Prerequisites for the formation of the ancient Russian state: development of productive forces among the East Slavic tribes; - the formation of a neighboring community; development of trade, incl. international; growing wealth inequality; the presence of unions of Slavic tribes; the emergence of a system of government; the emergence of cities; allocation of tribal nobility; high level of military organization; threat of attack by external enemies; folding of the old Russian people.
Features of the formation of the ancient Russian state: the presence of a patriarchal form of slavery; the predominance of free labor over slave labor; common pagan culture, similar customs, rituals, social psychology; features of the Slavic mentality; features of a geographical and natural-climatic nature.
The problem of the emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs does not have a clear answer.
In foreign and domestic historiography, the so-called " norman theory". The" Norman theory "was supported by such well-known Russian historians as N.M. Karamzin, S.M.Soloviev, V.O.Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov. Its supporters considered the Normans (Vikings, Varangians) to be the founders of the ancient Russian statehood. It was formulated in the second quarter of the 18th century by German historians who worked in Russia by G.Z.Bayer, G.F. Miller, and others.
Its opponents were MV Lomonosov, DI Ilovaisky, SA Gedeonov, etc. They were inclined to think that the Old Russian state arose, first of all, on the basis of the internal development of the East Slavic world, as a result of certain and natural social, economic and military-political shifts in the course of the genesis of class society, it was believed that a complex social system and solid political forms among the Eastern Slavs were established long before the Varangians.
But until recently, there is no unambiguous approach to this problem, since this is based on a different interpretation of written sources.
In our opinion, certain external influences, of course, took place, but they did not play a decisive role in the formation of ancient Russian statehood. This is all the more obvious that class societies and states in Scandinavia (meaning the "Varangian factor") were formed later than in Russia and could not seriously affect the formation of Novgorod-Kievan Rus. However, it is obvious that the Scandinavians (Vikings, Varangians, Normans, dates) were in Eastern Europe. Some of them, entering into agreements with the local Slavic nobility, seized power in certain East Slavic lands. But, becoming Slavic princes, they were forced to rely on the local political and military elite, to express its interests, and they themselves quickly lost their ethnic specificity, language - became Slavic.
It was at this time during the formation of statehood that double-center: in the northwest - Novgorod, in the south - Kiev (this determined the choice of the term to designate the future unified state of Novgorod-Kievan Rus, especially since the process of collecting Slavic lands into a single state went from north to south, along the Dnieper - the famous campaign voivode Rurik - king Oleg, then repeated by the ancient Russian princes Vladimir and Yaroslav). Subsequently, the two-center, despite the fact that the capital was Kiev, was preserved.
Thus, assessing the significant (but not decisive) role of the "Varangian factor" in the creation of ancient Russian statehood, it should be noted that it, first of all, boiled down to "the collection of East Slavic lands, already prepared by internal development for statehood and unification."
Throughout the VI-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs, there was a process of class formation and the creation of the prerequisites for feudalism. The territory on which the ancient Russian statehood began to take shape was located at the intersection of the routes along which the migration of peoples and tribes took place, nomadic routes ran. The South Russian steppes were the arena of an endless struggle of moving tribes and peoples. Often, Slavic tribes attacked the border regions of the Byzantine Empire.
In the VII century. in the steppes between the Lower Volga, Don and the North Caucasus, the Khazar state was formed. Slavic tribes in the regions of the Lower Don and Azov fell under his dominion, while retaining, however, a certain autonomy. The territory of the Khazar kingdom extended to the Dnieper and the Black Sea. At the beginning of the VIII century. the Arabs inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khazars, and through the North Caucasus deeply invaded the north, reaching the Don. A large number of Slavs - allies of the Khazars - were taken prisoner.
Varangians (Normans, Vikings) penetrate the Russian lands from the north. At the beginning of the VIII century. they settled around Yaroslavl, Rostov and Suzdal, establishing control over the territory from Novgorod to Smolensk. Some of the northern colonists penetrate into southern Russia, where they mix with the Rus, adopting their name. In Tmutarakan, the capital of the Russian-Varangian kaganate, which ousted the Khazar rulers, was formed. In their struggle, the opponents turned to the Emperor of Constantinople for an alliance.
In such a complex ooetanovka, the Slavic tribes were consolidated into political alliances, which became the embryo of the formation of a single East Slavic statehood.
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In the IX century. As a result of the centuries-old development of the East Slavic society, the early feudal state of Rus was formed with its center in Kiev. Gradually, all the East Slavic tribes united in Kievan Rus.
The topic of the history of Kievan Rus considered in the work is not only interesting, but also very relevant. Recent years have passed under the sign of changes in many areas of Russian life. The way of life of many people has changed, the system of life values \u200b\u200bhas changed. Knowledge of the history of Russia, the spiritual traditions of the Russian people, is very important for raising the national self-awareness of Russians. The growing interest in the historical past of the Russian people, in its spiritual values \u200b\u200bis also a sign of the nation's revival.
FORMATION OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE IN THE IX CENTURY
The time from the 6th to the 9th centuries is still the last stage of the primitive communal system, the time of the formation of classes and the imperceptible, at first glance, but steady growth of the prerequisites for feudalism. The most valuable monument containing information about the beginning of the Russian state is the chronicle collection "The Tale of Bygone Years, Where the Russian Land Came From, and Who Began to Reign in Kiev and Where the Russian Land Became", compiled by the Kiev monk Nestor around 1113.
Starting his story, like all medieval historians, with the worldwide flood, Nestor tells about the settlement of the Western and Eastern Slavs in Europe in antiquity. He divides the East Slavic tribes into two groups, the level of development of which, according to his description, was not the same. Some of them lived, as he put it, in a “beastly manner”, preserving the features of the tribal system: blood feud, remnants of matriarchy, the absence of marriage prohibitions, “abduction” (abduction) of wives, etc. To these tribes Nestor opposes the glades, in whose land Kiev was built. Glades are "meaningful men", they have already established a patriarchal monogamous family and, obviously, blood feud has become obsolete (they are "distinguished by a meek and quiet disposition").
Further Nestor tells how the city of Kiev was created. Prince Kiy, who reigned there, according to Nestor's story, came to Constantinople to visit the emperor of Byzantium, who received him with great honors. Returning from Constantinople, Kyi built a city on the banks of the Danube, intending to settle here for a long time. But the locals were hostile to him, and Kiy returned to the banks of the Dnieper.
Nestor considered the formation of the Polyan principality in the Middle Dnieper region as the first historical event on the way of creating the Old Russian states. The legend of Kii and his two brothers spread far to the south, and was even brought into Armenia.
