Preview:
REGIONAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
SECONDARY PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
Yakovlevsky Polytechnic College
City Builder
Yakovlevsky district, Belgorod region
"USSR in the second half of the XX century"
/ practical lesson on history /
Developed by
Babynin Sergey Anatolyevich,
Lecturer of History and Social Studies
2012
PLAN OF THE LEARNING LESSON
on the subject: History of Russia and the World.
Study program topic:
Russia and the world in the second half of the XX century.
Topic of the lesson:
USSR in the second half of the XX century.
Goals and objectives of the training session:
1. To promote, on the basis of historical material, the formation of a civic position and personal attitude to national history.
2. Show the main dates, concepts and provisions on the topic.
3. To give a figurative idea of the influence on the development of society of the activities of historical personalities, the historical continuity of events, understanding the laws of historical development.
4. To promote the formation and development of basic educational skills and abilities of students in the performance of various activities.
Type of training session:
An educational lesson to consolidate and generalize knowledge and skills of students in various types of educational activities.
Forms of conducting a training session:
Educational lesson - workshop.
Material support of the training session:
PC. Presentation
Distribution of working time in a training session:
p / p | The course of the lesson and the sequence of presentation of the main questions of the content of the topic | Time min. |
The stage of organizing the lesson. | ||
Stage of actualization. | ||
The stage of consolidation and generalization of the topic. | ||
The stage of control and self-control. | ||
Homework information stage. | ||
Reflection stage. |
Course of the training session:
I. Stage of the organization of the lesson.
Checklist check.
Checking students have workbooks, textbooks, writing utensils and other teaching aids.
II. Stage of actualization.
The teacher communicates the topic, goals and objectives, the plan of the lesson(slide number 2)
III. The stage of consolidation and generalization of the topic.
1. History of the USSR in figures(slide number 3-4).
Students must insert numbers into the text.
100 15 185 1/6 22
In the second half of the 20th century, the territory of the USSR was 22 million sq. km, or 1/6 part of the inhabited land. The population of the country was 185 million people. The USSR included 15 union republics, and more than 100 large and small nations.
2. Personality, date and event (conquering space and time)
(slide number 5-6).
Students must make a mapping.
1.S.P. Korolev 2. N.A. Dollezhal 3. I.V. Kurchatov 4. V.V. Tereshkova
5. Yu.A. Gagarin
A. 1963 B. 1957 C. 1949 G. 1961 D. 1954
1. The first manned flight into space 2. The first satellite of the Earth 3. The first nuclear power plant 4. The first woman in space 5. The first nuclear tests in the USSR
Answer : 1-B-2; 2-D-3; 3-B-5; 4-a-4; 5-G-1
3. History of the USSR in persons(slide number 7-8).
Students should arrange the leaders of the USSR in chronological order and name the years of government.
Answer:
1. I.V. Stalin (1924-1953).
2.N.S. Khrushchev (1953-1964).
3. L.I. Brezhnev (1964-1982).
4. M.S. Gorbachev (1985-1991).
5. B.N. Yeltsin (1991-2000).
4. Complete the phrase(slide number 9-10).
Students must conduct an association.
Answer :
The corn epic
Development of virgin lands
Cold war
Camp of socialism
Brezhnev doctrine
Personnel revolution
August putsch
Parade of sovereignties
Sovereign Russia
Commonwealth of States
5. Abbreviation (slide 11-12).
Students must complete the expression.
USSR - Union ... Socialist ...
CIS - ... Independent ...
CMEA - Council ... of Mutual Aid
CPSU - Communist ... Soviet ...
KGB - ... State ...
GKChP - State ... for Emergency ...
ATS - ... Varshavsky ...
Answer :
USSR - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
CIS - Commonwealth of Independent States
CMEA - Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
KPSS - Communist Party of the Soviet Union
KGB - State Security Committee
GKChP - State Emergency Committee
ATS - Warsaw Pact Organization
IV. The stage of control and self-control.
Conclusions and remarks in the course of the lesson.
Assessment of the work of students in class.
V. Homework Information Stage(slide number 13).
Vi. Reflection stage(slide number 14).
Answer in one sentence
today I found out ...
it was interesting…
Now I can…
I felt that ...
I learned…
I will try…
I wanted…
Literature:
1. Zagladin N.V. Simonia N.A. History of Russia and the world in the XX - early XXI century, - Moscow, Russian Word, 2010.
2. Munchaev Sh.M. Political history of Russia, - Moscow, Enlightenment, 1999.
3. Soroko-Tsyupa OS The world at the beginning of the XX century, - Moscow, Enlightenment, 1996.
4. Danilov A.A. Kosulina L.G. Russian history. XX century, - Moscow, Education, 2002.
Internet resources:
http://sovietime.ru/literatura-v-sssr/brezhnev
http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/hrushev/625392-echo
http://kprf.ru/rus_soc/69154.html
http://www.photosight.ru/photos/3013273/
http://www.bookin.org.ru/book/522976
http://www.ruslania.com/context-321/entity-1/details-24651/language-2.html
The post-war fifty years in the history of the USSR and Russia can be characterized as a period of unprecedented rise, stagnation and crisis.
The beginning of this upsurge can be considered the October Socialist Revolution, as a result of which the peoples of a huge country, tens of millions of previously disenfranchised people, received personal freedom, achieved class and national equality, inspired by the idea of building a new society, enthusiastically began to restore the economy after the World War and Civil War. countries, created a new intelligentsia, provided the industrial power of the state.
The revolution, having destroyed class, estate and national restrictions, made it possible to reveal the talents of the peoples who inhabited the country. The measures taken by the state in the field of education made it possible to train specialists for the sectors of the national economy in a short time. Thousands of scientists, designers, tens of thousands of engineers, agronomists, doctors, teachers came from the working class, peasant and bourgeois environment, all peoples and nationalities of the multinational country.
