Henry VIII (1491-1547), English king (since 1509) from the Tudor dynasty.
Born June 28, 1491 in Greenwich. Son and heir of Henry VII. The main content of the policy of Henry VIII was the strengthening in England absolute monarchy. At the same time, the king sought to rely on the support, on the one hand, of the townspeople and their representatives in parliament and local authorities, on the other, the constantly growing bureaucracy.
Heinrich continued the reprisals against the baronial opposition begun by his father, and from the 30s. 15th century went on the offensive against the Roman Catholic Church. He divorced his wife, Catherine of Aragon, aunt of Charles V of Habsburg, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, in order to marry the humble Anne Boleyn. Parliament, obedient to the king, approved the divorce, not approved by the Pope.
In 1534, the Pope demanded that Henry renounce the divorce and threatened to excommunicate him from the Church. In response, Henry declared himself the head of the Anglican Church, breaking all relations with the papacy and the empire. In England, the “Royal Reformation” took place, which led to the emergence of the Protestant Anglican Church.
The reform of the Church was carried out with extreme cruelty, there were mass executions of "papists", the confession of Catholicism was actually banned.
In 1536-1539. by order of the king, English monasteries were destroyed, their property was completely confiscated in favor of the crown. The most powerful of the states that had fallen away from the Roman Catholic Church, England quickly became the center and pillar of the European Reformation.
Since the time of Henry VIII, she was in fact in a state of constant war with the Habsburgs.
From now on, the English kings actively supported the reform movement on the continent, intervened in the affairs of Germany, France and other European countries.
Domestically, Henry VIII became famous as a "bloody" king, whose repressions turned not only against the feudal nobility. Forbidding the barons to seize arable land for pastures, he at the same time fiercely persecuted the peasants who turned out to be vagabonds. All able-bodied vagrants who were caught begging three times were subject to death penalty.
In 1535, the Lord Chancellor, famous thinker and writer T. More was executed for resisting the Reformation. As a result, Anne Boleyn also became a victim of royal "justice", Henry's marriage to whom was once the reason for the Reformation.
At the same time, it was Henry VIII, the creator of English absolutism, who consolidated the unity of the country, laid the foundations for its independent foreign policy, the new political role of England in Europe.
(1491-1547) was distinguished by an extremely cruel and unpredictable character. To this we can add that he was extremely fond of women and married many times. The wives of Henry VIII are a separate issue. There were 6 of them in total. The crowned bearer lived the longest with his first wife. Her name was Catherine of Aragon(1485-1536). It was her second marriage. And in the first, she was combined with Prince Arthur (the elder brother of the English king), who died at a young age in 1502. In 1509, Catherine united herself by the bonds of Hymen with her younger brother, who ascended the throne.
This marriage continued until January 1533, but it did not bring happiness to either the husband or the wife. In 1516, the couple had a girl, who was named Mary. There were 2 more children, but they died as babies. The king dreamed of an heir to continue the Tudor dynasty. But nothing happened with the first wife. I had to part with her after so many years family life. But the Catholic Church was categorically against divorce. As a result, the king declared the English Church independent and gave himself a divorce.
Catherine of Aragon (left) and Anne Boleyn
The second wife of the loving crowned bearer was in 1533 Anna Boleyn(1507-1536). This woman had a strong and strong-willed character. Her husband tried his best to please her. He even ordered the execution of those representatives of the nobility who opposed this marriage. In September 1533, Anna gave birth to a girl instead of the expected boy. The disappointment of her husband knew no bounds. True, the girl was not easy, but the future Queen of England Elizabeth I, but who could have known about this at that time.
The second birth ended unsuccessfully: the child was born dead. The crowned husband began to gradually cool off towards his wife. And she arranged magnificent holidays and bought insanely expensive jewelry in the absence of her husband. In the end, the king got tired of all this. In May 1536, Anne Boleyn was accused of infidelity to her husband, and the woman was put on trial.
She was charged with witchcraft and incest. Allegedly, she lived a sexual life with her brother. To these accusations was added a conspiracy against the king. But the most outrageous was the mockery of the poems that the crowned husband composed in his leisure hours.
