XII, who, unexpectedly for everyone, showed great talent for the war, as a commander with very great energy potential. With a detachment of only 15 thousand people, he opposed Denmark. As a result of this campaign, the Danish king signed a peace treaty in 1700, thereby leaving the war. Wasting no time, Charles XII went to the Baltic states, namely to the Russian army. Privileges were on the side of the Russians, their army consisted of 40 thousand people, but these forces were not provided with food and stretched out over a huge territory. Which made it easier to attack them. On November 19, 1700, Charles XII unexpectedly attacked the Russian army and won. Russia retreated, the command was not ready for war.

Abroad, they sincerely rejoiced at the defeat of the Russians, even a coin was poured on which a running Russian soldier and a crying tsar were depicted. At first, Peter wanted to conduct peace negotiations, but they were not successful. Showing all his energy and analyzing the reasons for the failures, Peter the Great begins preparations for a new stage of the war. A new recruitment call was announced, the cannons began to pour out intensively, and by the beginning of 1702 the Russian army was adding 10 regiments and 368 cannons.

Having chosen the right moment when Charles XII, considering that he had completely defeated Russia, went to Poland and settled there for a long time, Peter, having gathered an army, began a new stage of the war. In December 1701, Russia won its first victory. As a result of hostilities, two fortresses were taken, such as Noteburg and Nyenschanz

Peter, at the head of the army, finally reached the Baltic Sea. On May 16, 1703, a wooden fortress called Peter and Paul Fortress began to be built on the island. She was the basis of St. Petersburg. And already in October the first merchant ship came to the mouth of the Neva. The first ships of the Baltic Fleet were built in the shipyards of St. Petersburg.

Russian victories in the Baltics continued. But the initiative went over to the side of the Swedes when Poland surrendered and Russia was left without allies. And at this time Sweden, after the conquest of Poland, had already occupied Saxony and got close to the borders of the Russian state. Peter stopped offensive actions and focused his attention on preserving the already existing borders, strengthening them, and also sought to expand and improve his army and military potential in general. To achieve the set goals, Peter the Great had to spend a lot of effort and make many sacrifices, but in the end, the goals were achieved.

In 1708, Karl met with the Russians near the town of Golovchin. Taking advantage of the surprise effect, as well as in the dark and rainy weather, the Swedes defeated the Russians and forced them to retreat. This was Karl's last victory. Karl's troops suffered losses due to famine, the Russian population, having learned that the Swedes were approaching, went into the forest, taking with them all supplies and livestock. And Russian troops occupied all important strategic objects. Karl had no choice but to turn south.

At this time, the Russians were already taking victories not in numbers, as usual, but in strategically prepared battles. The initiative went over to the side of Peter, but the nature of the hostilities changed dramatically. Russia is giving up all previously acquired allies. For his military purposes, Peter used the territory that he conquered as a result of the battles. In 1710 Karelia, Livonia, Estonia were liberated from the Swedes, the fortresses of Vyborg, Revel, and Riga were taken.

The decisive influence on the course of the war was precisely the Battle of Poltava, which took place on June 27, 1709. As a result of a fierce battle, the Russians won a complete victory. The Swedes fled so fast that in three days they reached the banks of the Dnieper. Karl went to Turkey. In the future, the war was already on the Swedish possessions, which led to the collapse of the Swedish Empire.

But that was not the end of the war. It was only in 1720 that Russian troops attacked the Swedish coast again, and the Russian landing went 5 miles deep into Sweden. In the same year, the Russian fleet defeated the Swedish squadron at the island of Grengam. After that, the Swedes agreed to peace negotiations. They took place in the city of Nishtanda in Finland, where a treaty of eternal peace was signed on August 30, 1721. A hard and long war (1700 - 1721) was over. As a result of this treaty, Ingria and St. Petersburg, all of Estonia and Livonia remained with the Russian Empire. Fenlandia seceded to Sweden.

The Great Northern War had a positive effect on the position of Russia. She became one of the most powerful states in Europe. Also, as a result of the war, Russia was able to regain its sea shores and thereby gained access to the sea. Russia became the main maritime power on the Baltic coast. As a result of the war, a strong, powerful, well-trained army was formed, as well as a powerful Baltic fleet. The new capital of St. Petersburg was founded on the shores of the Gulf of Finland. All this contributed to the further development of the economic and cultural rise of the Russian Empire. As a result of the Northern War, other states saw Peter the Great as a great commander and diplomat who fought for the interests of his state.

But the Nystadt peace did not serve to end hostilities during the reign of Peter the Great. The very next year, 1722, Peter began a war with Iran. The main reasons for this war were, firstly, silk, which was exported from Iran in large quantities, and secondly, the Russian state was attracted by Iranian oil. Upon learning of Peter's intentions, an uprising began in Iran, during which Russian merchants were killed, but this was precisely the reason for the start of the war. In Iran, Peter did not meet much resistance and already in 1723 a peace treaty was signed with the Iranian government. Under this agreement, such cities as Derbent, Baku and Astrabad were transferred to Russia.

All the wars that were during the reign of Peter the Great are associated with the fact that he constantly expanded and improved his army, as well as with the creation of one of the most powerful fleets at that time. Since before Pera was a military man, there was no such thing as a Russian navy. Peter personally commanded the construction of this fleet. Also, before Peter, there was no specially trained army. The structure of which even the nobles, starting from the age of 15, began to enter. They all served without exception. Each came to the service with his peasants, the number of which depended on the position of the nobleman. They also came to the service with their own supply of food, on their own horses and with their own uniforms. These troops were disbanded during the time of peace and they gathered only in preparation for new campaigns. In addition, the rifle infantry was created, the infantry included the free population. In addition to performing the main tasks, namely the infantry carried police and garrison service, they had the right to engage in both craft and trade.

2.1 Reforms of Peter the Great

In 1716, a military charter was issued, which determines the order in the army, both in wartime and in peacetime. The charter required commanders to show independence and military resourcefulness during the war. Otto Play in 1710 wrote about the Russian army: “Regarding the military forces of Russia ... one must be very surprised at what they have been brought to, to what perfection the soldiers have reached in military exercises, in what order and obedience to the orders of their superiors and how boldly they behave in business, you will not hear a word from anyone, much less a cry. "

The merit of Peter the Great also lay in the fact that he was the creator of diplomacy in Russia. In addition to constant warriors, in the era of Peter, there was still an active diplomatic activity. Permanent embassies were created, our consuls and ambassadors were sent abroad for permanent residence, and as a result, Russia was always aware of the events that took place abroad. Russian diplomats were respected in many countries of the world, this was due to their ability to negotiate and reasonably prove their point of view, which related to foreign policy.

The policy of Peter the Great also affected the development of industry. During the reign of Peter, about 200 factories and plants were created in Russia. The largest were factories for the production of cast iron, iron parts, copper, and also cloth, linen, silk, paper, glass.

The largest enterprise of that time was the sailing fabric manufacture. Here, the production of ropes was set up in a special Kanatny Yard. "Khamovny Dvor" was served by the sailing cloth and ropes of the navy.

Another major industrial manufacturer was the Dutchman Tamesa, who lived and worked in Moscow. This production was producing canvases. The Dutchman's factory consisted of a spinning mill, where they produced yarn from flax, then the yarn went to the weaving department, where, in turn, linen was made, as well as tablecloths and napkins. The final stage was the department, where they whitewashed and trimmed the finished fabric. The Tames factory was so famous that Peter himself and many foreigners visited it more than once. The weaving departments always made a special impression on the guests. Almost all Russians worked at the factories and produced various types of canvases, the most popular in everyday life.

As regards the position of the workers in these factories, we can say that it wished for the best. The situation itself was very difficult. Serfs were the basis of the working class. To please the entrepreneurs, the state made concessions to them and allowed them in 1721 to buy villages together with the peasants who live in them. The difference between these peasants and the peasants who worked for the landlords was only that they were bought and sold only together with factories or factories. The factories also had civilians, mostly craftsmen and artisans, but the wages were very meager. For example, at a linen manufactory located in the aisles of St. Petersburg, a weaver received about 7 rubles. Per year, master - 12 rubles, apprentice - 6 rubles. in year. Although foreign specialists were paid much more, for example, at a silk manufactory, he could earn from 400 to 600 rubles. in year.

In addition, whole volosts attributed state peasants to factories. As "assigned", they had to work for 3 - 4 months at the plant on a compulsory basis. The wages were very small and even these pennies they could not get their hands on, since they were withdrawn like a tax to the treasury.

At the same time, the development of ores began in the Urals. Back in 1699, the Nevsky plant was built, which exists to our time. Initially, this plant belonged to the state, but then it was given to the Tula businessman N. Demidov - this was the first of the Demidov dynasty, one of the wealthy dynasties of that time and the most cruel in relation to its workers. The first thing Demidov did was build a prison for workers under the walls of the plant. Thanks to his plant, he was able to become so rich that he could already make presents and gifts to the king himself.

Factories were built on the banks of rivers to harness the power of the water that moved. The basis of the building was the dam, which was built the very first, holes were made in the dam through which water flowed, then the water entered the reservoirs. And already from the reservoir, through wooden pipes to wheels, the movement of which produced the movement of the bellows at the blast furnace and the forges, they raised hammers for forging metals, moved the levers and rotated the drilling machines.

In 1722, a guild arrangement for artisans was introduced in Russia. The state forced urban artisans to enroll in workshops. A selective foreman stood over each shop. Full-fledged artisans were those who could afford to hire and retain apprentices and apprentices. To receive the title of master, the artisan had to prove his skill under the foreman. Each craft shop had its own brand, a farm sign, which was put on a good quality product.

The intensive growth of industry in the country required good roads, which were necessary for the transport of goods and raw materials. Unfortunately, Russia could not boast of good roads. This situation was associated with a small treasury and the natural conditions of the country itself. Therefore, for a long time the rivers and seas were the best way for trade. One of the important communication lines was the Volga, on which canals were built to improve communication lines. Were built such communication channels as the Volga - Don, Volga and the Baltic Sea. The canals were supposed to expand trade and ensure the flow of goods to St. Petersburg, to the Baltic Sea. Also, Peter improved the St. Petersburg port, not only as a military facility, but also as a commercial one.