Despite the difficulties of restoring the national economy and the repressions of the 30s, the peoples of the USSR created in two decades the economic and industrial potential of the country, which made it possible for the state to withstand the mortal battle with German fascism. The joint struggle of all the republics of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War gave them hope for a better life. The rapid recovery of the national economy after the war was largely due to the psychological upsurge of the victorious peoples, the intellectual and industrial potential created in the pre-war years.
The victory in the Great Patriotic War, obtained at the cost of huge human sacrifices and material losses, on the one hand, showed the advantages of a centralized planning and distribution system of the national economy, which makes it possible to concentrate the material and labor resources of the country and direct them at the right time to the implementation of measures , on which the existence of the people, the state depended. On the other hand, this same disaster made it possible for the country's leadership to implement ideological slogans about a world revolution, about the victory of communism throughout the world. This was reflected in the formation of pro-Soviet governments in the countries liberated by the Soviet army from the German and Japanese invaders, in the creation of a later bloc of countries of the socialist camp and countries of socialist orientation.
This development of events in the post-war world and the need for the USSR to search for its allies was facilitated by the creation in the United States of the first atomic bomb and its use in the war against Japan. In turn, this led to the start of a race of nuclear and missile weapons, to the beginning of a cold war, the creation of military blocs of countries opposing each other. All this predetermined the international situation on the planet and the development of Russia in the second half of the 20th century.
Post-war restoration of the national economy. The development of the USSR economy in the 50-60s.
As a result of hostilities, the temporary occupation of a part of the territory, the barbarity and atrocities of the German fascists, our state suffered unprecedented economic damage and loss in human resources. The Soviet Union lost about 30% of its national wealth and 27 million people. 1710 cities and towns were destroyed, more than 70 thousand villages and villages. In industry alone, fixed assets worth 42 billion rubles were put out of action. The total economic damage to our state amounted to 2.6 trillion. rub. in pre-war prices.
After the end of the war, despite the efforts of the Soviet people to restore the national economy during the war, the destruction was so great that, according to the main indicators, the pre-war level of its development was not reached and was (in%): Volume of industrial production - 91 to the level of 1940 year, coal mining - 90, oil - 62, pig iron smelting - 59, steel - 67, fabric production - 41, freight turnover of all types of transport - 76, retail turnover - 43, average annual number of workers and employees - 87. The sown area decreased by 37 million hectares, and the head of livestock decreased by 7 million heads. Under the influence of these factors, the national income of the country in 1945 amounted to 83% of the level of 1940.
The war had the most severe impact on the state of the country's labor resources. The number of workers and employees decreased by 5.3 million people, including in industry - by 2.4 million people. In rural areas, the number of able-bodied population decreased by 1/3, able-bodied men - by 60%.
Thus, the Soviet Union was deprived of foreign economic assistance and had to rely on its own forces in restoring the economy destroyed by the war, seeking resources within the national economy for its revival, as well as for the development and mastering of new technology.
Such were the state of the Soviet economy and the foreign policy situation when the Soviet people adopted the first post-war five-year plan.
The five-year plan was aimed at the fastest restoration of areas affected by the fascist occupation, at the inclusion of their natural, industrial and human resources in the economic potential of the state.
A distinctive feature of the post-war period was the combination of restoration work with new construction of industrial enterprises. Only in the republics and regions liberated from the fascists, the construction of 263 new enterprises was started.
The war caused severe damage to agriculture. The Nazis destroyed and plundered more than 40% of all collective and state farms. The able-bodied population in rural areas fell from 35.4 million to 23.9 million. The number of tractors in agriculture was 59% of the pre-war level, and the number of horses decreased from 14.5 million to 6.5 million. The volume of gross agricultural output decreased by 40%. After the Great Patriotic War, the level of agricultural production in comparison with the pre-war level turned out to be lower than the level after the First World War and the Civil War.
In the first year of the post-war five-year plan, a natural disaster was added to the enormous damage caused to agriculture by the war. In 1946, Ukraine, Moldova, the regions of the Central-nochernozem zone, the Lower and part of the Middle Volga region were seized by drought. This was the most severe drought that has hit our country in the past fifty years. This year, collective and state farms harvested 2.6 times less grain than before the war. The drought had a severe impact on livestock production. In the drought-stricken areas, the number of cattle alone decreased by 1.5 million heads. The drought-affected regions were rescued by the state and workers in other regions of the country, who allocated material and financial resources from their scarce resources.
The state was faced with the acute task of transforming the nature of the country's arid regions by creating field-protective forest belts in order to reduce the dependence of agricultural production on weather conditions.
In order to make afforestation in the steppe and forest-steppe regions an organized character and state-wide, a plan for field-protective plantations, the introduction of grass crop rotations, the construction of ponds and reservoirs was adopted to ensure high and sustainable yields in the steppe and forest-steppe regions of the European part of the USSR. In the spring of 1949, forest planting began on a broad front. They were especially active in the Krasnodar Territory, in the Stalingrad, Ryazan, Rostov and Tula regions. Work begun in the years of the first post-war five-year plan to transform the land and improve conditions for agricultural production yielded positive results. Collective farms, state farms and forestry farms have laid, until 1951, field-protective forest belts on an area of 1,852 thousand hectares. State forest belts were created in the country: Kamyshin-Volgograd, Voronezh-Rostov-on-Don, Penza-Kamensk, Belgorod-Don, Chapaevsk-Vladimirovka, etc. Their length was more than 6 thousand km.
The forest plantations created more than 40 years ago still protect about 25 million hectares of agricultural land and are an example of the peaceful application of human strength and a wise attitude to land and nature.
Thus, during the years of the first post-war five-year plan, as a result of the restoration of industrial and agricultural production, the rapid conversion of military production, the volume of industrial production in comparison with 1940 increased by 73%, capital investments - three times, labor productivity - by 37%, and the national income produced by 64%.