Byzantine writers of the 6th century paint the same picture. During the reign of Justinian, huge masses of Slavs advanced to the northern borders of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine historians colorfully describe the invasion of the empire by Slavic troops, taking away prisoners and taking away rich booty, the settlement of the empire by Slavic colonists. The appearance on the territory of Byzantium of the Slavs, who were dominated by communal relations, contributed to the elimination of slaveholding orders here and the development of Byzantium along the path from the slaveholding system to feudalism.
The successes of the Slavs in the struggle against the powerful Byzantium testify to the relatively high level of development of Slavic society for that time: the material prerequisites for equipping significant military expeditions already appeared, and the system of military democracy made it possible to unite large masses of Slavs. Distant campaigns contributed to the strengthening of the power of the princes in the indigenous Slavic lands, where tribal reigns were created.
Archaeological data fully confirm the words of Nestor that the core of the future Kievan Rus began to take shape on the banks of the Dnieper when the Slavic princes made campaigns to Byzantium and the Danube, in the times preceding the attacks of the Khazars (VII century).
The creation of a significant tribal union in the southern forest-steppe regions facilitated the advancement of the Slavic colonists not only in the southwest (to the Balkans), but also in the southeast direction. True, the steppes were occupied by various nomads: Bulgarians, Avars, Khazars, but the Slavs of the Middle Dnieper (Russian land) apparently managed to protect their possessions from their invasions and penetrate deep into the fertile black earth steppes. In the VII-IX centuries. the Slavs also lived in the eastern part of the Khazar lands, somewhere in the Azov region, participated together with the Khazars in military campaigns, were hired to serve the kagan (the Khazar ruler). In the south, the Slavs apparently lived as islands among other tribes, gradually assimilating them, but at the same time accepting elements of their culture.
Throughout the VI-IX centuries. the productive forces grew, tribal institutions changed, and the process of class formation was underway. As the most important phenomena in the life of the Eastern Slavs during the VI-IX centuries. it should be noted the development of arable farming and the allocation of craft; the disintegration of the tribal community as a labor collective and the separation of individual peasant farms from it, forming a neighboring community; the growth of private land ownership and the formation of classes; the transformation of a tribal army with its defensive functions into a squad dominating over tribesmen; seizure of tribal land by princes and nobility as personal hereditary property.
By the IX century. Everywhere in the territory of settlement of the Eastern Slavs, a significant area of \u200b\u200barable land cleared from forests was formed, which testified to the further development of productive forces under feudalism. The unification of small clan communities, which is characterized by a well-known unity of culture, was the ancient Slavic tribe. Each of these tribes gathered a national assembly (veche) Gradually, the power of the tribal princes increased. The development of intertribal ties, defensive and offensive alliances, the organization of joint campaigns and, finally, the subordination of stronger tribes to their weaker neighbors - all this led to the enlargement of the tribes, to their unification into more significant groups.
Describing the time when the transition from tribal relations to the state took place, Nestor notes that in various East Slavic regions there were "their own reigns." This is confirmed by archaeological data.
The formation of an early feudal state, which gradually subjugated all the East Slavic tribes, became possible only when the differences between the south and the north in terms of agricultural conditions were somewhat smoothed out, when in the north there was a sufficient number of plowed land spaces and the need for hard collective labor to undercut and uprooting of the forest has decreased significantly. As a result, the peasant family was separated as a new production collective from the patriarchal community.
The decomposition of the primitive communal system among the Eastern Slavs took place at a time when the slave system had already outlived its usefulness on a world-historical scale. In the process of class formation, Russia came to feudalism, bypassing the slave formation.
In the IX-X centuries. antagonistic classes of feudal society are formed. The number of vigilantes is increasing everywhere, their differentiation is increasing, and the nobility - boyars and princes - is being separated from their midst.
An important question in the history of the emergence of feudalism is the question of the time when cities appeared in Russia. Under the conditions of the tribal system, there were certain centers where tribal parties gathered, a prince was chosen, trade was performed, fortune-telling was carried out, court cases were decided, sacrifices were made to the gods and the most important dates of the year were celebrated. Sometimes such a center became the focus of the most important types of production. Most of these ancient centers later turned into medieval cities.
In the IX-X centuries. the feudal lords created a number of new cities that served both the purposes of defense against nomads and the goals of domination over the enslaved population. Handicraft production was also concentrated in the cities. The old name “grad”, “city”, which meant fortification, began to be applied to a real feudal city with the Detinets-Kremlin (fortress) in the center and an extensive handicraft and trade settlement.
With all the gradualness and slowness of the process of feudalization, one can nevertheless indicate a certain line, starting from which there are grounds to speak of feudal relations in Russia. This line is the 9th century, when a feudal state was already formed among the Eastern Slavs.
The lands of the East Slavic tribes united into a single state were named Rus. The arguments of historians-"Normanists" who tried to declare the creators of the Old Russian state the Normans, who were then called the Varangians in Russia, are unconvincing. These historians stated that the chronicles meant the Varangians by Russia. But as has already been shown, the prerequisites for the formation of states among the Slavs took shape over many centuries and by the 9th century. gave a noticeable result not only in the West Slavic lands, where the Normans never penetrated and where the Great Moravian Empire arose, but also in the East Slavic lands (in Kievan Rus), where the Normans appeared, robbed, destroyed representatives of local princely dynasties and sometimes became princes themselves. Obviously, the Normans could neither facilitate nor seriously interfere with the process of feudalization. The name Rus began to be used in sources in relation to a part of the Slavs 300 years before the appearance of the Varangians.
The first mention of the people grew up in the middle of the 6th century, when information about them reached Syria. Glades, called, according to the chronicler, Russia, become the basis of the future Old Russian people, and their land becomes the core of the territory of the future state - Kievan Rus.
Among the news belonging to Nestor, one passage has survived, which describes Russia before the appearance of the Varangians there. "These are the Slavic regions, - writes Nestor, - which are part of Russia - glades, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Polochans, Novgorod Slovenes, northerners ..." 2. This list includes only half of the East Slavic regions. Consequently, at that time the Krivichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Croats, Uliches and Tivertsy did not yet belong to Russia. The Polyan tribe turned out to be at the center of the new state formation. The ancient Russian state became a kind of federation of tribes, in its form it was an early feudal monarchy
ANCIENT RUSSIA LATE IX - BEGINNING XII century
In the second half of the IX century. Prince Oleg of Novgorod united the power over Kiev and Novgorod in his hands. The chronicle dates this event to 882. The formation of the early feudal Old Russian state (Kievan Rus) as a result of the emergence of antagonistic classes was a turning point in the history of the Eastern Slavs.