In 1724, a customs tariff was issued, which indicated the exact amounts of duties on a particular product, both for import and export. By this, the Russian government tried to expand the country's large-scale industry. If a foreign product competed with a domestic one, a very high duty was imposed on it, and on the product that Russia needed, since it could not produce it at its own factories and factories, the duty was very low.

As a result of frequent and prolonged warfare, the treasury was emptied, and the maintenance of the army and navy required high costs. To replenish the treasury, private trade in certain types of goods was prohibited. All trade in a particular commodity was under the direction of the state and at increased prices. Over time, the state began to control the sale of: wine, salt, potash, caviar, furs, tar, chalk, bacon, bristles. Most of this product was exported, so all trade with foreign countries was in the hands of the state.

But even this was not enough for a complete renewal and constant replenishment of the state treasury. Peter the first began to look for other ways in order to find the necessary funds. For this purpose, new taxes were established, taxes on use. For example, for the use of a fishing area or a place for apiaries, etc.

During the reign of Peter, the treasury was replenished by 2/3 indirect taxes, customs duties, income from the sale of wine and other goods. And only 1/3 of the state budget was replenished with direct taxes, which were paid directly by the population. The reason for this was that direct taxes were levied on ordinary artisans and peasants, and the clergy, nobles and wealthy entrepreneurs were exempted from this obligation. Although, instead of direct tax, tax was removed from each person of a male of noble origin. This tax was intended for the maintenance of the army, in this way the general bag for its maintenance was split between all the "revision souls". The introduction of such a tax greatly enriched the state treasury. Over time, direct taxes began to bring half of the state budget. And so the plight of the peasants worsened even more. Mass escapes from landowners began to occur among the peasants. Peter tried to pacify the serfs and issued a decree about the capture of the fugitive peasants and their return to the former landowner, while the punishment for those who tried to hide the fugitives increased. Peter widely distributed land and peasants to the nobles.

Also, the labor of the peasants was used to build fortresses and a new capital. For this purpose, St. Petersburg gathered 20 thousand people twice a year for three months.

Thus, it can be concluded that the peculiarity of industry in the era of Peter the Great was that it was created at the expense of the state budget, for some period it was under its control, but from time to time the very forms and methods of this control changed.

For a long period, the state itself created manufactories, and was their full owner. But every year the number of manufactories and factories increased, and the funds and capabilities of the state were not enough to keep and develop them in this way. Therefore, the policy that pre-industry was considered.

The state began to give away, and sometimes even sell, manufactories and factories that were on the verge of closing into private hands. Thus, private entrepreneurship began to appear, which was rapidly gaining momentum. The position of breeders was strengthened with the help of various benefits from the state, as well as financial support, in the form of loans from merchant companies. At the same time, the state did not move away from industry, but took an active part in its development and support, as well as in obtaining income from it. For example, government control manifested itself through a system of government orders. The activities of the manufactories and factories themselves were evenly monitored with the help of inspections, which were carried out periodically and unexpectedly.

Another feature of the industry in Russia was that the labor of serfs was used in manufactories and factories. As noted earlier, people from different strata of society worked in factories and plants. From the beginning, these were civilian workers, but with the increase in the number of enterprises, an acute shortage of workers began. And then the solution to this problem was the use of forced labor. This was the reason for the passage of the law on the sale of entire villages with peasants who lived there to work in these factories.

In turn, Peter the Great consolidated the position about the service of the Russian nobility, it was in this way that he believed that this very nobility had obligations to the state and the tsar. After the equalization of rights between the fiefdom and the estate, the process of uniting different layers of feudal lords was completed, into one class, which had specific privileges. But the title of nobleman could only be earned through service. In 1722, the organization of the structure of ranks was introduced, in which there was a procedure for subordinating the lower ranks to the higher. All positions, whether military or civil, were divided into 14 ranks. To get a certain rank, you had to go through all the previous ones in turn. And only after reaching the eighth rank, the collegiate assessor or major received the nobility. Gentility in this case was replaced by seniority. If a denial of service followed, the state had the right to confiscate the property. Even if they were hereditary estates. In Western countries, service in the state was a great privilege, but in Russia it was just an obligation, one of the many duties that was not always performed efficiently and for the benefit of this state. Therefore, the nobility cannot be considered a class that dominates the state, since this class was completely dependent on the state. It was more like a privileged class that consisted of military and civilians who fully and unconditionally served the absolute monarchy. Their privileges ended the minute they fell out of favor with the king or left the service. The "emancipation" of the nobility took place later, in the 30-60s. XVIII century

In history, two points of view are considered that relate to the absolute monarchy of Peter the Great. The first of these is that the absolute monarchy that emerged during the reign of Peter the Great is identical to the absolute monarchy of the Western states. The absolute monarchy of Peter had the same characteristics as in other countries - this is the power of the tsar, which is not limited by anyone or anything, a standing powerful army that protects this autocracy is also very well developed in such countries, and bureaucracy at all levels of the state and finally, there is a centralized tax system.

As for the second point of view of historians, its essence is that: absolute monarchy in the West arose under capitalism, and Russia was very far from that, then the Russian system of government can be called either despotism, which is approaching the Asian one, or absolute monarchy , which arose in Russia, is completely typologically different from Western countries.

Having analyzed all the events that took place in Russia during the period of Peter the Great, we can safely say that the second point of view has more rights to exist than the first. This can be confirmed by the fact that in Russia the absolute monarchy is independent in relation to civil society. That is, everyone unconditionally had to serve the monarch. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

The development of the state in all spheres of activity, both industrial and political, required knowledgeable and trained people. Schools were created to train specialists. Teachers were often invited from abroad. Science and education of that time often depended on foreign countries. Since there was an acute shortage of educated teachers, they were often invited from European countries. But besides this, our people were often sent abroad to receive a higher and more qualified education there. For this, in 1696, Peter the Great issued a decree on the direction of 61 people to study, most of whom belonged to the nobility. They could be sent abroad, either of their own free will or forcibly. If until the time of Peter the Great, only people close to the government and merchants had the right to leave, then in the era of Peter, going abroad was welcomed and encouraged. Sometimes even merchants and craftsmen were sent to study.

In the 17th century, there are two theological academies in Russia, one in Moscow, the other in Kiev. They were created in order to get a highly educated secular population.

In 1701, a school of "mathematical and navigational sciences" was opened. Its teacher was Leonty Magnitsky, one of the most educated people of that time. Children of nobles, aged 12 to 17, were enrolled in this school, but due to the fact that they did not want to study in it, there were cases when even 20-year-old boys were accepted. Since the school was attended by children who were practically not taught to read and write, the school was divided into three departments: 1) Elementary school, 2) “digital” school, 3) Novigatsk or maritime school. In the first two departments, children of almost all classes studied, which could afford to study. The children of only nobles passed to the third stage of the teachings. The main disciplines at the school were arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, geodesy and astronomy. The term of study did not have clear boundaries, basically they studied for about 2.5 years or more. In addition, engineering and artillery schools were set up for the nobility. In 1715, the senior classes of the novavigation school were transferred to St. Petersburg, where the academy was established. They entered the academy immediately after graduating from the digital school, and after the academy, students could also be sent abroad.

Order in the Moscow Academy was maintained with the help of rewards and punishments. This school charter was approved by Peter the Great himself, he personally added some paragraphs to this instruction. This paragraph stated that a retired soldier should calm down noisy students and maintain order in the classroom during the lesson, and he should do this with the help of a whip. This method could be applied to any student, regardless of his name and status.

Back in Moscow, a surgical school was created at the hospital. Nikolay Bidloo was at the head of this school. The school studied anatomy, surgery, pharmacology.

The students who distinguished themselves in the navigation school for their behavior, and most importantly the level of knowledge gained, were used as teachers. They taught in new schools that were created in many cities of Russia. In 1714, a decree was issued on the compulsory education of children of nobles in digital schools. At the end of the training, students received a certificate of graduation from a particular school. For example, without this testimony, the priests could not marry the nobles. Like a lot at that time, education was a semblance of duty, which limited and slowed down the recruitment of new students. For example, in Rezani, out of 96 students, 59 simply fled.

But in general, digital schools continued to exist, already in the 1720s their number reached 44, with a total number of students up to 2000 people. The leading place among the students was occupied by the children of the clergy, then the children of clerks and soldiers, and least of all the children of noblemen and townspeople had an addiction to learning. Also at that time there were special schools in which the clergy were trained; they were created in 46 cities. That is, in every major city in Russia there were two schools, digital and spiritual.

Also, engineering schools were created to train personnel for the army and industry. At the Ural factories of Yekaterinburg, engineer Genin created two schools - verbal and arithmetic, in each of them about 50 people studied. In these schools, factory foremen, clerical workers were trained, and they also studied literacy, geometry, drawing and drawing.

In Moscow, Pasteur Gluck created a school with a broader general education program. He planned to hold lessons in philosophy, geography, various languages ​​at his school, and it was also planned to introduce dance and horse riding lessons. In this school, as in all the others, only young men studied. After the death of the pastor, the program became very simple. This school trained personnel for the civil service.

Another way to improve the level of education is to travel abroad to improve this level. The first such trip was before the start of the construction of the fleet. Noble nobles were sent abroad to study shipbuilding and ship management. And Peter the First himself repeatedly traveled abroad to learn and learn new things.

Textbooks for the school were published in Russian, but they were translated from a foreign language. Most of all, textbooks on grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, geography, mechanics, surveying were translated; for the first time, geographical maps were made. Textbooks were not translated with high quality and the text was very difficult for students, for often they just memorized it. It was at this time that Russia adopted foreign words such as harbor, raid, midshipman, and bot. Peter the Great introduced the civil script into use. The alphabet was simplified, partly closer to Latin. All books have been printed in this font since 1708. With a slight change, but it has survived to this day. At the same time, Arabic numerals were introduced, which replaced the designations of the letters of the Church Slavonic alphabet.