In the 50s, the country's economy was developing dynamically. For 10 years, the average annual growth rate of gross industrial production was 11.7%, gross agricultural output - 5.0%, fixed assets - 9.9%, national income produced 10.27%, turnover - 11.4%.
This was facilitated by the renewal and modernization of fixed assets in industry, the strengthening of the material and technical base of agriculture, the expansion of the production of consumer goods, the development of virgin lands, and the improvement of the management system.
The change in the internal political situation in the country was of no small importance in the achieved successes. Death in 1953 I.V. Stalin was the beginning of the end of the totalitarian system he created and the beginning of the transition to a new course in domestic politics.
Elected to the post of First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU N.S. Khrushchev (1894-1971) began to pursue a course related to the social orientation of the economy, an increase in capital investments in the industries of group "B" and agriculture, with the expansion of the rights of heads of enterprises and collective farms. Special attention was paid to the development of agriculture. At the same time, the main emphasis was placed on the development of virgin and fallow lands. In Western Siberia and Kazakhstan, hundreds of new state farms, machine and tractor stations were created, roads were laid, and villages were built. Naturally, this was an extensive way of the industry development. But it made it possible to achieve an increase in agricultural production by 34% in five years, and to create new areas of agricultural production in the east of the country.
An important role in the integrated development of regions and the regional economy was played by the transition in 1957 to territorial principles of management. The overwhelming number of union and republican ministries was abolished, and enterprises were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Councils of National Economy (Sovnarkhozes) created in the republics, territories and regions.
Their education was a definite step in the decentralization of the management of the national economy, in the expansion of rights and material opportunities on the ground, in the democratization of the economy. At the same time, this created difficulties in pursuing a unified national scientific and technical policy, scattered resources, and reduced the effect of the previously existing advantage from the concentration of funds.
During these years, a significant step was taken to improve the living standards of the population. This found expression in the Pension Law, in tax cuts, in the abolition of tuition fees in secondary schools and universities, in the introduction of a guaranteed minimum wage in agricultural production, in wage increases in other sectors, a reduction in the length of the working week, etc.
Particular successes were achieved in solving the housing problem. In the 50s, soft loans began to be provided to developers of individual houses. This has improved the housing situation in small and medium-sized towns and rural areas. In the 60s, when designers and architects ensured the organization of standard house building on an industrial basis, housing construction increased sharply, which made it possible to provide by the end of the 70s. 80% of families in cities have separate apartments.
The level of public education has increased. The created network of schools, technical schools, universities made it possible to form a good personnel potential of the country, which had a positive effect on the development of science and culture. This, in turn, made it possible to carry out a new technical revolution, ensured space exploration. The radio-electronic, nuclear, chemical, and instrument-making industries developed rapidly. It was during these years that the country created its own nuclear and rocket potential, built the world's first artificial satellite of the Earth, and then a spacecraft, completed the first manned flight into space, built the first nuclear power plants and naval nuclear ships.
The development of new regions and deposits of minerals proceeded on a large scale. The country has become urbanized. The national wealth grew in the form of thousands of new enterprises, hundreds of new cities and towns.
The development of new lands, the construction of cities and enterprises created new jobs, which, in turn, ensured a healthy socio-psychological climate in the state, confidence in getting work, housing, minimal household and socio-cultural benefits and services, confidence in tomorrow.
The progressive development of the USSR economy was facilitated by the economic reform carried out in 1965. It was expressed, on the one hand, in the centralization of the management of the national economy through the liquidation of economic councils and the re-establishment of sectoral ministries. On the other hand, the self-supporting principle of economic management at enterprises was revived, funds for material incentives were created, payments were made to the budget for the basic production assets used by enterprises, enterprises were given broader rights in planning, etc. All these measures were designed to promote the increase the interest of labor collectives in the final results of production, in increasing the level of intensification of labor and the economy of the country as a whole.
Already the first results of the reforms were positive. In 1966-1970. the country achieved quite high growth rates of the main economic indicators. Science and industries that determine scientific and technological progress (mechanical engineering, electronics, energy, petrochemical industry, etc.) developed at a rapid pace. In terms of the volume of production of a number of types of industrial products, the USSR overtook the United States and ranked first in the world.
With the creation of the camp of socialist countries, the international importance of the USSR, which stood at the head of the world socialist system, increased sharply. Many Third World countries adhered to a socialist orientation. For the entire more than a thousand-year history of the Russian state, it did not have such a high economic potential, the standard of living of the population, international authority and influence on the fate of the world.
In 1964, Khrushchev was removed from office, and Leonid Brezhnev took over as General Secretary. In 1965, there was a major revision of the Soviet system of planning and economic management - "Kosygin reforms". Methods of economic incentives began to be actively introduced, and enterprises gained greater independence.
Since 1966, universal secondary education was introduced, and by the number of specialists
with higher education, the Soviet Union was in first place. During the Brezhnev years, a large-scale construction of housing and roads began, a subway appeared in eight cities, and more than 160 million Soviet citizens received free housing. A unified energy and transport network was created, which is still used today.
In the early 80s, the USSR took second place after the United States in industrial development.
and agriculture, and in some areas took first place.
However, the economy is already stagnating. Lagging behind Western countries in science-intensive technologies, especially in computer technology, began. Despite
on developed agriculture, the first signs of a commodity deficit appeared.
In December 1979, in order to protect the southern borders, the government of the USSR carried out a change of power in Afghanistan and introduced troops there. However, NATO countries began large-scale support for the Afghan opposition (mujahideen), supplying them with weapons
and ammunition. This greatly complicated the actions of the Soviet troops, and the operation in Afghanistan continued until 1989.
In 1982, after the death of Brezhnev, the country was headed by Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov. Trying to bring the Soviet economy out of the crisis, he takes a course towards strengthening labor discipline and order at enterprises, carries out a large-scale fight against corruption and arranges "purges" of the party apparatus. Economic indicators begin to improve, but in 1984 Andropov dies. Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko, who took his place, curtails Andropov's undertakings and returns to the usual Brezhnev system.