The process of uniting the East Slavic lands as part of the Old Russian state was difficult. In a number of lands, the Kiev princes met with serious resistance from the local feudal and tribal princes and their "husbands". This resistance was suppressed by force of arms. In the reign of Oleg (late 9th - early 10th century), a constant tribute was already levied from Novgorod and from the lands of the North-Russian (Novgorod or Ilmen Slavians), West-Russian (Krivichi) and north-eastern lands. Prince Igor of Kiev (beginning of the 10th century), as a result of a stubborn struggle, subdued the lands of the street and Tivertsy. Thus, the border of Kievan Rus was pushed beyond the Dniester. A long struggle continued with the population of the Drevlyansky land. Igor increased the amount of tribute collected from the Drevlyans. During one of Igor's campaigns in the Drevlyansky land, when he decided to collect a double tribute, the Drevlyans defeated the prince's squad and killed Igor. During the reign of Olga (945-969), the wife of Igor, the land of the Drevlyans was finally subordinated to Kiev.
The territorial growth and strengthening of Russia continued under Svyatoslav Igorevich (969-972) and Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015). The Vyatichi lands became part of the Old Russian state. The power of Rus extended to the North Caucasus. The territory of the Old Russian state also expanded in the western direction, including the Cherven cities and Carpathian Rus.
With the formation of an early feudal state, more favorable conditions were created for maintaining the country's security and economic growth. But the strengthening of this state was associated with the development of feudal property and the further enslavement of the previously free peasantry.
The supreme power in the Old Russian state belonged to the great Kiev prince. At the prince's court lived a squad, divided into "senior" and "junior". The boyars from the prince's military comrades-in-arms turned into landowners, his vassals, patrimonials. In the XI-XII centuries. the boyars are formed as a special class and their legal status is consolidated. Vassalage is formed as a system of relations with the prince-suzerain; its characteristic features are the specialization of the vassal service, the contractual nature of relations and the economic independence of the vassal4.
The princely warriors took part in the government. So, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, together with the boyars, discussed the introduction of Christianity, measures to combat "robberies" and decided other matters. In some parts of Russia, their princes ruled. But the great Kiev prince strove to replace the local rulers with his proteges.
The state helped to strengthen the rule of the feudal lords in Russia. The apparatus of power ensured the receipt of tribute collected in money and in kind. The working population also performed a number of other duties - military, submarine, participated in the construction of fortresses, roads, bridges, etc. Individual princely warriors received whole regions for administration with the right to collect tribute.
In the middle of the X century. under Princess Olga, the size of the duties (tribute and quitrent) was determined and temporary and permanent encampments and graveyards were established in which tribute was collected.
The norms of customary law were formed among the Slavs from ancient times. With the emergence and development of class society and the state, along with customary law and gradually replacing it, written laws appeared and developed that protected the interests of feudal lords. Already in the treaty of Oleg with Byzantium (911) the "Russian law" was mentioned. The collection of written laws is "Russkaya Pravda" of the so-called "Brief Edition" (late 11th - early 12th century). In its composition, the "Most Ancient Truth" has been preserved, recorded, apparently, at the beginning of the 11th century, but reflecting some norms of customary law. It also speaks of remnants of primitive communal relations, for example, blood feud. The law considers cases of replacing revenge with a monetary fine in favor of the victim's relatives (later in favor of the state).
The armed forces of the Old Russian state consisted of the grand duke's squad, squads brought by the princes and boyars subordinate to him, and the people's militia (warriors). The number of troops with which the princes went on campaigns sometimes reached 60-80 thousand. The foot people's militia continued to play an important role in the armed forces. Used in Russia and detachments of mercenaries - nomads of the steppes (Pechenegs), as well as Polovtsy, Hungarians, Lithuanians, Czechs, Poles, Norman Varangians, but their role in the armed forces was insignificant. The Old Russian fleet consisted of ships hollowed out of trees and sheathed with boards along the sides. Russian ships sailed in the Black, Azov, Caspian and Baltic seas.
The foreign policy of the Old Russian state expressed the interests of the growing class of feudal lords, which expanded their possessions, political influence and trade ties. In an effort to conquer certain East Slavic lands, the Kiev princes came into conflict with the Khazars. The advance to the Danube, the desire to seize the trade route along the Black Sea and the Crimean coast led to the struggle of the Russian princes with Byzantium, which tried to limit the influence of Russia in the Black Sea region. In 907, Prince Oleg organized a sea trip to Constantinople. The Byzantines were forced to ask the Russians for a peace agreement and pay an indemnity. According to the peace treaty 911. Russia received the right to duty-free trade in Constantinople.
The Kiev princes undertook campaigns to more distant lands - beyond the Caucasian ridge, to the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea (campaigns 880, 909, 910, 913-914). The expansion of the territory of the Kiev state became especially active during the reign of the son of Princess Olga, Svyatoslav (campaigns of Svyatoslav - 964-972). He struck the first blow against the Khazar empire. Their main cities on the Don and Volga were captured. Svyatoslav even planned to settle in this region, becoming the successor of the empire he destroyed6.
Then the Russian squads marched to the Danube, where they captured the city of Pereyaslavets (formerly owned by the Bulgarians), which Svyatoslav decided to make his capital. Such political ambitions show that the Kiev princes did not yet associate the idea of \u200b\u200bthe political center of their empire with Kiev.
The danger that came from the East - the invasion of the Pechenegs, forced the Kiev princes to pay more attention to the internal structure of their own state.
ACCEPTANCE OF CHRISTIANITY IN RUSSIA
At the end of the X century. Christianity was officially introduced in Russia. The development of feudal relations prepared the way for the replacement of pagan cults by a new religion.
The Eastern Slavs deified the forces of nature. Perun, the god of thunder and lightning, took the first place among the gods they worship. Daazh-god was the god of the sun and fertility, Stribog - the god of thunder and bad weather. Volos was considered the god of wealth and trade, the god-blacksmith Svarog was the creator of all human culture.
Christianity began to penetrate into Russia early among the nobility. Back in the IX century. Patriarch Photius of Constantinople noted that Russia had changed "pagan superstition" to "Christian faith" 7. Christians were among Igor's warriors. Princess Olga adopted Christianity.