Anne Boleyn's execution
The decision of the court was harsh and merciless. Anne Boleyn was sentenced to death. At that time, 2 types of deprivation of life were used in England. This is burning at the stake and beheading. The right to choose the method of killing belonged to the king. He ordered to cut off the unfaithful wife's head, but not with an ax, as was always practiced, but with a sword. The French executioners were well-managed with the sword, but the British did not fill their hands in this matter. Therefore, I had to order a specialist from France.
The execution took place on May 19, 1536. The queen wore a luxurious green silk dress trimmed with red at the bottom. She hung a golden cross on her chest, and pulled white gloves on her hands. She pressed the Bible to her chest, and so she climbed the scaffold. Before the chopping block she took off her hat and knelt down. She was blindfolded with a white handkerchief. After that, the woman laid her head on the chopping block, and the executioner waved his sword and cut off her head. Watching all this, the king immediately ordered everyone to have fun.
Jane Seymour (left) and Anna of Cleves
Third wife was Jane Seymour(1508-1537). She gave birth to an heir to the throne, who was named Edward. But after giving birth, the woman fell ill with puerperal fever and died.
The next wife was Anna Klevskaya(1515-1567). But the crowned man married her not out of love, but out of political calculation. Anna was the sister of the Duke of Cleves. The lands under his command were part of the Holy Roman Empire. This marriage sealed the alliance of the German princes and the king of England.
Everything would be fine, but the new wife, when she arrived in England, did not like Henry VIII outwardly. The wedding took place in January 1540, and already in June the newlyweds parted. The reason was the previous engagement of Anna of Cleves with the Duke of Lorraine. But the woman did not leave England. She remained on the rights of the "king's sister". Until her death, she stayed at court and died only 10 years after the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth I.
The fifth wife was Catherine Howard(1521-1542). It was a very young lady with whom His Majesty fell passionately in love. The marriage took place in July 1540. After that, the king changed. He seemed to have regained his youth. At the court, masquerades and balls began to be arranged. But the young wife found herself with a tarnished past. She had lovers before marriage and was not going to live differently after marriage. Almost immediately after the wedding, betrayal began. It soon became clear that the girl was engaged to one of her boyfriends.
When the king found out about all this, he was furious. The lovers were executed, and the unfaithful wife herself was on the scaffold on February 13, 1542. The poor thing was in a state of shock, so she was practically brought to the place of execution in her arms. The head of the unfortunate woman was laid on the chopping block, and the executioner, waving an ax, separated her from the body. There was no fun after this execution. Everyone dispersed in a depressed state.
Catherine Howard (left) and Catherine Parr
The last sixth wife was Catherine Parr(1512-1548). She married Henry in 1543. The far from young autocrat lived with her until his death in 1547. All these years he was seriously ill. But the wife did not give a reason for additional grief. This was her third husband. The woman had a great experience of family life, which ruled out suspicion and betrayal.
Thus, it is clear that all the wives of Henry VIII were women completely different in character and appearance. All of them were at the top of life, but some did not stand the test of success. Therefore, the end of these ladies turned out to be different. And taking into account the harsh customs of the 16th century, 2 of them ended their lives on the scaffold.
Epoch reign of Henry VIII(1509-1547) became a key in English history. Suffice it to recall that his ardent desire to obtain a divorce from his lawful wife led to a break with the Roman Catholic Church, and subsequently to the destruction of the monasteries in England. During these years, the role of Parliament increased significantly, which included a group of Welsh deputies. Yes, and Wales in 1543 safely and quite legally united with England. We can say that by the end of the reign of Henry VIII, the fate of the country has changed radically.