In March 1985, Chernenko dies. The country was headed by a representative of the young party elite - Mikhail Gorbachev. In April, he proclaimed a course towards accelerating the socio-economic development of the USSR and modernizing production. Also, the leaders of the Brezhnev era were replaced - instead of them, Yakovlev, Ryzhkov, Yeltsin and other young politicians entered the government. In the same year, a large-scale anti-alcohol campaign began in the country.
In February and March 1986, the 17th Party Congress was held. He adopted a new program for the development of the USSR, which no longer spoke about building communism, but about improving socialism.
In April 1986, the largest man-made disaster in history occurred - the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. In the same year, oil prices plummeted on world markets, which negatively affected the Soviet economy.
In 1987, the Gorbachev government decided to change the "administrative-command system" to "democratic socialism" and began economic reforms. Enterprises switched to self-financing and gained independence, the first sprouts of private entrepreneurship appeared - cooperatives and joint ventures. As a result, the state lost the levers of economic management: prices rose, and there was a shortage of essential goods.
The changes also affected the deep foundations of the Soviet system: a course was taken for the democratization of society, freedom of speech and new thinking. New social and political organizations and parties appeared in the country, alternative to the CPSU. In 1989, the first free elections of deputies to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR took place.
Foreign policy has also changed. Relations with the United States and other Western countries improved, and the Soviet government made concessions on many conflict issues: it withdrew its troops from Afghanistan and contributed to the unification of East and West Germany. At this time, a wave of anti-communist revolutions swept across Eastern Europe.
A summary of the history of Russia.
Part 8 (1964-2014)
A Brief History of Russia. History of Russia in pictures and photos. A summary of the history of Russia. Key dates and events in the history of Russia. History of Russia for children. USSR in the second half of the 20th century. Modern history of Russia (1991-2014).
USSR in the second half of the 20th century. Briefly
(in design)L. Brezhnev. Development and growth of the economy. Entry of troops into Afghanistan.
M. Gorbachev, economic reforms.
USSR in the second half of the 20th century. Contemporary history of Russia.
USSR in the second half of the 20th century.
Modern history of Russia (1991-2014).
1300-1613 biennium
1613-1762
1762-1825
9-13 centuries
1825-1917
1917-1941
1941-1964
1964-2014 biennium
The collapse of the USSR. GKChP. Economic crisis. Shooting of the White House. War in
Chechnya. Default in 1998. War with Georgia. The annexation of Crimea to Russia.
Contemporary history of Russia. Briefly
(in design)Gradually, centrifugal forces increased in the republics of the USSR: nationalist and separatist movements appeared, and interethnic conflicts began. In the 90th year, several republics at once announced their withdrawal from the Soviet Union. On June 12, Russian deputies adopted a resolution on the sovereignty of the RSFSR. And a year later, the post of President of the RSFSR was established, which in July 1991 was taken by Boris Yeltsin.
In March 1991, a referendum was held, during which 76% of the inhabitants of the USSR voted to keep it. On August 18, government representatives headed
with Gennady Yanayev, they attempted to preserve the Soviet Union and declared a state of emergency. They created the State Emergency Committee (GKChP) and tried to remove Gorbachev from office. Attempt
turned out to be unsuccessful and the members of the CPC were arrested.
On December 8, in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, the presidents of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine signed an agreement on the formation of the Union of Independent States (CIS). On December 12, this treaty was ratified by the Supreme Council with an overwhelming majority of votes. The Soviet Union ceased to exist - Russia became its legal successor.
In 1992, Boris Yeltsin began economic reforms known as "shock therapy" or "Gaidar reforms," after the name of Prime Minister Yegor Gaidar. In January, the state stopped regulating prices and allowed free trade. Large-scale privatization also started, and most of the state-owned enterprises went into private ownership.
The shelves in the stores were filled with goods, but prices jumped several times. The stratification of society began in the country, the rich appeared ("new Russians")
and the poor. The rise in crime has led to the merger of business and criminal capital. The demographic situation has also worsened - the death rate has exceeded the birth rate.
These changes have caused dissatisfaction with the Supreme Soviet. In September 1993, the president dissolves the Supreme Soviet, which aggravates the conflict between the deputies and Yeltsin. The constitutional crisis escalated into an armed clash between supporters of the parliament and the Russian security forces, and by order of the president, troops were sent to Moscow. After shelling from
tanks of the House of Soviets, supporters of the Supreme Soviet were forced to surrender.
In December, a new Russian constitution was adopted at an all-Russian referendum. She expanded the powers of the president and replaced the Supreme Soviet with a bicameral parliament - the State Duma and the Federation Council. The RSFSR changed its name to the Russian Federation.
By 94, the Chechen Republic had actually gained independence and turned into the country's criminal center. To restore order, Russian troops are deployed on its territory. The campaign was accompanied by a large number of casualties among the military and civilians. In the next two years, terrorists attacked neighboring regions - the loudest were the hostage-taking in Budennovsk and Kizlyar.
On August 31, 1996, the Khasavyurt agreements were signed. As a result, Russian units were withdrawn from Chechnya, but the threat of terrorism continued to emanate from it.
In 1996, the next presidential elections are held. Yeltsin, thanks to a large-scale election campaign, defeated his main rival, the communist Gennady Zyuganov.
In 1998, due to the huge external debt and the depreciation of government bonds, a technical default occurred in Russia. The ruble collapsed and the economic crisis began.
In August 1999, the director was appointed the new chairman of the government.
FSB Vladimir Putin, retired KGB lieutenant colonel. The appointment coincided with a massive invasion of Dagestan by Chechen militants. Putin led the anti-terrorist operation, and by mid-September the militants were driven out of Dagestan.
The counter-terrorist operation began in Chechnya. Its active phase ended in the summer of 2000 after taking control of the entire territory of the Chechen Republic, and the counter-terrorist operation regime was finally canceled.
in 2009.