Over time, Russian scientists began to create textbooks and educational aids themselves.

Of the scientific work, the largest was the description of a geographical expedition, in which it was told about the study of the shores of the Caspian Sea., And for the first time a map of the Caspian was compiled.

Under Peter the Great, the first printed newspaper, Vedomosti, began to appear. Its first issue was published on January 2, 1703.

Also, educational goals were in mind when the theater was founded. Under Peter, there were attempts to create a folk theater. So in Moscow, on Red Square, there was a building for a theater. A troupe of Johann Kunst was invited from Denmark to train artists of the Russian population. At first the theater was very popular, but over time the audience became less and less and as a result the theater on Red Square was closed altogether. But this gave impetus to the development of theatrical performance in Russia.

The life of the upper class has also changed significantly. Until the era of Peter, the female half of boyar families lived in isolation, rarely were born. We spent most of our time at home, doing household chores. During the reign of Peter the Great, balls were introduced, which were arranged in the houses of the nobles one by one, and women were obliged to participate in them. Assemblies, as the balls were called in Russia, began at about 5 o'clock and lasted until 10 o'clock in the evening.

The book by an unknown author, which was published in 1717 under the title "Youth Clean Mirror", became a guide to correct etiquette of the nobles. The book consisted of two parts. In the first part, the author has marked out the alphabet, tables, numbers and numbers. That is, the first part served as a scientific book on teaching the innovations of Peter the Great. The second part, which was the main one, consisted of the rules of conduct for young men and women of the upper class. We can safely say that this was the first ethics textbook in Russia. Young people of noble origin were recommended, first of all, to learn foreign languages, horse riding and dancing. Girls must obediently obey the will of their parents, they also had to be distinguished by their diligence and silence. The book described the behavior of the nobles in public life, from the rules of behavior at the table to serving in government offices. In the book, a new stereotype of the behavior of a person of the upper class was formulated. The nobleman had to avoid companies that at least somehow could compromise him, drunkenness, rudeness, and extravagance were also contraindicated. And the manners themselves should be as close as possible to European ones. In general, the second part was more like a collection of publications on the rules of etiquette of Western countries.

Peter wanted to educate the youth of the upper class according to the European type, while instilling in them the spirit of patriotism and service to the state. The main thing for a nobleman was considered to protect his honor and honor of his homeland, but at the same time the honor of the Fatherland was defended with a sword, but a nobleman could defend his honor by filing a complaint with certain authorities. Peter was an opponent of duel. Those who violated the decree were severely punished.

The culture of the era of Peter the Great was always under the control of the state and its main direction was the development of the culture of the nobility. This was a feature of Russian culture. The state encouraged and allocated finances from the state treasury only for those areas that it considered important. In general, the culture and art of Peter the Great went in a positive direction of development. Although even in culture, over time, bureaucracy was traced. Because writers, artists, actors were in the public service, their activities were completely subordinated to the state and, accordingly, they received remuneration for their work. Culture performed state functions. Theater, press and many other branches of culture served as protection and propaganda of Peter's transformation.

Chapter 3. Results and essence of Peter's transformations

Peter's reforms are grandiose in their scale and consequences. These transformations contributed to the solution of the urgent tasks facing the state, primarily in the field of foreign policy. However, they could not ensure the country's long-term progress, since they were carried out within the framework of the existing system and, moreover, conserved the Russian feudal-serf system.

As a result of the transformations, powerful industrial production, a strong army and navy were created, which allowed Russia to achieve access to the sea, overcome isolation, reduce the gap with the advanced countries of Europe and turn into a great power in the world.

However, the forced modernization and borrowing of technologies were carried out due to a sharp increase in archaic forms of exploitation of the people, which paid for the positive results of the reforms at an extremely high price.

Reforms of the state system gave new strength to the servile despotic state. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

Reforms in the field of culture and everyday life, on the one hand, created conditions for the development of science, education, literature, etc. But, on the other hand, the mechanical and violent transfer of many European cultural and everyday stereotypes hindered the full development of a culture based on national traditions.

The main thing was that the nobility, perceiving the values ​​of European culture, sharply separated from the national tradition and its guardian - the Russian people, whose attachment to traditional values ​​and institutions grew as the country was modernized. This caused the deepest socio-cultural split in society, which largely predetermined the depth of contradictions and the strength of social upheavals at the beginning of the 20th century.

The paradox of the Petrine reform boiled down to the fact that the "Westernization" of Russia, which was of a violent nature, strengthened the foundations of Russian civilization - autocracy and serfdom, on the one hand, brought to life the forces that carried out modernization, and on the other, provoked an anti-modernization and anti-Western reaction of supporters of traditionalism and national identity.

3.1 Assessment of the essence of Peter's reforms

On the issue of assessing the essence of Peter's reforms, the opinions of scholars differ. Underlying the understanding of this problem are either views based on Marxist views, that is, those who believe that the policy of state power is based and conditioned by the socio-economic system, or the position according to which reforms are an expression of the monarch's sole will. This point of view is typical of the "state" historical school in pre-revolutionary Russia. The first of these many views is the opinion about the personal desire of the monarch to Europeanize Russia. Historians who adhere to this point of view believe that "Europeanization" is the main goal of Peter. According to Solovyov, the meeting with European civilization was a natural and inevitable event on the path of the development of the Russian people. But Soloviev sees Europeanization not as an end in itself, but as a means, primarily stimulating the country's economic development. Naturally, the theory of Europeanization did not meet with the approval of historians seeking to emphasize the continuity of the era of Peter in relation to the previous period. An important place in the debate about the essence of reforms is occupied by the hypothesis of the priority of foreign policy goals over domestic ones. This hypothesis was first advanced by Milyukov and Klyuchevsky. The conviction of its infallibility led Klyuchevsky to the conclusion that reforms are of varying degrees of importance: he considered the military reform to be the initial stage of Peter's transformative activities, and the reorganization of the financial system as his ultimate goal. The rest of the reforms were either a consequence of transformations in military affairs, or prerequisites for achieving the aforementioned ultimate goal. Kliuchevsky attached independent significance only to economic policy. The last point of view on this problem is “idealistic”. It is most vividly formulated by Theological, he characterizes the reforms as the practical implementation of the principles of statehood perceived by the monarch. But here the question arises about the "principles of statehood" in the understanding of the king. Bogoslovsky believes that the ideal of Peter the Great was the absolutist state, the so-called "regular state", which, with its comprehensive vigilant care (police activity), sought to regulate all aspects of public and private life in accordance with the principles of reason and for the benefit of the "common good." Theological especially emphasizes the ideological aspect of Europeanization. He, like Soloviev, sees in the introduction of the principle of rationality, rationalism, a radical break with the past. His understanding of the reformatory activities of Peter, which can be called "enlightened absolutism", found many adherents among Western historians who are inclined to emphasize that Peter was not an outstanding theoretician, and that the reformer during his trip abroad took into account, first of all, the practical results of his contemporary political science. Some of the adherents of this point of view argue that Peter's state practice was by no means typical of its time, as Bogoslovsky proves. In Russia under Peter the Great, attempts to implement the political ideas of the era were much more consistent and far-reaching than in the West. According to such historians, Russian absolutism in everything that concerns its role and impact on the life of Russian society took a completely different position than the absolutism of most European countries. While in Europe the governmental and administrative structure of the state was determined by the social system, in Russia the opposite case took place - here the state and its policies formed the social structure.

The first who tried to define the essence of Peter's reforms from a Marxist standpoint was Pokrovsky. He characterizes this era as the early phase of the birth of capitalism, when commercial capital begins to create a new economic basis for Russian society. As a result of the transfer of economic initiative to the merchants, power passed from the nobility to the bourgeoisie (i.e. to these very merchants). The so-called "spring of capitalism" has come. The merchants needed an effective state apparatus that could serve their purposes, both in Russia and abroad. That is why, according to Pokrovsky, the administrative reforms of Peter, wars and economic policy in general, are united by the interests of merchant capital. Some historians, attaching great importance to commercial capital, associate it with the interests of the nobility. And although the thesis about the dominant role of commercial capital was rejected in Soviet historiography, we can say that the opinion regarding the class basis of the state remained dominant in Soviet historiography from the mid-30s to the mid-60s. During this period, the generally accepted point of view was that the Petrine state was considered the "national state of landowners" or "the dictatorship of the nobility." His policy expressed, above all, the interests of the feudal serf-owners, although attention was also paid to the interests of the growing bourgeoisie. As a result of the analysis of the political ideology and social position of the state carried out in this direction, the opinion was established that the essence of the idea of ​​the “common good” is demagogic, it covered up the interests of the ruling class. While this is shared by most historians, there are exceptions. For example, Syromyatnikov, in his book about the Petrine state and its ideology, fully subscribes to the theological characterization of the state of Peter as a typically absolutist state of that era. New in the polemic about the Russian autocracy was his interpretation of the class foundation of this state, which was based on Marxist definitions of the premises of European absolutism. Syromyatnikov believes that Peter's unlimited powers were based on the real situation, namely: the opposing classes (the nobility and the bourgeoisie) achieved during this period such an equality of economic and political forces that allowed the state power to achieve a certain independence in relation to both classes, to become a kind of mediator between them. Thanks to the temporary state of equilibrium in the class struggle, state power became a relatively autonomous factor in historical development, and was able to benefit from the growing contradictions between the nobility and the bourgeoisie. The fact that the state thus stood, in a sense, above the class struggle, in no way meant that it was completely impartial. An in-depth study of the economic and social policy of Peter the Great led Syromyatnikov to the conclusion that the tsar's reforming activities were generally anti-feudal, "manifested, for example, in the measures carried out in the interests of the growing bourgeoisie, as well as in the desire to limit serfdom." This characteristic of the reforms given by Syromyatnikov did not find a significant response from Soviet historians. In general, Soviet historiography did not accept and criticized his conclusions (but not factual matter) for the fact that they were very close to the previously rejected provisions of Pokrovsky. In addition, many historians do not share the opinion about the balance of power in the Petrine period, not everyone recognizes the bourgeoisie, barely born in the 18th century, as a real economic and political factor capable of opposing the local nobility. This was confirmed during the discussions that took place in Russian historiography in the 70s, as a result of which a relatively complete agreement of opinions was reached regarding the inapplicability of the thesis about the “neutrality” of power and the balance of classes in relation to specific Russian conditions. Nevertheless, some historians, generally disagreeing with the opinion of Syromyatnikov, share his view of Peter's autocracy as relatively independent of class forces. They substantiate the independence of autocracy with the thesis of equilibrium in a new version. While Syromyatnikov operates exclusively with the category of social balance of two different classes - the nobility and the bourgeoisie, Fedosov and Troitsky consider the contradictory interests within the ruling class as a source of independence for the political superstructure. And if Peter the Great was able to carry out such an extensive set of reforms contrary to the interests of certain social groups of the population, this was due to the intensity of that very “intra-class struggle”, where on the one hand the old aristocracy acted, and on the other, the new, bureaucratized nobility. At the same time, the emerging bourgeoisie, supported by the reformist policy of the government, declared itself, albeit not so weighty, acting in alliance with the last of the named opposing sides - the nobility. Another controversial point of view was put forward by A.Ya. Avrekh, the initiator of the debate about the essence of Russian absolutism. In his opinion, absolutism arose and was finally strengthened under Peter the Great. Its formation and unprecedentedly strong position in Russia became possible due to the relatively low level of class struggle, combined with a stagnation in the country's socio-economic development. Absolutism should have been viewed as a form of a feudal state, but a distinctive feature of Russia was the desire to pursue bourgeois policy, despite the obvious weakness of the bourgeoisie, and to develop in the direction of a bourgeois monarchy. Naturally, this theory could not be accepted in Soviet historiography, for it contradicted some of the Marxist principles. This solution to the problem was not particularly recognized in the course of the ongoing discussion of Soviet historians about absolutism. Nevertheless, Averakha cannot be called an atypical participant in this controversy, which was characterized, firstly by a clear desire to emphasize the relative autonomy of state power, and, secondly, by the unanimity of scientists on the issue of the impossibility of characterizing political development only through simple conclusions, without taking into account the peculiarities of each period of history. ...