Vladimir Svyatoslavich, baptized in 988 and appreciating the political role of Christianity, decided to make it the state religion in Russia. The adoption of Christianity by Russia took place in a difficult foreign policy environment. In the 80s of the X century. the Byzantine government appealed to the Kiev prince with a request for military assistance to suppress the uprisings in the subordinate lands. In response, Vladimir demanded an alliance with Russia from Byzantium, offering to seal it with his marriage to Anna, the sister of Emperor Basil II. The Byzantine government was forced to agree to this. After the marriage of Vladimir and Anna, Christianity was officially recognized as the religion of the Old Russian state.
Church institutions in Russia received large land grants and tithes from state revenues. Throughout the XI century. bishops were founded in Yuryev and Belgorod (in the Kiev land), Novgorod, Rostov, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny, Vladimir-Volynsky, Polotsk and Turov. Several large monasteries arose in Kiev.
The people met with hostility the new faith and its servants. Christianity was imposed by force, and the Christianization of the country dragged on for several centuries. Pre-Christian ("pagan") cults continued to live in the folk environment for a long time.
The introduction of Christianity was a progress in comparison with paganism. Together with Christianity, the Russians received some elements of a higher Byzantine culture, joined, like other European peoples, to the heritage of antiquity. The introduction of a new religion increased the international significance of ancient Russia.
DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDAL RELATIONS IN RUSSIA
Time from the end of the X to the beginning of the XII century. is an important stage in the development of feudal relations in Russia. This time is characterized by the gradual victory of the feudal mode of production over a large area of \u200b\u200bthe country.
The agriculture of Rus was dominated by stable field farming. Animal husbandry developed more slowly than agriculture. Despite a relative increase in agricultural production, yields were low. Poor crops and famine were frequent occurrences, which undermined the Kresgyap economy and contributed to the enslavement of the peasants. Hunting, fishing, and beekeeping remained of great importance in the economy. Furs of squirrels, martens, otters, beavers, sables, foxes, as well as honey and wax went to the foreign market. The best hunting and fishing grounds, forests with boarding grounds were captured by feudal lords.
In the XI and the beginning of the XII century. part of the land was exploited by the state by levying tribute from the population, part of the land area was in the hands of individual feudal lords as estates that could be inherited (later they began to be called fiefdoms), and possessions received from princes for temporary conditional holding.
The dominant class of feudal lords formed from local princes and boyars, who fell into dependence on Kiev, and from the husbands (vigilantes) of Kiev princes, who were given control over, in possession or in the patrimony of the land, "tortured" by them and the princes. The Kiev grand dukes themselves had large land holdings. The distribution of land by the princes to the warriors, strengthening the feudal production relations, was at the same time one of the means used by the state to subordinate the local population to its power.
Land ownership was protected by law. The growth of boyar and ecclesiastical land tenure was closely associated with the development of immunity. The land, which was formerly peasant property, fell into the property of the feudal lord "with tribute, fines and sales," that is, with the right to collect taxes and court fines from the population for murder and other crimes, and, consequently, with the right to court.
With the transfer of land to the ownership of individual feudal lords, the peasants in different ways fell into their dependence. Some peasants, deprived of the means of production, were enslaved by the landowners, using their need for tools, implements, seeds, etc. Other peasants who sat on land imposed by tribute, who owned their own implements of production, were forced by the state by force to transfer from the land to the patrimonial power of the feudal lords. With the expansion of estates and the enslavement of the smerds, the term servants, previously denoting slaves, began to apply to the entire mass of the peasantry dependent on the landowner.
The peasants who fell into bondage to the feudal lord, legally formalized by a special agreement nearby, were called purchases. They received from the landowner a plot of land and a loan, which they worked out on the feudal lord's economy with the master's inventory. For escaping from the master, the zakuns turned into slaves - slaves deprived of all rights. Work rent - corvée, field and castle (construction of fortifications, bridges, roads, etc.), was combined with a nagurale quitrent.
The forms of social protest of the masses against the feudal system were varied: flight from their owner to armed "robbery", from violation of the boundaries of feudal estates, arson of board trees belonging to the princes to an open uprising. The peasants fought against the feudal lords and with weapons in their hands. Under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, "robberies" (as the armed uprisings of the peasants were often called at that time) became widespread. In 996, on the advice of the clergy, Vladimir decided to apply the death penalty to the "robbers", but then, having strengthened the apparatus of power and, in need of new sources of income for the maintenance of the squad, he replaced the execution with a monetary fine - vira. The princes paid even more attention to the struggle against popular movements in the 11th century.
At the beginning of the XII century. further development of the craft took place. In the countryside, under the conditions of a state-owned subsistence economy, the manufacture of clothing, footwear, utensils, agricultural implements, etc., was a household production that had not yet been separated from agriculture. With the development of the feudal system, some of the communal artisans became dependent on the feudal lords, others left the village and went under the walls of princely castles and fortresses, where craft settlements were created. The possibility of a rupture between the craftsman and the countryside was due to the development of agriculture, capable of providing the urban population with food and the beginning of the separation of handicrafts from agriculture.
Cities became centers for the development of handicrafts. In them, by the XII century. there were over 60 craft specialties. Russian artisans XI-XII centuries produced more than 150 types of iron and steel products, their products played an important role in the development of commercial relations between the city and the countryside. Ancient Russian jewelers knew the art of minting non-ferrous metals. Handicraft workshops produced tools, weapons, household items, ornaments.
With its products, Russia won fame in the then Europe. However, the social division of labor in the country as a whole was weak. The village lived on subsistence farming. The penetration of small retail traders into the countryside from the city did not violate the natural character of the rural economy. The cities were the centers of internal trade. But urban commodity production did not change the natural economic basis of the country's economy.
The foreign trade of Rus was more developed. Russian merchants traded in the possessions of the Arab Caliphate. The Dnieper path connected Russia with Byzantium. Russian merchants traveled from Kiev to Moravia, the Czech Republic, Poland, South Germany, from Novgorod and Polotsk - across the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia, Polish Pomorie and further to the west. With the development of handicrafts, the export of handicraft products increased.
Silver bars and foreign coins were used as money. Princes Vladimir Svyatoslavich and his son Yaroslav Vladimirovich produced (albeit in small quantities) a minted silver coin. However, foreign trade did not change the natural character of the Rus economy.
With the growth of the social division of labor, cities developed. They arose from fortresses-castles, gradually overgrown with settlements, and from trade and craft settlements, around which fortifications were erected. The city was connected with the nearest rural district, the products of which he lived and the population of which he served with handicrafts. In the annals of the IX-X centuries. mentioned 25 cities, in the news of the XI century -89. The heyday of ancient Russian cities falls on the XI-XII centuries.