At the very end of 1999, Yeltsin resigned, transferring his powers.
Putin. In March 2000, Putin wins the presidential election. In the 2000s, socio-economic reforms were carried out: the tax and
pension legislation, benefits were monetized, a new
labor and land codes.
Putin strengthens the vertical of executive power and creates a government party - United Russia, which won the majority of seats in the Duma three times
and provided support for government initiatives. The country has seen significant growth in GDP, industry and household income.
In the 2000s, there were several high-profile terrorist attacks.
In 2002, terrorists took over the Moscow theater on Dubrovka, which led
to the death of 130 people. In 2004, terrorists seized a school in Beslan
(North Ossetia) - 330 people died, including 172 children.
In 2008, Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev won the presidential elections, and
Putin took over as prime minister. On August 8, 2008, Georgian troops shelled the city of Tskhinval in South Ossetia, which led to the death of civilians and Russian peacekeepers. Russia enters the conflict on the side
Ossetia and displaces Georgian troops from its territory.
In 2012, V. Putin again won the presidential elections, and D. Medvedev was headed the government.
In 2014, during the socio-political crisis in Ukraine, a referendum on joining the Russian Federation was held in the Crimean autonomy. According to its results, in March the Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol became part of Russia.
On March 5, 1953, at the age of 74, JV Stalin died, and the country entered a new period of its development. On the same day, important personnel changes were made by his successors in the top leadership of the CPSU and the USSR. In particular, in the Central Committee of the CPSU, instead of the Presidium of the Central Committee and the Bureau of the Central Committee, one governing body was created - the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU, which consisted of 11 people (instead of the previous 25). NS Khrushchev became a member of the new Presidium of the Central Committee and at the same time secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU.
In the activities of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the principle of collective leadership began to be affirmed, and therefore it was decided not to restore the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. Until the end of June 1953, G.M. Malenkov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, and L.P. Beria, the Minister of Internal Affairs, had virtually all power in the country and in the ruling party. On June 26, LP Beria, on the initiative of NS Khrushchev, was arrested and put on trial on charges of espionage and conspiracy to seize power in the country. The July 1953 Plenum of the Party Central Committee withdrew LP Beria from his ranks, expelled him from the CPSU "as an enemy of the Communist Party and the Soviet people." In the official announcement of the Plenum, LP Beria was accused of trying to put the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs above the government and the CPSU. In December 1953, LP Beria and his six closest associates were sentenced to death by a court decision.
The July Plenum, correcting previous mistakes in the activities of the party, stated that in previous years, JV Stalin had violated the Leninist norms and principles of party leadership. After the 18th Congress, held in 1939, no party congresses were convened for 14 years, which was a flagrant violation of the CPSU Rules.
The plenary sessions of the Central Committee were rarely convened, the principle of collective leadership was not ensured in the activities of the higher party bodies, there was no criticism and self-criticism, there was no creative initiative of ordinary communists.
At the September 1953 Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, NS Khrushchev was elected First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. Thus, the previous agreement on the collective leadership of the party was violated. Leading the party, NS Khrushchev began to vigorously fight the legacy of Stalinism. At the XX Congress of the CPSU, which was held in February 1956, NS Khrushchev made a closed report "On the personality cult and its consequences." The report was read on the last day of the congress, February 25, and was not subject to discussion. In it NS Khrushchev cited 19 basic provisions that clearly testified to Stalin's crimes against the party and the people. Materials for the report on the initiative of NS Khrushchev were prepared by a specially created commission of the Central Committee of the CPSU in 1955, headed by the secretary of the Central Committee of the party, Academician P.N. Pospelov.
It should be noted that NS Khrushchev defended the need to make a report at the XX Congress of the CPSU in difficult disputes with his colleagues on the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee. Most of them, including V. M. Molotov, L. M. Kaganovich, K. E. Voroshilov, G. M. Malenkov and other former associates of I. V. Stalin, convinced N. S. Khrushchev that such a report would deal an irreparable blow to the prestige of the CPSU and the entire international communist movement. However, NS Khrushchev decided to tell the party and the whole country the truth and insisted on his speech, which became truly historic.
The 20th Congress of the CPSU instructed the Central Committee of the Party to prepare a new Party Program based on the main provisions of the Marxist-Leninist theory, which developed on the basis of the historical experience of the CPSU and the entire international communist and workers' movement.
Immediately after the XX Congress of the CPSU, in accordance with the changes made to the Party Charter, at industrial enterprises, in workshops, brigades and at production sites, shop organizations began to be created in primary party organizations with more than 50 communists, and not 100, as it was before. In addition, the Central Committee of the CPSU began to pay more attention to the regional party organizations, on the level of which, as the party leaders believed, success in the development of industry and agriculture largely depended. (For the vertical structure of the organs of party power in the USSR, see Appendix No. 5).
In the resolution of the December 1957 Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the substantiation of the growing role of trade unions in the construction of socialism was further developed. It was considered necessary to turn production conferences into permanent ones, to include representatives of workers, employees, administration, party and Komsomol organizations, scientific and technical societies in them. The functions of factory and local trade union committees were also expanded. They received the right to participate in the development of industrial and financial plans of enterprises, in solving issues of labor and wage rationing, and to monitor compliance with labor legislation. The dismissal of workers and employees was now carried out only with the consent of the factory and local committees.
The activities of the Komsomol were also filled with new content. Komsomol organizations, like trade unions, more energetically began to urge the country's youth to participate in the construction of enterprises, power plants, and in the development of virgin lands. By the end of 1956, more than 200 thousand young men and women had left for new buildings in various regions of the country on Komsomol vouchers. By the XIII Congress of the Komsomol, which was held in April 1958, there were 18 million people in the ranks of this youth organization.