Despite the differences in the approach of scientists to assessing the events of that time, foreign literature about Russia in the era of Peter the Great has some common features. Paying tribute to the ruler, the successes achieved by the country, foreign authors, as a rule, with some underestimation or with open disdain, judged the pre-Petrine era in the history of Russia. The views that Russia made a leap from backwardness and savagery to more advanced forms of social life with the help of the "West" - ideas borrowed from there, and numerous specialists who became Peter the Great's assistants in carrying out the transformations became widespread.

Conclusion

After analyzing the studied material, one can come to the following conclusions about the uniqueness of the reforms of Peter the Great and their impact on the state of Russia.

Before Peter came to power, the main factor that influenced the development of the state was its natural and geographical position, as well as social conditions (large territory, unfortunate geographical position, etc.). In addition to internal factors, external factors also influenced development. Before Peter the Great, Russia had no access to the seas, and thus it could not use, first of all, for trade, the fastest and cheapest communication routes.

Peter's reforms, like most of Russia's reforms, had their own peculiarity. They were planted from above and brought to life in an orderly manner. The government regime, as it were, stood above the whole of society and forced absolutely everyone to serve the state, regardless of class. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

The reforms of Peter the Great began immediately after his arrival due to a border business trip and concerned the appearance of the population, especially those who were close to the state and the king himself. The changes concerned the shape and type of clothing, as well as beards. Everyone was obliged to shave their beards, except the clergy and peasants.

During his reign, Peter the Great created a powerful Russian Empire, in which he formulated absolute monarchy and autocracy. There was no one to control this.

As for the industry, it also had its own characteristics. The development of enterprises was fully supported by the power. Large sums were allocated from the state treasury for the construction of new manufactories, factories and plants. Therefore, for some time they were under the control of the state. But in the end they passed into private hands, although the state still controlled the activities of private entrepreneurs. And the second feature of the industry was that serfs worked at these same manufactories and factories. That is, free labor. Thanks to this, the growth and development of manufactories, and industry as a whole, has increased.

As for culture, it was mainly aimed at the development of education. Schools were built, which in total gave several thousand people an elementary education, which later contributed to a cultural upsurge and a change in attitudes towards school education. In addition to schools, special education developed. The progress of science was evident.

The reforms of Peter the Great were very large-scale and brought very great results. As a result of these reforms, the tasks that were formulated in the state, and which needed to be solved urgently, were solved. Peter the Great was able to solve the assigned tasks, but practically failed to consolidate the process. This was due to the system that existed in the state, as well as serfdom. The main part of the population were peasants, being constantly under oppression, they did not show any initiative in the development of their state.

Bibliography

1. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. About Peter I. -SPb .: Peter, 2002.

Bagger Hans. Reforms of Peter the Great. M .: Progress.: 1985, 200 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Historical portraits. Figures of historical thought. / Comp., Entry. Art. and note. V.A. Alexandrova. M .: Pravda, 1991.624 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. T. 3 - M., 2002.543 p.

V. I. Lebedev Reforms of Peter the Great. M .: 1937

Polyakov L.V. Kara-Murza V. Reformer. Russians about Peter the Great. Ivanovo, 1994

Soloviev S.M. Public readings on the history of Russia. M .: Progress, 1962

Soloviev S.M. About the history of new Russia. M .: Education, 1993

Collection: Russia in the period of reforms of Peter the Great M .: Nauka, 1973

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The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) are the maximum strengthening of the tsar's power, the growth of the country's military power, the territorial expansion of the state and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I are A. D. Menshikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky.

Military reform. A regular army was created with the help of conscription, new regulations were introduced, a fleet was built, equipment in the western manner.

Public administration reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (1711), orders - by the boards. The "Table of Ranks" has been introduced. The succession decree allows the king to appoint anyone he wants to heir. The capital was moved to St. Petersburg in 1712. In 1721 Peter assumed the imperial title.

Church reform. The patriarchate was liquidated, the church began to be governed by the Holy Synod. The priests were transferred to the state salary.

Changes in the economy. The capitation tax has been introduced. Up to 180 manufactories have been created. State monopolies have been introduced for various goods. Canals and roads are being built.

Social reforms. The decree on single inheritance (1714) equated estates with estates and forbade them to be split up during inheritance. Passports are being introduced for peasants. Serfs and slaves are actually equated.

Reforms in the field of culture. The Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first newspaper "Vedomosti", a museum (Kunstkamera), and the Academy of Sciences were created. The nobles are sent to study abroad. Introduced western dress for nobles, shaving beards, smoking, assemblies.

Results. Absolutism is finally formed. The military power of Russia is growing. The antagonism between the top and bottom is sharpening. Serfdom began to take on slave forms. The upper class merged into one noble estate.

In 1698, the archers, dissatisfied with the deteriorating conditions of service, revolted, in 1705-1706. there was an uprising in Astrakhan, on the Don and in the Volga region in 1707-1709. - the uprising of K. A. Bulavin, in 1705-1711. -in Bashkiria.

The time of Peter the Great is the most important milestone in Russian history. It is believed that the reform program was ripe long before his reign, but if this is so, then Peter went much further than his predecessors. True, he began reforms not when he formally became king (1682) and not when he removed his sister, Queen Sophia, but much later. In 1698, returning from Europe, he begins to introduce new rules: from now on, everyone had to shave their beards or pay tax. New clothes were introduced (according to the European model). Education was reformed - mathematical schools were opened (taught by foreigners). In Russia, scientific books began to be printed in a new printing house. The army underwent a reform, the Streletskiy regiment was disbanded, and the archers were partly exiled to different cities, partly they were transferred to soldiers. Bodies of local self-government were created - the Town Hall in Moscow and Zemsky huts in other cities, - then they were transformed into magistrates (they collected taxes and duties). The tsar himself decided important matters (received ambassadors, issued decrees). Orders continued to exist, as before they were merged (in 1711 they were replaced by colleges). Peter tried to simplify and centralize power as much as possible. The church was reformed, its property entered the monastery order, the proceeds went to the treasury. In 1700, the Northern War began for access to the Baltic. She went with varying success, they managed to win back the waters along the Neva River, here the fortress of St. Petersburg was founded - the future capital, another fortress, Krondstadt, was built to protect it in the north. The construction of a fleet in the Baltic was founded - at the mouth of the Neva, the Admiralty shipyard was laid. Production was reformed: artisans were united in workshops, manufactories were created. Ore mining developed in the Urals. The nobility occupied a special position in the society - it owned the land and the peasants, under Peter, its composition was changed, it included people from other classes. According to the new bureaucratic division - "Table of Ranks", a person who received the 8th rank became a nobleman (14 ranks in total), the service was divided into military and civilian. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (judicial, administrative and managerial and judicial power). Since 1711, the fiscal service appeared (they exercised control over all administrations). The Synod was approved to manage church affairs. Peter divided the country into 8 provinces (governor exercised power) and 50 provinces. 10/22/1720 - at a meeting of the Senate, Peter I was officially named Emperor, and Russia was named an empire. In the last years of his life, Peter changed the rule of inheritance of power, from now on the ruler could appoint an heir himself. Peter died on January 28, 1725 from a long illness.

Peter I and his transformations in the first quarter of the 18th century.

Peter I ascended the throne in 1682, began to rule independently in 1694. Historians, arguing about the significance of what Peter accomplished, are unanimous in the opinion that his reign was an era in Russian history. His activity cannot be explained only by his enthusiasm for the European order and hostility to the old Russian way of life. Of course, the personal qualities of the tsar were reflected in the transformations of the early 18th century: impulsiveness, cruelty, firmness, purposefulness, energy, openness, inherent in his nature, are also characteristic of his activities. But the reforms had their own objective prerequisites, which by the end of the 17th century. decided clearly.