Handicraft and merchant associations arose in the cities, although a guild structure did not develop here. In addition to free artisans, patrimonial artisans, who were serfs of princes and boyars, lived in the cities. The city nobility was made up of boyars. The large cities of Russia (Kiev, Chernigov, Polotsk, Novgorod, Smolensk, etc.) were administrative, judicial and military centers. At the same time, as the cities grew stronger, they contributed to the process of political fragmentation. This was a natural phenomenon under the conditions of the dominance of natural economy and with the weakness of economic ties between individual lands.
PROBLEMS OF STATE UNITY OF RUSSIA
The state unity of Russia was not strong. The development of feudal relations and the strengthening of the power of the feudal lords, as well as the growth of cities as centers of local principalities, led to changes in the political superstructure. In the XI century. The Grand Duke was still at the head of the state, but the princes and boyars dependent on him acquired large land holdings in different parts of Russia (in Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov, Volyn, etc.). The princes of individual feudal centers strengthened their own apparatus of power and, relying on local feudal lords, began to view their reigns as otchnny, that is, hereditary possessions. Economically, they almost did not depend on Kiev, on the contrary, the Kiev prince was interested in their support. Political dependence on Kiev burdened local feudal lords and princes who ruled in certain parts of the country.
After the death of Vladimir, his son Svyatopolk became prince in Kiev, who killed his brothers Boris and Gleb and began a stubborn struggle with Yaroslav. In this struggle, Svyatopolk used the military assistance of Polish feudal lords. Then a massive popular movement against the Polish invaders began in the Kiev land. Yaroslav, supported by Novgorod citizens, defeated Svyatopolk and occupied Kiev.
In the reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich, nicknamed the Wise (1019-1054), around 1024 a great rebellion of smerds broke out in the northeast, in the Suzdal land. The reason for it was a strong hunger. Many participants in the suppressed uprising were imprisoned or executed. However, the movement continued until 1026.
During the reign of Yaroslav, the strengthening and further expansion of the borders of the Old Russian state continued. However, signs of the feudal fragmentation of the state became more and more pronounced.
After the death of Yaroslav, state power passed to his three sons. The seniority belonged to Izyaslav, who owned Kiev, Novgorod and other cities. His co-rulers were Svyatoslav (who ruled in Chernigov and Tmutarakan) and Vsevolod (who ruled in Rostov, Suzdal and Pereyaslavl). In 1068, the nomadic Polovtsy attacked Russia. Russian troops were defeated on the Alta River. Izyaslav and Vsevolod fled to Kiev. This precipitated an anti-feudal uprising in Kiev, which had been brewing for a long time. The rebels defeated the princely court, freed from prison and elevated Vseslav of Polotsk to reign, previously (during the inter-princely strife) imprisoned by his brothers. However, he soon left Kiev, and a few months later Izyaslav, with the help of Polish troops, resorting to deception, again occupied the city (1069) and committed a bloody massacre.
Urban uprisings were associated with the movement of the peasantry. Since the anti-feudal movements were directed against the Christian Church, sometimes the Magi were at the head of the rebellious peasants and townspeople. In the 70s of the XI century. there was a large popular movement in the Rostov land. Popular movements also took place in other parts of Russia. In Novgorod, for example, the masses of the urban population, led by the Magi, opposed the nobility led by the prince and the bishop. Prince Gleb with the help of military force dealt with the rebels.
The development of the feudal mode of production inevitably led to the polygical fragmentation of the country. Class contradictions have intensified markedly. The ruin from exploitation and princely strife was aggravated by the consequences of crop failures and hunger. After the death of Svyatopolk, an uprising of the urban population and peasants from the surrounding villages took place in Kiev. The frightened nobility and merchants invited Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1113-1125), Prince of Pereyaslavl, to reign in Kiev. The new prince was forced to make some concessions to suppress the uprising.
Vladimir Monomakh pursued a policy of strengthening the grand ducal power. Possessing, in addition to Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Suzdal, Rostov, ruling Novgorod and part of Southwestern Russia, he simultaneously tried to subjugate other lands (Minsk, Volyn, etc.). However, contrary to the policy of Monomakh, the process of fragmentation of Russia continued due to economic reasons. By the second quarter of the XII century. Russia was finally split into many principalities.
CULTURE OF ANCIENT RUSSIA
The culture of ancient Russia is the culture of an early feudal society. Oral poetry reflected the life experience of the people, captured in proverbs and sayings, in the rituals of agricultural and family holidays, from which the cult pagan principle gradually disappeared, while the rituals turned into folk games. Skomorokhs - wandering actors, singers and musicians, people from the folk environment, were carriers of democratic tendencies in art. Folk motives formed the basis of the remarkable song and musical creativity of the "prophetic Boyan", whom the author of "The Lay of Igor's Host" calls "the nightingale of the old time."
The growth of popular self-awareness found a particularly vivid expression in the historical epic epic. In it, the people idealized the time of the political unity of Russia, although it was still very fragile, when the peasants were not yet dependent. In the image of the "peasant son" Ilya Muromets, a fighter for the independence of the homeland, the deep patriotism of the people is embodied. Folk art influenced the traditions and legends that were taking shape in the feudal secular and ecclesiastical environment, and helped the formation of ancient Russian literature.
The appearance of writing was of tremendous importance for the development of Old Russian literature. In Russia, writing appeared, apparently, quite early. The news has survived that the Slavic enlightener of the IX century. Constantine (Cyril) saw in Chersonesos books written in "Russian letters". An earthen vessel from the beginning of the 10th century found in one of the Smolensk burial mounds is evidence of the presence of a written language among the Eastern Slavs even before the adoption of Christianity. with an inscription. Writing was widely spread after the adoption of Christianity.
A brief history of ancient Russia and about its first rulers
"Drevnyaya Rus"
The history of Russia, summarized in the article, will tell about the formation of the Russian state, about the history of the name and the first rulers.
In the history of ancient Russia, in short, there are a lot of controversial and completely unexplored moments, which gives special interest to its study.
- Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia briefly Russia and the Golden Horde
The most important controversial point in Russian historiography is the question of the origin of the Russian people. We will not delve into this very complex issue and will briefly voice the main versions of the ethnogenesis of the Russian people:
1. Norman theory, asserting that the ancestors of the Rus were the Varangians from Scandinavia or the shores of the Baltic;
2. The Rus are the ancestors of the Ros tribe, who have lived along the banks of the Ros River since ancient times. The theory was put forward by the outstanding Russian scientist Lomonosov and in Soviet times was considered the only correct one.