In June 1957, 6 out of 9 members of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU, including V. M. Molotov, L. M. Kaganovich, N. A. Bulganin and other leaders of the party and country, opposed NS Khrushchev. GM Malenkov, in particular, said that the power of one person in the post of First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU is completely unlimited, and this is extremely dangerous for the fate of both the party and the country. NS Khrushchev was accused of violating the norms of collective leadership, of rudeness and arrogance, of creating his own personality cult. However, the June 1953 Plenum of the Central Committee of the party did not support the opponents of NS Khrushchev and accused them of creating an "anti-party group", which was a violation of the resolution of the X Congress of the RCP (b) "On the unity of the party." The Plenum brought 16 charges against the opposition and dismissed them from their posts, with the exception of the repentant KE Voroshilov, who retained his post as head of state. In October 1957, at the Plenum of the Central Committee, Marshal GK Zhukov was removed from the post of Minister of Defense of the USSR on charges of "Bonapartism", the separation of the Armed Forces from the CPSU and an attempt to seize power in the country. On April 1, 1958, NS Khrushchev was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Having received two top posts in the country, he began to possess immense power.
The 22nd Congress of the CPSU, held in October 1961, was of great importance in the life of the ruling party. It was attended by 4,799 delegates, representing more than 9.7 million communists. The congress adopted the third Party Program - the program for building a communist society in the USSR. At the insistence of NS Khrushchev, the Program defined specific dates for building the material and technical base of communism in the USSR - by the beginning of the 1980s. The CPSU program ended with an optimistic and solemn promise from the party: "The current generation of Soviet people will live under communism!" As time has shown, it was a wrong decision.
The 22nd Congress of the CPSU adopted a new party charter. It provided for a systematic renewal of the composition of party bodies. In particular, at each regular election, the composition of the Central Committee and its Presidium were to be renewed by 25%. Members of the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee could be elected for no more than three consecutive terms, that is, for 12 years. At the same time, "as an exception", some prominent party leaders could be elected to the governing bodies for longer terms. Thus, there was still an opportunity for life-long rule by individual leaders of the CPSU.
Khrushchev's last party reform was the division in November 1962, according to the decisions of the November Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the regional and regional party organizations into two independent according to the production principle. One party organization in the krai and oblast was responsible only for agriculture, and the other for industry. The meaning of this division, according to NS Khrushchev, was to bring party organizations and communists closer to the immediate areas of work. However, this division was a gross violation of the Party Charter, which spoke about the territorial production principle of building party organizations. In fact, it was about the division of a single CPSU into two independent parties - workers' and peasants, urban and rural. It is clear that this innovation was unsuccessful and therefore short-lived - it was canceled already in November 1964.
After Stalin's death, the socio-political situation in the country changed significantly. The processes of democratization of public life that began, albeit on a very limited scale, were called the "thaw". Speaking about its manifestations, it should be remembered that this concept did not include the need to reform the entire existing system. The idea of the reforms of the 1950s was to give society a second wind after overcoming the consequences of Stalin's personality cult. Major social programs were implemented, extensive rehabilitation was carried out, which made it possible to restore the good name of many thousands of people. Among them are figures of artistic culture who have become victims of lawlessness: V.E. Meyerhold, B.A. Pilnyak, O.E. Mandelstam, I.E. Babel, G.I. Serebryakov, V. Shalamov and others.
During this period, the administrative-command dictate over culture was softened, the system of its leadership became more democratic. After a long break, the second congress of writers (1954), the second congress of composers (1957), and the first congress of artists (1957) took place. Meetings of creative workers of various professions began to be held regularly. The revitalization of cultural life was facilitated by literary and art magazines, the number of which has increased significantly. The first International Festival of Youth and Students (1957), the International Competition of Musicians named after V.I. P.I. Tchaikovsky (1958) and the International Film Festival.
Great changes have taken place in the artistic culture. The Thaw was reflected primarily in literature. The positions of the country's democratic intelligentsia were strengthened. A struggle unfolded against the varnishing of reality, a ceremonial display of events on the pages of fiction and journalistic works. In the press, at meetings and congresses of writers, at meetings of literary and artistic figures with readers, discussions were unfolded on acute topical problems of public life.
During these years, a new generation of writers and poets came to literature, who later came to be called the "sixties". Among them are poets E. Yevtushenko, A. Voznesensky, R. Rozhdestvensky, B. Akhmadulina, B. Okudzhava, playwright V. Rozov, songwriters Y. Vizbor, A. Yakusheva and a whole galaxy of bards. They were united by a common civic position: honesty, courage, indifference to all painful problems of society.
In the artistic culture of those years, certain centers were formed, which became the stronghold of new searches in literature, theater, and cinema. One of these centers was the literary and art magazine "New World", the editor-in-chief of which was A.T. Tvardovsky. The magazine became the mouthpiece of the most pressing problems of the time. As an editor and citizen, Tvardovsky tried to change not only the character of modern literature, but also to bring into life the principles of democracy and glasnost. At this time, the magazine managed to print several works on the previously forbidden topic of repression. So, for the first time in the literature, the name of A.I. Solzhenitsyn and his first works: "One day of Ivan Denisovich", and a little later "Matrenin's yard" and "An incident at the station Kochetovka", which became classics of Russian literature XX century. When the thaw subsided, the activities of Novy Mir began to encounter more and more obstacles, and in 1970 its editorial board was disbanded.
Another such center was the young Sovremennik theaters (1957, chief director O. Efremov) and the Taganka Drama and Comedy Theater (1964, chief director Yu. Lyubimov), the Bolshoi Drama Theater in Leningrad (chief director G.A. Tovstonogov).
A new type of hero has established itself in the cinema - a simple, ordinary person, attractive by his moral character. The filmmakers sought to convey to the viewer the truth of life, the historical truth, castigated shortcomings and provoked thought. At this time, wonderful films were created: "Spring on Zarechnaya Street", "It Was in Penkovo", "Girls", "The Cranes Are Flying", "My Dear Man", "Ballad of a Soldier", "Clear Sky", "Fate man ”and many others.