Henry VIII was very different from his father when he ascended the throne in 1509. This is understandable, because he had a happy and prosperous childhood behind him, while his father grew up in exile, experiencing adversity and hardship. The new king, eighteen-year-old Henry VIII, was a daring and self-confident young man - a new type of ruler, whom we would call the prince of the Renaissance. This is how a Venetian diplomat named Pascaligo saw Henry in 1515: "One of the most attractive monarchs I have ever seen; above average height with short golden brown hair ... his rounded face is so beautiful that, rather, fit a pretty woman, the neck is long and strong ... He speaks excellent English, French and Latin, speaks a little Italian. He plays the lute and harp quite well, sings from a sheet and at the same time pulls the bowstring with more force than anyone - or another in England, and fights wonderfully in duels. "
Henry VIII managed to acquire military glory thanks to two brilliant victories won in 1513. Back in 1511, he became a member of the Holy League, established by the militant Pope Julius II to fight France. In addition to Henry, the League included the Spanish king Ferdinand of Aragon and Venice. The result was a brilliant victory for the English cavalry in the so-called Battle of the Spurs(an allusion to the fact that the French fled from the battlefield, spurring their horses with all their might). This battle took place in August 1513, and only three weeks later the Scots invaded England, intending to distract Henry from the French campaign. They succeeded in this to the full: the English army returned home and defeated the interventionists at Flodden. The Scottish King James IV was killed in this battle. Together with him, the entire color of the Scottish nobility fell, which ensured almost thirty years of calm on the northern borders of England.
Unlike his father, Henry VIII preferred all the variety of joys of life to boring calculations and revisions of account books: he ate a lot, drank a lot, danced until he dropped and did not miss a single one. beautiful woman. Instead of the king, a whole galaxy of advisers was engaged in management issues, the most prominent among which were Thomas Wolsey and.
Thomas Wolsey(1472-1530) was born in the town of Ipswich, in a butcher's family. He made a dizzying career, rising to the highest church and state posts. At the end of the reign of Henry VII, Wolsey was a royal chaplain, and in 1509 became a member of the newly created Royal Council. He played an important role in the development and planning of the French campaign, which to a certain extent explains his rapid career in the state and church fields. In 1513 Wolsey became Lord Chancellor and de facto ruler of England. The Tudor historian Polydore Virgil wrote that "Wolsey conducted all his affairs according to his own judgment, since the king valued him above all other advisers."
Wolsey's meteoric rise to power perfectly illustrates the list of his church officials: archbishop of York (1514), cardinal (1515) and papal legate (1518) Such an impressive record secured Wolsey an income of fifty thousand pounds and a life of honor and luxury. The butcher's son built himself three magnificent palaces, the most famous of which is Hampton Court. The Venetian ambassador wrote in 1519 about this man: "He rules the king and the kingdom." Apparently, Henry had nothing against it, since he himself was burdened by state affairs. On the other hand, at that time he was quite satisfied with Wolsey's diplomatic successes, as well as the opportunity to have a scapegoat - if one is needed.
Wolsey's foreign policy was full of such frequent and unexpected turns that more than one generation of historians have unsuccessfully tried to unravel their background. It has been suggested that Wolsey had some designs on the papacy. At that time, there were two rival parties in Europe: one led by the French king Francis I, the other led by the king of Spain, Charles V, who later, in 1519, became emperor of the Roman Holy Empire. Both tried to assert influence on the pope - both because of their religious beliefs, and wanting to take over the Papal States in the center of Italy.
In 1515, Francis was lucky enough to win the battle of Marignano, and this fact put the papacy in a certain dependence on France. But then luck changed - in 1525, now Charles V won the battle of Pavia. In 1527, the imperial soldiers, who had not received pay for a long time, rebelled and captured Rome. The city was sacked, Pope Clement VII became a prisoner of Charles V. This happened at the very moment when Wolsey was in dire need of the pope's help. The fact is that Henry VIII urgently needed a divorce from his first wife Catherine, and only the pope could terminate such a marriage. Alas, at that time the life and freedom of Clement VII were in the hands of the French king Charles, who was Catherine of Aragon's nephew.
Initially, the marriage of Henry VIII and Catherine was very successful. She was a passionate and fearless woman and a faithful wife. Problems arose in connection with the succession to the throne and only worsened over time. During the first five years of her marriage, Catherine gave birth to five children, but they all died. Finally, in 1516, the queen was relieved of the burden of a healthy child, unfortunately, it turned out to be a girl who was named Mary. In the future, Catherine had several more miscarriages, and Heinrich, desperate to wait for the heir, began to get accustomed to the female environment. His gaze settled on Anne Boleyn (1507-1536).