The period of studying Ancient Rus begins with the Slavic tribes and the formation of the first state.
Before the state period
About two thousand years ago it was known that the north and center of the East European Plain were inhabited by Slavic tribes. They were numerous and were engaged in agriculture, hunting, fishing and livestock raising. By the 8th century, they began to settle and formed three branches. The Eastern Slavs, according to Lomonosov's hypothesis, became the ancestors of the Russian people.
Formation of the first state in Russia in brief
According to the most authoritative source of those years, "The Tale of Bygone Years", no later than the 9th century, or rather, in 862, the first state of Slavic tribes was formed. Long internecine wars and the threat from the Khazars and Varangians led to the understanding that the tribes need to unite in order to survive. But in order to govern the state as fair as possible, they decided to invite a prince of a foreign family. It was the Varangian Rurik, and the first dynasty of rulers, the Rurikovichs, appeared in Russia.
Great Dukes.
The history of Russia, in short, is full of interesting events. The period from the 9th to the 20th centuries was the most dramatic and eventful. The ancient Russian state became stronger, expanded and strengthened its borders, while defending itself against many powerful enemies. During this period, Russia was ruled by the brightest and most famous princes.
After the death of Rurik, Prince Oleg began to rule the state, until Igor, the young son of the deceased ruler of Russia, grew up. He organized a campaign against Kiev, against the Varangian princes Dir and Askold ruling there. Having captured the city and killed the princes, Oleg made Kiev the capital of the Old Russian state.
Then Oleg subordinated the Slavic tribes of the northerners, Drevlyans and some others. He also organized the first trip to Byzantium in 907. Oleg obtained from the Byzantine emperor the payment of an annual tribute, and as a reminder of this, he nailed his shield to the gates of the capital of Byzantium.
After the mysterious death of Oleg from a snakebite, a representative of the Rurik family, Igor, began to rule. He re-conquered the rebellious Drevlyans, made an unsuccessful campaign against Byzantium and died at the hands of the Drevlyans while trying to take tribute from them again.
Prince Svyatoslav
One of the greatest defenders of Russia, Prince Svyatoslav devoted his whole life to strengthening the state and protecting its borders from numerous enemies. He fought against Khazaria, the Bulgarian kingdom, Byzantium, destroying its enemies and expanding the borders of the state. Almost all of Svyatoslav's campaigns were successful. He died at the hands of the Pechenegs, having been ambushed while returning home after the conclusion of the long-awaited alliance with Bulgaria. The death of the prince led to a long internecine war between his sons.
Prince Vladimir
The reign of Vladimir, the son of Svyatoslav, ends the period of the formation of the Old Russian state. Unlike his famous father, Vladimir made few aggressive campaigns, but he did a lot to strengthen the state. First of all, he is known for the baptism of Rus in 988. This step pursued two goals - thanks to the adoption of a new faith, Vladimir was able to unite his state under the auspices of a new idea, while concluding an alliance and establishing good relations with Byzantium, which was the most powerful state in the region. This process was relatively easy, although in some cities of Russia, and there was turmoil associated with the rejection of the ancient Slavic gods.
Yaroslav the Wise
However, Vladimir could not cope with the main problem of Kievan Rus - civil strife. Many sons remained after him, the eldest of whom, Yaroslav, who was appointed to rule in Novgorod, refused to pay tribute to Kiev during his father's lifetime. Soon after the death of Vladimir the Great, Kievan Rus was mired in an internecine struggle, which ended with the death of almost all of his sons, and the accession of Yaroslav to the Kievan throne. It was not for nothing that the new Grand Duke was called wise - under him a number of economic and legal reforms were carried out. Such a source of Old Russian law as "Russkaya Pravda" appeared, and close diplomatic ties were established with leading European states. It is with his reign, which lasted from 1016 to 1054, that the greatest flourishing of Kievan Rus in history is associated.
Vladimir Monomakh.
With the death of Yaroslav, internal problems arose in Russia again. Yaroslav's five sons, who for twenty years after his death peacefully coexisted and made joint campaigns, in the 70s of the 11th century again entered the struggle for the Kiev throne, as a result of which the power of Kievan Rus was undermined. Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, tried to stop this. On his submission, the Lyubech congress was held, at which the princes agreed that henceforth their sons could inherit only the land on which their fathers ruled. Although at first this helped to end the internecine struggle, later it caused terrible damage to Kievan Rus. Prince Vladimir Monomakh ruled in Kiev from 1113 to 1125. Under his son Mstislav Vladimirovich, the situation remained calm, but with his death in 1132 Russia finally disintegrated into small principalities. Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich became the last Grand Duke of Kievan Rus.
The period of the fragmentation of Russia.
In four years, 15 independent principalities emerged on the territory of Kievan Rus, and by the end of the 12th century, their number increased to 50. After the death of the last Grand Duke in Russia, there was no such influential and charismatic leader around whom all Russian lands could rally. In addition, the local princes followed the agreement concluded at the Lyubechensk Congress and paid attention to the development of their own territories even before the collapse of Russia. The most influential and developed principalities were Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal and Galitsky. The principalities began to develop separately from each other, their own state foundations began to take shape in them, and from principality to principality the balance between princely, boyar and popular power changed.
This fragmentation led to the final weakening of Kievan Rus, which could not resist an attack from outside. In 1223, on the territory of the modern Donetsk region of Ukraine, a battle took place on the Kalka River, in which the combined forces of the Pechenegs and several Russian principalities failed to stop the advance of the Golden Horde. In 1237, the Mongol-Tatars, under the hand of Khan Batu, invaded Russia, and captured most of the local principalities. Only Novgorodskoe, Galitskoe and several others were able to withstand, and then only because the Horde troops tried to capture them. At the same time, new challenges arose before the northern and western principalities. The Galician principality was eventually absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which at the beginning of the 13th century itself was on the verge of death - the invasion of the Teutonic knights in alliance with the Swedes was stopped only thanks to the military leader of the Vladimir prince Alexander, nicknamed Nevsky for his victories.
Moscow played an important role in the liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the unification of the Russian lands. Founded by the grandson of Vladimir Monomakh in 1147, it did not play an important role for a long time, but over time the city expanded, and the Moscow principality was formed around it. Long years of struggle, both against the Mongols and against other Russian principalities, in the end brought results. With the help of the Mongols, Moscow managed to subdue its main rival, Tver, and then unite most of the former Kievan Rus. Skillfully taking advantage of the troubles in the Golden Horde, the Moscow princes achieved complete liberation from Mongol rule. Already in the 16th century there was no such thing as Russia, instead a new powerful state appeared - the Muscovy.