Lyric songs, especially the genre of "author's song", in which professional and amateur creativity merged, acquired a new life. The songs of B. Okudzhava, Y. Vizbor, V. Vysotsky, A. Galich created the image of a romantic and a dreamer.
A "harsh style" was established in the visual arts, combining the weighty, rough truth of everyday life with romantic tendencies (P. Nikonov, V. Popkov, A. and P. Smolina, N. Andronov and others).
But speaking of the "thaw", noting the progressive phenomena of the country's cultural life, one should not forget about its problems, contradictions and its limitations. It was a reform "from above", "freedom of creativity" was initiated by the leadership of the party and the state. It also defined the boundaries of "freedom" itself and reforms. In essence, all social life and culture remained under control, although to a lesser extent than during the Stalinist period.
Meetings with leaders of the party and government (1957, 1962, 1963) were a kind of "purgatory" for cultural figures. The creativity of the masters was ideologically tough on them, incompetent assessments were given, and labels were hung. The tone in all this was set by N.S. Khrushchev, who rudely demanded from cultural figures a clear implementation of the general line of the party.
It is not surprising that the outstanding works that had already been created could not see the light in such an atmosphere: the poems of A. Tvardovsky "Terkin in the Next World" and "By the Right of Memory", the novels of V. Grossman "Life and Fate", A. Beck "New appointment ”, A. Solzhenitsyn“ Cancer Ward ”and“ In the First Circle ”, stories by V. Sha-lamov and others. B. Pasternak was hunted and expelled from the Writers' Union in the most shameful way.
For all its inconsistency and inconsistency, the “thaw” became an important stage in the country's social and cultural development. It was an attempt to break through to democracy, turn to man, to his needs and aspirations. And she caused a reciprocal impulse of society, the rise of creative energy. The social atmosphere has become different, people have become different. If the reforms were continued, democratization was developed and deepened, perhaps social development would have become different. But that did not happen. The party and the state abandoned reforms, from deepening democratic processes, which had a most disastrous effect on the fate of the party itself and society as a whole. The collapse of the "thaw", curtailment of reforms, an attempt to rehabilitate Stalinism, latent growing crisis phenomena in ideology, politics, economics affected the entire social life, artistic culture.
The period of the 70s - the first half of the 80s. was complex and ambiguous in the development of the country's artistic culture. Inconsistent reforms of the 50-60s. could not change the essence of the command and control system. The old methods of managing culture continued to operate, although in form they changed somewhat. Moreover, during these years, the more difficult the situation in the country became, the more tightened the control of party bodies over literature and art.
In this situation, the creative intelligentsia was going through difficult times. The consequence of the processes taking place in society was a kind of stratification of culture into two layers: the official culture, supported by the state, and unofficial, not recognized by it. Some took an active part in fulfilling the social order of the party. Although, and here it should be noted, the works created during this period were very different in terms of their level, because everything in art is determined by the measure of talent.
Many cultural figures tried, within the framework of what was permitted, to convey the truth to people, to awaken thoughts, to provoke a protest. The works of Y. Trifonov "Exchange", "Preliminary results", "Another life", A. Bitov "Garden", "Countryside" and others caused a great public resonance. works such as "The usual business" by V. Belov, "Spice" by F. Abramov, "Men and women" by B. Mozhaev. These works reflect the fate and thoughts of ordinary people, their relationship with the history of their people, with nature, the search for moral guidelines.
The theater fought for the ideals of humanism, freedom of thought and creativity. Such performances as "Solo for Striking Clock", "Meeting of the Party Committee" at the Moscow Art Theater, "The Dawns Here Are Quiet", "Hamlet" at the Taganka Theater and others have gone beyond the cultural sphere alone and have become a noticeable phenomenon in the country's public life. The real idol of the public was A.I. Raikin. His satirical performances were an example of an uncompromising struggle against vulgarity, bureaucracy, and immorality.
But many talented performances, books, films and other works of art hardly reached the viewer. For each of them there was a struggle, it was necessary to overcome a lot of bureaucratic authorities and censorship slingshots. Many works ended up on the shelves of film storages, in special depositories and in the archives of the KGB. Such a fate befell the films of A. Tarkovsky, K. Muratova, A. German. In 1970, the authorities forced A. Tvardovsky to leave the post of editor-in-chief of Novy Mir, in 1974 they dispersed an exhibition of avant-garde artists (a “bulldozer exhibition”), etc.
Under these conditions, those cultural figures who did not want to adapt went abroad. The main director of the Taganka Theater Y. Lyubimov, film director A. Tarkovsky, artists O. Tselkov and M. Shemyakin, poets I. Brodsky, N. Korzhavin, writers V. Nekrasov, S. Dovlatov left the country, A. Galich were forced to go abroad , V. Voinovich. The writer A. Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the country and deprived of his citizenship.
Many representatives of literature and art were forced to find a layer of unofficial culture, which objectively became a culture of protest, a free culture, rebellious and truthful. It manifested itself primarily in an area that was more difficult to control and where there were more technical opportunities for distribution. The author's song became such a genre, and its recognized leaders were V. Vysotsky, A. Galich, B. Okudzhava.
Rock music has become a kind of unofficial mass culture. In the lyrics, performed by numerous "underground" rock groups of songs, there was a protest, disagreement with the falsehood, and freedom was proclaimed. Samizdat became widespread among the intelligentsia. In addition to individual works, typewritten journals functioned: "Metropol", "Veche", "Memory", "Search" - in Moscow, "Sigma", "37", "Clock" - in Leningrad, "Ukrainian Bulletin" - in Ukraine, " Golden Fleece "- in Georgia, etc. They published unpublished works of M. Bulgakov, V. Shalamov, A. Solzhenitsyn, A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, V. Aksenov, A. Bitov, F. Iskander and many other authors.