Reforms were made possible by the processes that gained momentum during the reign of the father of Peter I, Alexei Mikhailovich. In the socio-economic sphere: the beginning of the formation of a single Russian market, the success of foreign trade, the emergence of the first manufactories, elements of protectionism (protection of domestic production from foreign competition). In the sphere of state structure: the triumph of absolutist tendencies, the termination of the activities of Zemsky sobors, the improvement of the system of central authorities and administration. In the military sphere: regiments of the "new system", attempts to change the system of manning the army. In the field of foreign policy: military and diplomatic activity in the Black Sea and Baltic areas. In the spiritual sphere: the secularization of culture, the strengthening of European influences, including as a result of Nikon's church reforms. The noted changes, significant in themselves, nevertheless did not eliminate the main thing - Russia's lag behind the Western European powers did not decrease. The intolerance of the situation was beginning to be realized, the understanding of the need for reforms was becoming more and more broad. “We were going on the road, but they were waiting for someone, they were waiting for the leader, the leader appeared” (S. M. Soloviev).

The transformations covered all areas of public life - the economy, social relations, the system of power and administration, the military sphere, the church, culture and everyday life. Until the mid-1710s. they were carried out without a clear plan, under the pressure of circumstances, mainly military ones. Then the reforms took on a more holistic character.

Industry has undergone radical changes. The state in every possible way contributed to the growth of manufactories in metallurgy, shipbuilding, textile, leather, rope, glass production. The centers of the metallurgical industry are the Urals, Lipetsk, Karelia, shipbuilding - Petersburg and Voronezh, textile production - Moscow. For the first time in the history of the country, the state assumed the role of an active and active participant in economic processes. Large manufacturing enterprises were based and maintained at the expense of the treasury. Many of them were handed over to private owners on preferential terms. The problem of providing enterprises with a labor force, which was extremely acute in the conditions of the dominance of serfdom and the absence of a market for free hired labor, was solved by the Peter the Great's state by applying the recipe traditional for the serf economy. It assigned peasants or convicts, vagabonds, beggars to the manufactories and assigned them. A bizarre combination of the new (manufacturing) with the old (serf labor) is a characteristic feature of Peter's reforms as a whole. Another instrument of the state's influence on economic development was measures that corresponded to the principles of mercantilism (the doctrine according to which the money imported into the country should be more money exported from it): the establishment of high customs duties on goods produced in Russia, the promotion of exports, the provision of benefits to the owners of manufactories.

Peter I completely changed the system of government. The Boyar Duma, which had not played a significant role since 1700, was replaced in 1711 by the Governing Senate, which possessed legislative, administrative and judicial powers. Initially, the Senate consisted of nine people, later the post of attorney general was established. In 1717-1718. orders were eliminated and collegia were created (first 10, then their number increased) - Foreign Affairs, Admiralty, Military, Chamber Collegium, Justitz Collegium, Manufacturing Collegium, etc. Their activities were determined by the General Regulations (1720). In contrast to orders, the collegiums were built on the principles of collegiality, delineation of powers, and strict regulation of activities. Bureaucratic mechanisms (hierarchy, strict subordination, adherence to instructions, reducing the personality of the manager to the level of the function performed by him) were introduced into the system of public administration, which prevailed over the ancient principles of parochialism and gentility. With the adoption of the Table of Ranks (1722), which divided all civil servants - military, civilian and courtiers - into 14 classes and opened up brilliant prospects for people from the social lower classes to advance to the nobility (an official who received the VIII class in civil service became a hereditary nobleman), bureaucratic the car has developed completely. The introduction of the nobles to public service was to be facilitated by the "Decree on single inheritance" (1714), according to which all lands were inherited by only one of the sons. Reforms of the central government were combined with the introduction of a new territorial division of the country into eight provinces, headed by governors subordinate to the monarch and who had full authority over the population entrusted to them. Later, the provincial division was supplemented by the division into 50 provinces headed by the governors. The transformation of the church into an element of the state apparatus corresponded to the spirit and logic of the transformations. In 1721, Peter created the Most Holy Synod to manage church affairs, headed by a secular chief prosecutor.

The most important element of the transformations was the introduction of a recruiting system for manning the army. The recruit was sent to lifelong military service from a certain number of peasants and other taxable estates. In the years 1699-1725. 53 recruits were carried out to the army and to the navy, which was created by Peter - more than 200 thousand people in total. The regular army was subject to uniform military regulations and instructions.

The upkeep of the army, the construction of factories, and an active foreign policy demanded huge sums of money. Until 1724, more and more taxes were introduced: on the beard, smoke, bathhouse, honey, stamped paper, etc. In 1724, after the census, the male population of the taxable estates was imposed a shower tax. Its size was determined simply: the amount of expenses for the maintenance of the army and the navy was divided by the number of adult men and the desired figure was deduced.

The above transformations are not limited to (about culture and life see ticket number 10, about foreign policy - ticket number 11). Their main goals are clear: Peter strove to Europeanize Russia, overcome the lag, create a regular, effective state, and make the country a great power. These goals have been largely achieved. The proclamation of Russia as an empire (1721) can be considered a symbol of success. But behind the brilliant imperial façade, serious contradictions were hidden: the reforms were carried out by force, relying on the punitive power of the state apparatus, at the expense of the most brutal exploitation of the population. Absolutism became firmly established, and the overgrown bureaucratic apparatus became its main support. The lack of freedom of all estates has increased - the nobility, subject to the strict tutelage of the state, including. The cultural split of Russian society into a Europeanized elite and a mass of population alien to new values ​​has become a reality. Violence was recognized as the main engine of the country's historical development.

The era of Ivan the Terrible: reforms of the elected council, oprichnina.

The following articles:

• Palace coups, their socio-political essence and consequences.
• Culture and everyday life of the peoples of Russia in the 18th century (education and science, architecture, sculpture, painting, theater).

In the history of Peter's reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mostly chaotic and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state associated with the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active state intervention in the affairs of the economy. Many reforms were ill-considered, hasty in nature, which was caused by both failures in the war, and the lack of personnel, experience, pressure from the old conservative power apparatus. At the second stage, when the hostilities had already been transferred to the enemy's territory, the transformations became more systematic. There was a further strengthening of the power apparatus, manufactories no longer only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy was somewhat weakened, merchants and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action. Basically, the reforms were subordinated not to the interests of individual estates, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and familiarization with Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. Deliberately used violence was the main instrument of reform.

Military reform

The main content of the military reform was the creation of a regular Russian army and a Russian navy, recruited on the basis of conscription. The previously existing troops were gradually abolished, and their personnel were used for new formations. The army and navy began to be supported by the state. To control the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established; the post of commander-in-chief was introduced (for wartime). A unified training system was established in the army and navy, military educational institutions were opened (navigation, artillery, engineering schools). The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Maritime Academy served to train officers. The organization of the armed forces, the main issues of training, methods of conducting hostilities were legislatively enshrined in the Military Charter (1716), the Book-Charter of the Sea (1720). In general, the military reforms of Peter I contributed to the development of military art, were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and the fleet in the Northern War.

Reforms in the economy covered agriculture, large and small production, handicrafts, trade and financial policy. Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. In the economic sphere, the concept of mercantilism prevailed - encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The development of industry was dictated exclusively by the needs of warfare and was a special concern of Peter. For the first quarter of the 18th century. 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by an increase in feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in factories: the use of serfs, purchased (possessory) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-haired) peasantry, which was attributed to the plant as a constant source of labor. In 1711, craft schools were established at the manufactories. By decrees of 1722, a guild arrangement was introduced in the cities. The creation of workshops testified to the patronage of the authorities for the development of crafts and their regulation. In the field of domestic and foreign trade, the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, fur, bacon, caviar, bread, etc.) played an important role, which significantly replenished the treasury. The creation of merchant "kumpans" and the expansion of trade relations with abroad were encouraged in every possible way. The government of Peter paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main mode of transport at that time. Active construction of the Volga-Donskoy, Vyshnevolotsky, Ladozhsky canals was carried out, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.

Financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by an unprecedented tax burden. The growth of the state budget, necessary for waging war, active domestic and foreign policy, was achieved by expanding indirect and increasing direct taxes. Special “profit-makers” headed by A. Kurbatov were looking for new sources of income: bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, up to the tax on beards. In total, there were up to 40 species of indirect collections by 1724. Along with these levies, direct taxes were also introduced: recruitment, dragoon, ship and special "levies". The minting of coins of less weight and the lowering of the silver content in it brought considerable income. The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax system - the introduction of the poll tax, which replaced household taxation. As a result of this, firstly, the amount of tax receipts from peasants has practically doubled. Secondly, the tax reform became an important stage of serfdom in Russia, extended it to those strata of the population that were previously free (“walking people”), or could gain freedom after the death of the master (enslaving slaves). Thirdly, the passport system was introduced. Each peasant who went to work more than 30 miles from his place of residence had to have a passport indicating the time of return.

Reorganization of public administration.

Strengthening the absolute monarchy required a radical restructuring and ultimate centralization of the entire system of government, its higher, central and local bodies. The king was at the head of the state. In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the king himself. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Consilia (Council) of Ministers, which had replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was ordered to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, and control the activities of the administration. In 1722, the management of the senators' work was entrusted to the Prosecutor General, whom Peter I called “the eye of the sovereign”. In 1718 - 1721 the cumbersome and confusing system of commanding administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions often coincided and did not have clear boundaries, 11 collegia were established. Each collegium was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management. The Collegium of Foreign Affairs - by foreign relations, the Military - by the ground armed forces, the Admiralty - by the navy, the Chamber Collegium - by the collection of income, the State Collegium - by state expenditures, the Votchinnaya - by noble land tenure, the Manufacturing Collegium - by industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium ... In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate in charge of Russian cities. In addition, there were the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office. Along with the strengthening of the central administrative apparatus, the reform of local institutions... Instead of the provincial administration, a provincial system of government was introduced in 1708 - 1715. Initially, the country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, Petersburg, Kiev, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian. They were headed by governors in charge of the troops and administration of the subordinate territories. Each province occupied a huge territory and therefore was divided into provinces. There were 50 of them (the governor was at the head). The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. Thus, a single centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of government was formed for the whole country, in which the monarch, who relied on the nobility, played a decisive role. The number of officials has grown significantly. The costs of maintaining the administrative staff also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 introduced a single system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country.

Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate.

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter I decided not to appoint a new patriarch. The Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky was temporarily placed at the head of the clergy, while not vested with patriarchal powers. In 1721, Peter approved the "Spiritual Regulations" developed by his supporter Bishop of Pskov Feofan Prokopovich. According to the new law, a radical church reform was carried out, eliminating the autonomy of the church and completely subordinating it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Spiritual College was established to govern the church, which was soon reorganized to give more authority to the Holy Governing Synod. He was in charge of purely church affairs: the interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, the management of educational institutions and the removal of church officials, etc. The synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. All property and finances of the church, the lands assigned to it and the peasants were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic Order, subordinate to the Synod. Thus, it meant the subordination of the church to the state.

Social politics.

In 1714, the "Decree on single inheritance" was issued, according to which the noble estate was equalized in rights with the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two estates of feudal lords. From that time on, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The rest of the nobles were to carry out compulsory service in the army, in the navy, or in government bodies. In 1722, the publication of the "Table of Ranks" followed, dividing military, civil and court services. All positions (both civil and military) were subdivided into 14 ranks. It was possible to occupy each next rank only by passing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor), or an officer, received hereditary nobility (until the middle of the 19th century). The rest of the population, excluding the nobility and clergy, was obliged to pay tax to the state.

Under Peter I, a new structure of society was formed, in which the principle of regulation by state legislation is clearly traced. Reforms in the field of education and culture. State policy was aimed at enlightening society, reorganizing the education system. At the same time, the Enlightenment acted as a special value, partly opposed to religious values. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural and technical subjects: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, engineering. The first to appear were the Navigation and Artillery Schools (1701), the Engineering School (1712), and the Medical School (1707). To simplify the learning process, the complex Church Slavonic script was replaced with a civilian one. Publishing was developed, printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was established in St. Petersburg. A lot of work has begun on the study of the history, geography and natural resources of Russia. The propaganda of scientific knowledge was carried out by the Kunstkamera opened in 1719 - the first national natural history museum. On January 1, 1700, a new Julian calendar was introduced in Russia. As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live at the same time as Europe. There was a radical breakdown of all traditional ideas about the way of life in Russian society. The tsar, by order, introduced broad shaving, European clothing, and the obligatory wearing of uniforms for military and civilian officials. The behavior of young noblemen in society was regulated by Western European norms, set out in the translated book "Youth is an honest mirror." In 1718, a decree appeared on the holding of assemblies with the obligatory presence of women. Assemblies were arranged not only for fun and amusement, but also for business meetings. Peter's transformations in the sphere of culture, everyday life and customs were often introduced by violent methods and were of a pronounced political character. The main thing in these reforms was the observance of the interests of the state.

The meaning of the reforms: 1. The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy, in contrast to the classical western, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, the balancing of the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a feudal-noble basis.

2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. 3. Based on some trends emerging in the XVII century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but in a minimal historical period of time brought it to a qualitatively higher level, turning Russia into a powerful state.

The payment for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, a temporary slowdown in the formation of capitalist relations and the strongest tax and tribute pressure on the population. A multiple increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social actions - the riot of the archers in Astrakhan (1705-1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in the Ukraine and in the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.

21. Reforms of Peter the Great and their significance for Russian history: opinions of historians.

Foreign policy of Peter I. The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699 Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the victory of the Russians in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and the victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Nishtadt Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was ensured.

In commemoration of what was achieved in the Northern War, the Senate and Synod on October 20, 1721 awarded the tsar with the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I obtained the western coast of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of hostilities, the ebullient activity of Peter I was aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, raise the education of the Russian people, and strengthen the power and international position of Russia. A lot was done by the great tsar, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, the Council of Ministers was created in 1700, which sat in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of the provinces, numerous Orders ceased their activities, they were replaced by the Collegia, which were subordinate to the Senate. The control system also operated the Secret Police - the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were run by the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed with the zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To manage the city, the Burmister Chamber was created in Moscow, renamed in November 1699 the Town Hall, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). The members of the Town Hall and the magistrates were elected through elections.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the estate reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and obligations of each class - the nobility, the peasantry and the urban population.

Nobility.

The decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.

Education decree (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.

The decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance to only one of his sons.

Table of Ranks (1721): service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - army, state and court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a man of the lower class to curry favor with the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfs could enroll in soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

state, possessing personal freedom, but limited in the right to move (i.e., at the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);

palace ones that belonged to the tsar personally;

possessory attributed to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

Urban estate

Urban people were divided into "regular" and "irregular". Regular ones were divided into guilds: 1st guild - the richest, 2nd guild - small merchants and wealthy artisans. The irregulars, or "vile people," made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of the same craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the supreme court were carried out by the Senate and the Justitz Collegium. In the provinces, there were court appellate courts and provincial courts headed by governors. Provincial courts dealt with peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople who were not included in the posad. Since 1721, the court cases of the townspeople included in the posad were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, the cases were decided by the zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the post of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegial supreme administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of the financial reform of Peter I was reduced to collecting money for the maintenance of the army and the conduct of wars. Added benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.), introduced indirect taxes (bath, horse, beards, etc.).

In 1704 was held monetary reform, for which the penny became the main currency. The unchangeable ruble was canceled.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted in the transition from household taxation to capitation. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and posad population that had previously been exempted from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single monetary tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. many civil and military schools were opened in Russia. Among them are the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mountain, garrison, religious schools; digital schools for free education of children of all ranks; The Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and with him the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which made it easier to learn to read and write and promoted printing. The first Russian newspaper "Vedomosti" began to be published, in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying particular attention to the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists and also sent talented young people abroad to study "arts". Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with abroad, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged the domestic industrialist and merchant. Peter I strove to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than imported. During his reign, 200 factories and factories operated on the territory of Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruiting sets of young Russians (15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were issued, setting out the service, rights and duties of the military.

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy was created.

Peter's reform activities had the support of a wide circle of nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and clergy, since transformations entailed the loss of their leading role in public administration. Among the opponents of the reforms of Peter I was his son Alexei.

Results of the reforms of Peter I

The regime of absolutism has been established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a better management system, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. Power was centralized.

Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.

The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.

There has been tremendous progress in the fields of science and culture. A task of state importance has been set - the creation of Russian medical education, and also the beginning of Russian surgery.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.

Lack of a reform system.

Reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.

Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of the volume of production in industry, the level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which stood at the head of the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, consisting of archers and the noble militia, was poorly armed, not trained and could not cope with its task.

The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment in Russia of the regime of absolutism, the crown of which was the change in 1721. The title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country became

be called the Russian Empire. Thus, it was formalized what Peter was heading for all the years of his reign - the creation of a state with a harmonious system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy, influencing international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal of state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to take this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals. Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, the backwardness of Russia was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly due to the most severe exploitation and coercion. The complexity and inconsistency of the development of Russia during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had a huge historical meaning, since they contributed to the progress of the country, were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by serf-owners, serf-owning methods and were aimed at strengthening their rule. Therefore, the progressive transformations of Peter's time from the very beginning carried conservative features, which in the course of the further development of the country acted more and more and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's transformations, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where feudal-serf relations remained dominant, but she could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. , laws, foundations and way of life and way of life. It is difficult to overestimate the family of Peter the Great in the history of Russia. No matter how you relate to the methods and style of his transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

Table "Reforms of Peter 1" (briefly). The main reforms of Peter 1: table, summary

The table "Reforms of Peter 1" summarizes the features of the transformative activities of the first emperor of Russia. With its help, it is possible to concisely, concisely and clearly outline the main directions of his steps to change all spheres of life in Russian society in the first quarter of the 18th century. Perhaps this is the best way for middle-level students to master this difficult and rather voluminous material, which is very important for the analysis and correct understanding of the features of the historical process in our country in the following centuries.

Features of the emperor's activities

One of the most difficult, difficult and at the same time interesting topics is "Reforms of Peter 1". A brief table on this topic demonstrates all the data necessary for schoolchildren.

In the introductory lesson, it should be immediately indicated that the activities of Peter Alekseevich affected all strata of society and determined the further history of the country. This is precisely the uniqueness of the era of his reign. However, he was a very practical person and innovated based on specific needs.

This can be clearly demonstrated with a more detailed coverage of the topic "Reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, the table on the problem posed clearly shows the wide scope with which the emperor acted. It seemed that he had time to put his hand to everything: he reorganized the army, government bodies, made significant changes in the social structure, economic sphere, diplomacy, and, finally, contributed to the spread of Western European culture and lifestyle among the Russian nobility.

Conversions in the army

At the middle level, it is very important that students learn the basic facts of the topic "Reforms of Peter 1". A brief table on this issue helps students familiarize themselves with the data and organize the accumulated material. For almost all of his reign, the emperor waged a war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The need for strong and powerful troops arose with particular urgency at the very beginning of his reign. Therefore, the new ruler immediately began to reorganize the army.

One of the most interesting sections in the studied topic is "The military reforms of Peter 1". Briefly the table can be depicted as follows.

The Significance of Military Innovation

It can be seen from it that the steps of the emperor were dictated by the specific needs of his time, however, many of his innovations continued to exist for a very long time. The main goal of the reforms was to create a standing and regular army. The fact is that earlier there was a so-called local system of recruiting troops: i.e. the landowner came to the examinations along with several servants, who were also supposed to serve with him.

However, by the beginning of the 18th century, this principle had outlived its usefulness. By this time, serfdom had finally taken shape, and the state began to recruit soldiers for service from the peasants. Another very important measure was the creation of professional military schools for the training of officers and command personnel.