For several centuries, Russia experienced ups and downs, but in the end it became a kingdom with the capital in Moscow.
Brief periodization
The history of Russia began in 862, when the Viking Rurik arrived in Novgorod, who was proclaimed a prince in this city. Under his successor, the political center moved to Kiev. With the onset of fragmentation in Russia, several cities at once began to argue with each other for the right to become the main one in the East Slavic lands.
This feudal period was interrupted by the invasion of the Mongol hordes and the established yoke. In extremely difficult conditions of devastation and constant wars, Moscow became the main Russian city, which finally united Russia and made it independent. In the XV-XVI centuries, this name became a thing of the past. It was replaced by the word "Russia", adopted in the Byzantine manner.
In modern historiography, there are several points of view on the question of when feudal Russia became a thing of the past. Most often, researchers believe that this happened in 1547, when Prince Ivan Vasilyevich took the title of tsar.
The emergence of Russia
The ancient united Rus, whose history began in the 9th century, appeared after the Novgorodian captured Kiev in 882 and made this city its capital. During this era, the East Slavic tribes were divided into several tribal unions (glade, Dregovichi, Krivichi, etc.). Some of them were at enmity with each other. The inhabitants of the steppes also paid tribute to the hostile foreigners, the Khazars.
Unification of Russia
Northeastern or great Russia became the center of the struggle against the Mongols. This confrontation was led by the princes of small Moscow. At first, they were able to obtain the right to collect taxes from all Russian lands. Thus, part of the money was deposited in the Moscow treasury. When he gained enough strength, Dmitry Donskoy found himself in open confrontation with the Golden Horde khans. In 1380, his army defeated Mamai.
But even in spite of this success, for another century, Moscow rulers periodically paid tribute. Only after, in 1480, the yoke was finally thrown off. At the same time, under Ivan III, almost all Russian lands, including Novgorod, were united around Moscow. In 1547, his grandson Ivan the Terrible took the title of tsar, which was the end of the history of princely Rus and the beginning of a new tsarist Russia.
I understand that such an article can break the fan, so I will try to get around the sharp corners. I write more for my own pleasure, most of the facts will be from the category taught at school, but nevertheless I will gladly accept criticism and corrections, if there are facts. So:
Ancient Russia.
It is assumed that Russia appeared as a result of the merger of a number of East Slavic, Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. The first mentions of us are found in the 830s. First, around 813. (very controversial dating) some Dews successfully ran to the city of Amastrida (modern Amasra, Turkey) in Byzantine Palfagonia. Secondly, the ambassadors of the "Kagan Rosov" as part of the Byzantine embassy came to the last emperor of the Frankish state, Louis I the Pious (a good question, though, who they really were). Thirdly, the same Dews ran in 860, already to Constantinople, without much success (there is an assumption that the famous Askold and Dir commanded the parade).
The history of serious Russian statehood, according to the most official version, dates back to 862, when a certain Rurik appears on the scene.
Rurik.
In fact, we have a rather poor idea of \u200b\u200bwho it was and whether he was at all. The official version is based on Nestor's Tale of Bygone Years, who, in turn, used the sources available to him. There is a theory (quite similar to the truth) that Rurik was known as Rorik of Jutland, from the Skjeldung dynasty (a descendant of Skjold, the Danish king, mentioned already in "Beowulf"). I repeat that the theory is not the only one.
Where did this character come from in Russia (specifically - in Novgorod), is also an interesting question, for me personally the closest theory is that he was originally a hired military administrator, and in Ladoga, and he brought the idea of \u200b\u200bhereditary transfer of power with him from Scandinavia, where it was just becoming fashionable. And he came to power completely by seizing it in the course of a conflict with another of the same military leader.
However, in the PVL it is written that the Varangians were summoned by three tribes of Slavs, unable to resolve the controversial issues themselves. Where did it come from?
Option one - from the source that Nestor read (well, you yourself understand, it would be enough for those from among the Rurikovichs to engage in fascinating editing at their leisure. Princess Olga could also have done this, in the midst of a conflict with the Drevlyans, who for some reason still did not understand what to break the prince half and half and offer a replacement, as always in their memory and was done in such cases - a bad idea).
Option two - to write this Nestor could have asked Vladimir Monomakh, who was just the same called the people of Kiev, and who really did not want to prove the legitimacy of his reign on his fingers to everyone who was older than him in the family. In any case, somewhere from Rurik, a reliably known idea of \u200b\u200ba Slavic state appears. "Somewhere" because the real steps in building such a state were taken not by Rurik, but by his successor, Oleg.
Oleg.
Called "prophetic", Oleg took over the reins of Novgorod Russia in 879. Probably (according to PVL), he was a relative of Rurik (possibly brother-in-law). Some identify Oleg with Odd Orvar (Arrow), the hero of several Scandinavian sagas.
All the same PVL claims that Oleg was the guardian of the real heir, the son of Rurik Igor, something like a regent. In general, in an amicable way, the power of the Rurikovichs for a very long time was transferred to the "eldest in the family", so that Oleg could be a full-fledged ruler, not only in practice, but also formally.
Actually, what Oleg did during the reign - he did Russia. In 882. he gathered an army and in turn subdued Smolensk, Lyubech and Kiev. According to the history of the capture of Kiev, we, as a rule, remember Askold and Dir (I will not say for Dir, but the name "Askold" seems to me very Scandinavian. I will not lie). PVL believes that they were Varangians, but had nothing to do with Rurik (I believe, because I heard somewhere that not only did they have - Rurik sent them along the Dnieper with the task "capture everything that is bad "). The annals also describe how Oleg defeated his compatriots - he hid military paraphernalia from the boats, so that they became similar to trading ones, and somehow lured both governors there (according to the official version from the Nikon Chronicle, he let them know that he was there but he said ill, and on the ships showed them the young Igor and killed them. But, perhaps, they were just inspecting the merchants who entered, not suspecting that an ambush awaited them on board).
Having seized power in Kiev, Oleg appreciated the convenience of its location in relation to the eastern and southern (as far as I understand) lands in comparison with Novgorod and Ladoga, and said that his capital would be here. He spent the next 25 years trying to "swear in" the surrounding Slavic tribes, some of them (northerners and Radimichs) beating off from the Khazars.