The period of the 70s - the first half of the 80s is called "stagnant". However, this concept cannot be applied unequivocally to artistic culture. Those processes and creative searches, which were given impetus by the "thaw", continued in subsequent years, despite the preservation of the former administrative-command system of management. The best traditions of Russian culture continued to develop in the works of true masters, both recognized and officially unrecognized.
And nevertheless, by the mid-80s, the economy, society, culture were already in a state of crisis that had to be overcome. Such an attempt was made in the second half of the 1980s and was called perestroika. It was like the second Soviet "thaw", during which its founders thought to build "socialism with a human face", that is, a humane, legal society, freeing it from all vices, stratifications, deformations.
Perestroika began with a process of democratization, at first limited, then more and more widespread. In the course of the reform of the political system that followed in 1988, new political and social forces were called to active activity, and the whole society came into motion. The development of democratic processes grew rapidly, made a rollback impossible, and ultimately led to the collapse of the socialist system, to the rejection of a significant part of the population from the communist idea itself and the collapse of the USSR.
Thus, the period from 1985 to the present is a period of an ever-accelerating dismantling of the foundations on which our society was held for more than seven decades. Of course, along with destructive processes in the economic, political and spiritual spheres, creative ones arose and developed.
All this complex range of phenomena was directly reflected in the artistic culture. At the initial stage of perestroika, there was clearly a desire to complete what was not completed during the years of the "thaw": to tell the whole truth about Stalinism, to carry out the entire process of rehabilitation, to truly restore our history. It was necessary to tell the truth about stagnation.
During this period, journalism took the leading place in artistic life. Television and radio became more and more active. The flow of materials was great, interesting and sometimes sensational. They reflect the tragic pages of our recent history, the fate of people, criticism of the shortcomings and vices of socialist society.
The same themes were embodied in fiction, theater, and cinema. The works of Ch. Aitmatov "Plakha", V. Rasputin "Fire", V. Astafiev "Sad Detective", A. Rybakov "Children of the Arbat", D. Granin "Bison", V. Dudintsev "White Clothes" and others are reflected burning problems of history and modernity. The performances “The Dictatorship of Conscience”, “The Brest Peace” by M. Shatrov and others staged in a number of theaters enjoyed undoubted interest.
In the first years of perestroika, the works of N. Gumilyov, M. Tsvetaeva, A. Akhmatova, V. Khodasevich, V. Nabokov, A. Platonov returned to our culture. The novels of V. Grossman "Life and Fate", B. Pasternak "Doctor Zhivago" were published. The canvases of the avant-garde artists of the 1920s and 1930s appeared at art exhibitions. P. Filonov, V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, A. Lentulov, M. Chagall.
The end of the 80s - the beginning of the 90s was marked by a further deepening of transformations in our society. The tendency to politicize cultural life has intensified. Cultural figures became more and more actively involved in the political life of the country. Academician D. Likhachev, artists M. Ulyanov, O. Basilashvili, K. Lavrov, writers G. Baklanov, Y. Bondarev, V. Rasputin, Ch. Aitmatov, poets E. Yevtushenko, Y. Drunina, D. Kuguldinov became people's deputies , which testified to the recognition of the role of cultural figures in the preparation of social transformations, respect and trust in them.
In the sphere of artistic culture, an acute ideological and political struggle unfolded: the partocrats opposed the democrats, the neo-Westerners opposed the neo-Slavophiles, etc. This opposition affected all types of artistic creativity, all creative groups. The struggle took place at congresses, plenary sessions of writers, artists, filmmakers, and theatrical figures. Creative organizations, collectives split, their leadership changed.
An important phenomenon in the cultural life of the early 90s was the arrival of a completely new layer of literature - anti-Soviet, anti-communist works of representatives of the post-October emigration, memoirs of the White Guards, works of pre-revolutionary political figures, etc. Dissident literature also came to the reader (V. Maksimov, A. Sinyavsky , A. Zinoviev, etc.). There are publications of books, articles by foreign historians, philosophers, economists, sociologists, who were previously considered falsifiers in our country.
These years have passed under the sign of the return of religion and the church to the social life of the country, to the souls of many people. Religious literature began to be published, people flocked to temples. The clergy became more and more involved in public life, some of them became people's deputies.
And finally, this period was marked by a powerful influx of Western mass culture into our country, mostly of a low level.
The current stage in the development of Russian culture is complex, contradictory, sometimes paradoxical and dramatic. The main thing that happened in the early 90s was the collapse of the USSR, the reorientation of the entire socio-economic, political and spiritual development of society. The transition of society from one state to another is always a painful process that affects the fate of individuals and entire nations, especially since it is accompanied by confrontation, division, bloodshed.
The dramatic pages of our modern history have a detrimental effect on the state of artistic culture. Its position was seriously aggravated in connection with the transition to the market, with which the culture was one on one. Its material base is in a catastrophic situation, since the state, due to the difficult financial situation, does not provide it with the necessary support. The population is also unable to materially support culture (pay significant sums for visiting theaters, cinemas, exhibitions, museums, etc.). Commercial structures working in the field * of culture try to present what gives immediate profit (rock concerts, shows, Western films, and all this is in the overwhelming majority of a low artistic level). And mass culture itself is not to blame. The point is different, commercialization, firstly, lowers the bar of requirements for the artistic level of this culture, secondly, it forms low tastes and needs of people and, thirdly, in the pursuit of profits, it condemns serious creative achievements of culture to oblivion.
Cultural figures speak with alarm about the spiritual degradation of society, about a drop in educational level, underdeveloped taste, a shift in moral criteria, an increase in crime, drug addiction, prostitution, and drunkenness. We are worried about the undermining of the national roots of culture, the rupture of cultural ties between the peoples of the former USSR. All this together can lead to the cultural degradation of society.
Today the national culture needs help from both the state and the whole society. It is obvious that without culture and civilization, Russia will not rise to the height that it deserves.