Power structures transformations

Practice shows that one of the most difficult topics is "The Political Reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, the table on this issue clearly demonstrates how deep the transformative activities of the emperor in the governing bodies were. He completely changed the central and local administration. Instead of the Boyar Duma, which previously performed advisory functions under the tsar, he created the Senate on the model of Western European countries. Instead of orders, collegia were created, each of which performed a specific function in management. Their activities were strictly controlled by the Prosecutor General. In addition, a special secret fiscal body was created to control the bureaucratic apparatus.

New administrative division

No less difficult is the topic and “State reforms of Peter 1. Briefly the table on this issue reflects the cardinal changes that have taken place in the organization of local government. Provinces were created, which were in charge of the affairs of a particular area. Provinces were divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into counties. This structure was very convenient for management and met the tasks of the time in question. At the head of the provinces was the governor, and at the head of the provinces and counties - the voivode.

Changes in industry and trade

Particular difficulty is often caused by the study of the topic "Economic reforms of Peter 1. Briefly, the table on this issue reflects the complexity and ambiguity of the emperor's activities in relation to merchants and traders, who, on the one hand, sought to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the country's economy, but at the same time acted almost feudal methods, which could in no way contribute to the development of market relations in our country. The economic activity of Petr Alekseevich was not as effective as the reforms in other spheres. At the same time, this was the first experience in the development of trade along the Western European model.

Transformations in the social structure

The topic “Social reforms of Peter 1 seems to be simpler. Briefly, the table on this issue clearly demonstrates the fundamental changes that have taken place in the Russian society of the time being studied. Unlike his predecessors, the emperor introduced the principle of distinction in the military and state spheres, depending not on family affiliation, but on personal merit. His famous "Table of Ranks" introduced a new principle of service. From now on, a person, in order to get a promotion or rank, had to achieve any success.

It was under Peter that the social structure of society was finally formed. The main support of the autocracy was the nobility, which replaced the tribal aristocracy. The emperor's successors also relied on this estate, which indicates the effectiveness of the measures taken.

You can complete the study of this problem by summing up the results. What was the significance of the reforms of Peter 1 in the history of Russia? A table summarizing a given topic can serve as an effective summarizing tool. Regarding social transformations, it should be noted that the measures of the ruler corresponded to the needs of their time, when the principle of parochialism was outdated, and the country needed new personnel who would have the necessary qualities to fulfill the new tasks that faced the country in connection with the Northern War and Russia's accession to the international arena.

The role of the emperor's transformative activity

The topic "The main reforms of Peter 1", a table, a summary of which is an important component in the study of the history of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, should be divided into several sessions so that schoolchildren have the opportunity to properly consolidate the material. At the final lesson, it is necessary to take stock of the material covered and indicate what role the transformations of the first emperor played in the further fate of Russia.

The measures taken by the ruler brought our country to the European arena and made it one of the leading European states. The topic "The main reforms of Peter 1", a table, a summary clearly shows how the country entered the world level of development, gaining access to the sea and becoming one of the main members of the European concert of powers.

Peter's reforms 1.

Zhanna gromova

Public administration reform
1699-1721

Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722

Military reforms
since 1699

Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721 g.

Financial reforms

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (weight reduction) of the coin. Penny stano

Tatiana shcherbakova

Regional reform
In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out with the aim of strengthening the vertical of power on the ground and better providing the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces, headed by governors, endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the receipts to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, which united 5536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the assigned tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares. Provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium. Only military and court cases remained in the jurisdiction of the governor.
Judicial reform
Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the supreme court were given to the Senate and the Justitz Collegium. Below them were: the provinces - the Hofgericht or court appellate courts in large cities, and the provincial collegiate lower courts. Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except for monasteries, as well as townspeople who were not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the magistrate was in charge of the court cases of the townspeople included in the posad. In other cases, the so-called single-person court acted (cases were individually decided by a zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode
Church reform
One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church government he carried out, aimed at eliminating church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, instead of convening a council for the election of a new patriarch, Peter I temporarily appointed Metropolitan of Ryazan Stephen Yavorsky, who received a new title of Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or "Exarch", at the head of the clergy.

To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (about 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I.A. income from church and monastery land holdings. In 1701, a series of decrees was issued to reform the administration of church and monastery estates and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the compilation of which was entrusted to the Bishop of Pskov, the tsar's close associate, Little Russia Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual Collegium was established, which was soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the eastern patriarchs as equal to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon assuming office. The war stimulated the withdrawal of valuables from monastic depositories. Peter did not go to the full secularization of church and monastic possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of his reign.
Army and navy reforms
Reform of the army: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years.

Maxim lyubovov

Public administration reform
Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.
The main goal of this period was to provide a solution to the most important problem - victory in the Northern War. Already in the first years of the war, it became clear that the old state management mechanism, the main elements of which were orders and districts, did not meet the growing needs of the autocracy. This manifested itself in the lack of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help of a regional reform - the creation of new administrative formations - provinces, uniting several counties. In 1708, 8 provinces were formed: Moscow, Ingermanland (St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian.
The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything necessary: ​​a direct connection was established between the provinces and the regiments of the armies, which were distributed among the provinces. Communication was carried out through a specially created institute of krieg commissars (so-called military commissars).
A ramified hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials was created in the localities. The previous system "order - district" was doubled: "order (or office) - province - province - district".
In 1711 the Senate was created. The autocracy, which had grown significantly in the second half of the 17th century, no longer needed the institutions of representation and self-government.
At the beginning of the 18th century. in fact, the meetings of the Boyar Duma are terminated, the management of the central and local state apparatus is transferred to the so-called "Consilia of Ministers" - a temporary council of chiefs of the most important government departments.
Particularly important was the reform of the Senate, which occupied a key position in the state system of Peter. The Senate concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions, was in charge of colleges and provinces, appointed and approved officials. The unofficial head of the Senate, consisting of the first dignitaries, was the Attorney General, endowed with special powers and subordinate only to the monarch. The creation of the position of Attorney General laid the foundation for a whole institution of the Attorney's Office, which was modeled on the French administrative experience.
In 1718 - 1721. the system of order management of the country was transformed. 10 colleges were established, each of which was in charge of a strictly defined industry. For example, the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - by foreign relations, the Military - by the ground armed forces, the Admiralty - by the navy, the Chamber Collegium - by collecting revenues, the State Offices Collegium - by state expenditures, the Commerce Collegium - by trade.
Church reform
The Synod, or the Spiritual Collegium, established in 1721, became a kind of collegium. The abolition of the patriarchate reflected the desire of Peter I to liquidate the “princely” system of church power, inconceivable during the autocracy of Peter the Great's time. By declaring himself in fact the head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of the institutions of the church to carry out his policies.
Supervision over the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special state official - the chief prosecutor.
Social politics
Social policy was pro-noble and serfdom in nature. The 1714 decree on single inheritance established the same order of inheritance of immovable estates, without distinction of estates and estates. The merger of two forms of feudal land tenure - patrimonial and local - completed the process of consolidation of the class of feudal lords into a single class - the estate of the nobility and strengthened its dominant position (often, in the Polish manner, the nobility was called the gentry).
To force the nobles to think of the service as the main source of wealth, they introduced the primacy - they banned the sale and mortgage of land

Oleg sazonov

Military collegium
The Military Collegium was established by Peter I instead of a number of military institutions in order to centralize military control. The formation of the Military Collegium began with the appointment in 1717 of the first president, Field Marshal A. D. Menshikov and Vice-President A. A. Veide.
On June 3, 1719, the staff of the College was declared. The collegium consisted of a presence, led by a president (vice president) and an Office, subdivided into promotions in charge of cavalry and infantry, garrisons, fortifications and artillery, as well as keeping logs of incoming and outgoing documents. The Collegium consisted of a notary, an auditor general and a fiscal general. The supervision over the legality of decisions was carried out by the prosecutor, who was subordinate to the prosecutor general. The jurisdiction of the Military Collegium included the organization of the service of the ground army.
The Kriegskommissariat and the general-food master, who were engaged in clothing and food supply of the army, were formally subordinate to the Military Collegium, but had considerable independence.
In relation to the artillery and engineering departments, which were headed by the Artillery Chancellery and the General Feldzheichmeister, the Collegium exercised only general guidance.
In the 1720s - 1730s. The military collegium underwent a reorganization aimed at subordinating all branches of military administration to it.
In 1721, the administration of the Don, Yaik and Greben Cossacks was transferred from the jurisdiction of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs to the newly created Cossack povytie.
In 1736, the Commissariat became part of the Military Collegium, which had existed since 1711 as an independent institution for supplying the army. The staff of 1736 consolidated the new composition of the Collegium: the presence, the Chancellery, in charge of the recruitment, organization, inspection and service of the troops, as well as cases of fugitives, the recruitment of undergrowths and some other issues, and a number of offices (later renamed in the expedition) for branches of management. The offices were headed by directors who took part in the meetings of the Board. The offices decided matters on their own, submitting only complex and controversial issues to the Board for consideration. During this period, there were the General Kriegs Commissariat, Obertsalmeister, Amunich-Naya (Uniform), Provisions, Accounts, Fortification Offices and Artillery Chancellery. The organ of the Collegium in Moscow was the Military Office.
With the accession of Elizabeth, there was a return to the decentralization of military administration. In 1742, the independent departments were restored - commissariat, provision, artillery and fortification administration. The counting expedition was abolished. After that, the significance of the Military Collegium as a command and control body fell.
The growing importance of the Military Collegium began in 1763, when its president became Catherine II's personal rapporteur on military affairs; new staff of the College were introduced.
In 1781, the Counting Expedition was restored in the Military Collegium, exercising control over the expenses of the military department.
In 1791 the College received a new organization. The commissariat, provisions, artillery and engineering departments became part of the Military Collegium as independent expeditions (since 1796 - departments).
In 1798, the new staff of the College were approved. According to them, it consisted of the Office, divided into expeditions (Army, Garrison, Prikaznaya, Foreign, Recruiting, Institution about schools and repair parts), independent expeditions (Military, Counting, Inspector, Artillery, Commissariat, Provision, Military orphanages) and the General Auditorium.
With the formation of the Ministry of the Army in 1802, the Military College became part of it and was finally abolished in 1812. The functions of its expeditions were transferred to the newly formed departments of the Ministry.