In 907. Oleg undertakes a military campaign to Byzantium. When 200 (according to PVL) boats with 40 soldiers on board each appeared in view of Constantinople, Emperor Leo IV the Philosopher ordered to block the city's harbor with stretched chains - perhaps in the expectation that the savages would be content with plundering the suburbs and go home. "Savage" Oleg showed ingenuity and put the ships on wheels. The infantry, under the cover of sailing tanks, caused confusion within the walls of the city, and Leo IV hastily bought off. According to the legend, along the way, an attempt was made to slip wine with a hemlock to the prince during the negotiations, but Oleg somehow felt the moment and pretended to be a teetotaler (for which, in fact, he was named "Prophetic" upon his return). The ransom was a lot of money, a tribute and an agreement according to which our merchants were exempt from taxes and had the right to live in Constantinople at the expense of the crown for up to a year. In 911, however, the contract was renegotiated without exemption of merchants from duties.
Some historians, not finding a description of the campaign in Byzantine sources, consider it a legend, but admit the existence of the 911 treaty (perhaps there was a campaign, otherwise why would the East Romans bend so much, but without the episode with "tanks" and Constantinople).
Oleg leaves the stage in connection with his death in 912. Why and where exactly is a very good question, the legend tells about the skull of a horse and a poisonous snake (interestingly, the same happened with the legendary Odd Orvar). The circular buckets, foaming, hissed, Oleg left, but Russia remained.
Generally speaking, this article should be short, so I'll try to summarize my thoughts further.
Igor (reigned 912-945)... The son of Rurik, took over the rule of Kiev after Oleg (Igor served as governor in Kiev during the war with Byzantium in 907). He conquered the Drevlyans, tried to fight with Byzantium (however, the memory of Oleg was enough, the war did not work out), concluded with her in 943 or 944 a treaty similar to that concluded by Oleg (but less profitable), and in 945 he unsuccessfully went for the second time take tribute from the same Drevlyans (there is an opinion that Igor perfectly understood how all this could end, but he could not cope with his own squad, which at that time was not particularly surprising). The husband of Princess Olga, the father of the future Prince Svyatoslav.
Olga (reigned 945-964) - Igor's widow. She burned the Drevlyansky Iskorosten, thereby demonstrating the sacralization of the figure of the prince (the Drevlyans offered her to marry their own prince Mal, and 50 years before that it could have worked seriously). She carried out the first positive tax reform in the history of Russia, setting specific dates for collecting tribute (lessons) and creating fortified courtyards for receiving and staying for collectors (graveyards). She laid the foundation for stone construction in Russia.
Interestingly, from the point of view of our chronicles, Olga never officially ruled; from the moment of Igor's death, his son, Svyatoslav, ruled.
Such subtleties did not let the Byzantines go, and in their sources Olga is mentioned as the archontissa (ruler) of Russia.
Svyatoslav (964 - 972) Igorevich... Generally speaking, 964 is more likely the year of the beginning of his independent reign, since formally he was considered the prince of Kiev from 945. And in practice, until 969, his mother, Princess Olga, ruled for him until the prince got out of the saddle. From PVL "When Svyatoslav grew up and matured, he began to collect many brave warriors, and he was fast, like a Pardus, and fought a lot. In the campaigns he did not carry either carts or cauldrons, did not cook meat, but thinly sliced \u200b\u200bthe horse meat, or beast, or beef and roasted on coals, so he ate; he did not have a tent, but slept, covering a saddle cloth with a saddle in his head, - the same were all his other soldiers. And he sent to other lands (messengers) with the words:. .. I'm going to you! " In fact, he destroyed the Khazar Kaganate (to the joy of Byzantium), imposed a tribute on the Vyatichi (to his joy), conquered the First Bulgarian Kingdom on the Danube, built Pereyaslavets on the Danube (where he wanted to move the capital), frightened the Pechenegs and, on the basis of the Bulgarians, quarreled with Byzantium, the Bulgarians fought against she is on the side of Russia - the vicissitudes of the war will turn). Against Byzantium, in the spring of 970, he put up a free army of his own, Bulgarians, Pechenegs and Hungarians in 30,000 people, but lost (possibly) the battle of Arcadiopol, and, having taken a compensation, left the territory of Byzantium. In 971, the Byzantines already laid siege to Dorostol, where Svyatoslav organized a headquarters, and after a three-month siege and another battle, they persuaded Svyatoslav to take another compensation and go home. Svyatoslav did not get home - at first he got stuck in the mouth of the Dnieper in winter, and then ran into the Pechenezh prince Smoke, in a battle with whom he died. Byzantium at the exit received Bulgaria as a province and minus one dangerous rival, so it seems to me that Smoking was stuck on the rapids for a reason all winter. However, there is no evidence of this.
By the way. Svyatoslav never got baptized, despite repeated offers and a possible conflict in the engagement with the Byzantine princess - he himself explained this by the fact that the squad would not specifically understand such a maneuver, which he could not allow.
The first prince to distribute reigns to more than one son. Perhaps this led to the first strife in Russia, when, after the death of their father, the sons fought for the Kiev throne.
Yaropolk (972-978) and Oleg (Prince of the Drevlyans 970-977) Svyatoslavichi - two of Svyatoslav's three sons. Legitimate sons, unlike Vladimir, the son of Svyatoslav and the housekeeper Malusha (though it's still a good question how much such a trifle played a role in Russia in the middle of the 10th century. There is also an opinion that Malusha is the daughter of the same Drevlyan prince Mal, who executed Igor) ...
Yaropolk had diplomatic relations with the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. In 977, during the strife, opposing the brothers, he attacked Oleg's possessions in the land of the Drevlyans. Oleg died during the retreat (if you believe the chronicle - Yaropolk lamented). In fact, after the death of Oleg and the flight of Vladimir somewhere "beyond the sea" he became the sole ruler of Russia. In 980. Vladimir returned with the Varangian squad, began to take the cities, Yaropolk left Kiev with the better fortified Roden, Vladimir besieged him, famine began in the city and Yaropolk was forced to negotiate. In place, instead of or in addition to Vladimir, there were two Varangians who did their job.
Oleg is the prince of the Drevlyans, the first successor of Mal. Perhaps he accidentally started a strife by killing the son of the governor Yaropolk, Sveneld, who poached on his land. Version from the chronicle. Personally, it seems to me (together with Wikipedia) that the brothers would have had enough motives even without the daddy-voivode, burning with a thirst for revenge. He also, perhaps, laid the foundation for one of the noble families of Maravia - only Czechs have evidence of this and only the 16th-17th centuries, so to believe or not is on the conscience of the reader.
A Brief History of Russia. How Russia was created
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