Yuri kek

Public administration reform
1699-1721
Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Consilium of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 collegia with a specific field of activity and powers.
The public administration system has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies became regulated, the collegiums had a clearly defined area of ​​activity. Supervisory bodies were created.

Regional (provincial) reform
1708-1715 and 1719-1720
At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were ruled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, as well as who had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces ruled by voivods, and those were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. The governors were stripped of administrative power and dealt with judicial and military issues.
Power was centralized. Local governments have almost completely lost their influence.

Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722
Peter 1 formed new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justitz Collegium, the Hofgerichts, the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues, except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The trial of kissing people (analogous to the jury) was canceled, the principle of inviolability of the unconvicted person was lost.
A large number of judicial authorities and persons carrying out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, voivods, etc.) brought confusion and confusion into the proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of "knocking out" testimony under torture created grounds for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process was established and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration.

Military reforms
since 1699
The introduction of conscription, the creation of the navy, the establishment of the Military Collegium in charge of all military affairs. Introduction with the help of the "Table of Ranks" military ranks, uniform for the whole of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.
With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, which by 1725 numbered up to 212 thousand people and a strong navy. Subdivisions were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by various historians) created a springboard for the further successes of Russian weapons.

Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721 g.
After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was virtually liquidated. In 1701, the administration of church and monastery lands was reformed. Peter I restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church incomes and the trial of monastic peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which effectively deprived the church of its independence. The Patriarchate was replaced by the Holy Synod, whose members were subordinate to Peter I, to whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.
The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergymen were persecuted. The church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partly lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms
Almost the entire reign of Peter 1
The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes,

Mikhail basmanov

Completing the destruction of the empire of Great Tartary, he began military reform in the Western manner. Established a mechanism for obtaining material income from the Christian church. He introduced serfdom, while in Europe they got rid of it. Allowed many foreigners (including the military) with privileges to enter the Russian Empire. Previously, they were not allowed into the empire. And their theft and corruption. The beginning of a large-scale rewriting of the history of the empire of Great Tartary.

Olya Kireeva

As you know, Peter I opened a window to Europe, made the boyars shave their beards and enlightened the dark Russian people. This emperor was immensely respected during the Soviet period, but in recent history his role in the life of the country is very ambiguous. A relatively objective assessment of what Peter I did for Russia can be based on his completed reforms.
Under Peter I, the Russian kingdom became the Russian Empire as a result of the victory in the Northern War and gaining access to the Baltic Sea. Since that time (1721), the country has been actively involved in foreign policy games.
The Byzantine chronology was replaced by the era "from the Nativity of Christ", the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1.
The conservative Boyar Duma was replaced by the Governing Senate, to which the collegiums (ministries) were subordinate, the entire document flow was standardized, the office work was brought to a single scheme.
The fiscal department was called upon to control the activities of the bureaucratic apparatus.
The country's territory was divided into 8 provinces, in each of which a local power vertical was created, and then each province - into 50 provinces.
The country's regular army was replenished first by foreign officers, and then by Russian nobles - graduates of the navigation, engineering and artillery schools. A powerful military fleet was created, the Naval Academy was opened.
The church hierarchy passed into the full subordination of the Senate, instead of the patriarch, the Holy Synod was in charge of the management of the church vertical, which swore allegiance to the emperor.
The land and peasants assigned to the estate became the full property of the nobles and landowners, the free peasants became the property of the state.
Primary education became compulsory for all boyar children.
All representatives of the nobility were obliged to carry out public service.
The "Table of Ranks" appeared, allowing to build a career regardless of class origin: an official who reached the 8th grade could receive personal nobility.
Instead of household taxes, capitation taxes began to be collected, for the first time a capitation census of the population was carried out.
The main monetary unit was the penny.
Petersburg was built (founded in 1703).
233 industrial enterprises were built.

Social (estate) reforms of Peter I - in brief

As a result of the social reforms of Peter I, the position of the three main Russian estates - nobles, peasants and city dwellers - changed dramatically.

Service class, nobles , after the reforms of Peter I, they began to perform military service not with the local militias they themselves recruited, but in regular regiments. The nobles now (in theory) began their service with the same lower ranks as the common people. Natives of non-nobility estates, on an equal basis with nobles, could rise to the highest ranks. The order of passing service degrees has been determined since the time of the reforms of Peter I no longer by gentility and not by customs like parochialism, but published in 1722 " Table of Ranks". She established 14 ranks of the army and civilian service.

To prepare for the service, Peter I also ordered the nobles to undergo initial training in literacy, numbers and geometry. A nobleman who could not pass the established exam was deprived of the right to marry and receive an officer's rank.

It should be noted that the landlord class, even after the reforms of Peter I, still had a rather important service advantage over ordinary people. The nobles who entered military service, as a rule, were ranked not among the ordinary army regiments, but among the privileged guard regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, who were quartered in St. Petersburg.

Major social change peasants was associated with the tax reform of Peter I. It was carried out in 1718 and replaced the previous courtyard(from each peasant household) taxation method capitation(from the heart). According to the results of the 1718 census, capitation tax.

This, at first glance, purely financial reform had, however, an important social content. The new poll tax was ordered to be levied equally not only from peasants, but also from private-owned slaves who had not previously paid state taxes. This prescription of Peter I brought the social position of the peasantry closer to the disenfranchised servant. It predetermined the evolution of the view of serfs towards the end of the 18th century not as sovereign tax people(which they were considered earlier), but how on complete master slaves.

Cities : the reforms of Peter I were aimed at arranging urban management in accordance with European standards. In 1699, Peter I granted Russian cities the right to self-government in the person of elected burmistrov which should have been town hall... The townspeople were now divided into "regular" and "irregular", as well as guilds and workshops by occupation. By the end of the reign of Peter I, the town halls were transformed into magistrates, who had more rights than the town halls, but were elected in a less democratic way - only from the "first-class" citizens. All magistrates were headed (from 1720) by the capital's Chief Magistrate, who was considered a special collegium.

Peter I. Portrait by P. Delaroche, 1838

Military reform of Peter I - in brief

Administrative and state reforms of Peter I - in brief

Financial reforms of Peter I - in brief

Economic reforms of Peter I - in brief

Like most European leaders in the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries, Peter I followed the principles of mercantilism in economic policy. Applying them to life, he tried in every possible way to develop industry, built factories with state funds, through extensive benefits encouraged such construction by private entrepreneurs, attributed serfs to factories and manufactories. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were already 233 factories in Russia.

In foreign trade, the mercantilist policy of Peter the Great led to strict protectionism (high duties were imposed on imported products to prevent them from competing with Russian products). State regulation of the economy was widely used. Peter I contributed to the laying of canals, roads and other communications, prospecting for minerals. The development of the mineral resources of the Urals gave a powerful impetus to the Russian economy.

Church reform of Peter I - in brief

As a result of the church reform of Peter I, the Russian Church, previously quite independent, became completely dependent on the state. After the death of Patriarch Adrian (1700), the king ordered not elect a new patriarch, and the Russian clergy then did not have him until the 1917 council. was appointed king“Locum tenens of the patriarchal throne” - Ukrainian Stefan Yavorsky.

This "uncertain" state of affairs persisted until in 1721 the final reform of church administration was carried out, developed with the active participation of Feofan Prokopovich. According to this church reform of Peter I, the patriarchate was finally abolished and replaced by a "spiritual college" - The Holy Synod... Its members were not elected by the clergy, but appointed by the tsar - the church has now become legislatively and completely dependent on the secular authorities.

In 1701 the land holdings of the church were transferred to the management of the secular Monastic order. After the synodal reform of 1721, they were formally returned to the clergy, but since the latter now completely submitted to the state, this return did not matter much. Peter I also placed monasteries under strict state control.

He managed to bring the Russian state out of the shadows - thanks to his reforms, Russia became one of the leading powers in the arena of world life. This happened after the introduction of changes that affected almost all aspects of life (especially influenced

First of all, they touched upon the transformation of central administration. As a result, the Boyar Duma was abolished and replaced by the Near Chancellery, which in 1708 was renamed the Consilium of Ministers.

The next item on the list of reforms was the creation (in 1711), which became the highest government agency. He took part in legislative, administrative and judicial matters.

Reforms of Peter the Great 1718-1720s cumbersome and unwieldy laws were abolished and collegia were introduced - initially there were 11: the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, in charge of foreign policy; The military collegium, which controlled all the land forces of the country; The Admiralty Board, which was in charge of the navy; The Berg Collegium dealt with the mining industry; The Justitz Collegium subordinated the civil and criminal courts, etc.

It was also important which was signed in 1714 by Peter the Great. The reforms were as follows: according to this document, the estates of the nobility were henceforth equal to the boyar estates, and the introduction of this decree was aimed at eliminating the borders between the clan and noble nobility. Moreover, now there was no difference between boyar and noble lands. A little later, in 1722, Peter adopted the Table of Ranks, which finally erased the boundaries between the new and old aristocracy and completely equalized them.

In 1708, to strengthen the apparatus of power and increase its influence, the Regional Reform was introduced: the country was divided into eight provinces. Its logical conclusion was management: more and more cities appeared, and, accordingly, the population of the country grew (by the end of the reign of Peter the Great, an average of 350 thousand people lived in large cities). And the composition of the urban population was complex: the main part was small artisans, townspeople, merchants and entrepreneurs.

Under Peter the Great, the process of the transformation of the church was completely completed - the reforms of Peter the Great turned it into an important state institution subordinate to the bodies of supreme secular power. After the death of Patriarch Adrian, the tsar banned elections for a new patriarch, referring to the unexpectedly begun Northern War. He was appointed at the head of the patriarchal throne. After the Great Northern War, Peter abolished the patriarchate altogether. The management of all church affairs and issues was entrusted to the Theological College, after which it was renamed the Holy Government Synod, which completely turned the church into a powerful support of Russian absolutism.

But the great transformations and reforms of Peter the Great brought with them many problems, the main ones of which were the tightening of serfdom and the development of bureaucracy.