At court, Anna was not loved. Wolsey called her "night crow". It was rumored that Anna was engaged in divination, but no rumors could cool the ardor of the king in love. Henry treated Anna as best he could - gifts and passionate speeches were used, but the uncompromising maid of honor stood her ground: she agreed to accept the love of the king only along with a marriage contract. Henry's impatience grew, and with it grew vexation at the insurmountable obstacle in the face of his first wife. The king was convinced that his marriage to Catherine of Aragon was a fatal mistake. He demanded from his faithful Wolsey an immediate arrangement for a divorce. Such an attempt was made, but the pope, who was in the hands of Charles V, naturally refused. Enraged Heinrich drove away
Wolsey. He tried to hide in the north, but was soon called to court on charges of treason. On the way from York to London, Wolsey died - it happened on November 29 in Leicester Abbey. There is evidence that, shortly before his death, the former chancellor said: "If I had served the Lord as diligently as I had served the king, he would not have sent me such a test in my old age."
During this period in England, as well as in many other countries, the anti-clerical movement intensified. Actually, it had not subsided since the days of the Lollards, but now anti-clericalism gained especially many supporters, and Wolsey was an ideal candidate for the role of a scapegoat. Occupying a high church post, he was formally responsible for several dioceses and monasteries. And although he never visited these subordinate objects, he received the money regularly - the income from these dioceses allowed Wolsey to lead a luxurious life, slightly inferior to the royal one. It must be said that the clergy at that time represented an exceptionally uneducated and incompetent stratum of society. At the meetings of Parliament in 1529, complaints were heard about the extreme ignorance of the clergy, it was indicated that "one such illiterate priest was responsible for ten or twelve parishes, essentially not living or working anywhere." It was decided to improve the education of the ministers of the church, and twenty-two years later, in 1551, one of the bishops examined two hundred and forty-nine clerics. And what did he find out? Of this number, one hundred and seventy-one priests still could not recall the ten commandments; ten people failed to read "Our Father", and twenty-seven did not know the author of this prayer.
Outraged by such ignorance, some scientists formed a commonwealth that merged into a single European movement called "humanism". They united under the banner of classical education and biblical piety. John Colet (1466-1519), rector of St. Paul's, championed the idea of reforming the church from within. He also advocated a literal translation of biblical texts. The most famous of the humanists was Erasmus of Rotterdam, who for some time taught at Cambridge. The "Praise of Folly" written by him in 1514 caused a lot of criticism from the highest church officials, since in this book Erasmus condemned and ridiculed the abuses practiced in the Catholic Church.
The strongest opposition to the existing religious system arose in Germany. A monk named Martin Luther sharply criticized the hypocrisy and self-interest of Catholic priests. On October 31, 1517, he nailed to the doors of the Wittepberg Cathedral sheets with his Ninety-five Theses. This document was instantly distributed throughout the city in lists and printed form, and Martin Luther - perhaps unexpectedly for himself - was at the head of a protest movement against the abuses of the Catholic Church. This movement later became known as Protestantism. The "Ninety-five Theses" spurred the dissatisfied among church officials and secular persons, and very soon Protestant groups began to spring up in all towns and villages. At first, Henry did not at all encourage the new movement: several Protestants were even publicly burned, the king issued in his own name (although the author, most likely, was) a furious pamphlet denouncing Lutheranism. This performance pleased the pope so much that he appropriated Heinrich honorary title"Fidei Defensor" ("Defender of the Faith"). One can imagine his disappointment when the English king changed his faith, but retained the bestowed title (even today you can see these letters - "FD" on British coins). Once arose, Protestantism gained more and more supporters at the English court. So, Anne Boleyn read the first English translation New Testament, by William Tyndall, and literally made King Henry familiarize himself with another Tyndall's work called The Obedience of a Christian. In this work, the author argued that the king is morally responsible for the spiritual health of his subjects to the same extent as he is responsible for their physical well-being. Well, the reading came in handy: Heinrich used this argument in a dispute with the pope about a divorce that he so needed.
However, the pope was bound hand and foot - he still remained the actual prisoner of Charles V. In the Barcelona Treaty, signed in June 1529, he swore an oath to "serve the empire, live and die in this capacity." Therefore, in response to the pressure of Henry VIII, he used the tactics of excuses and delays in order to delay the divorce issue as long as possible. Then Henry tried to enlist the support of experts: in August 1529, he sought the advice of specialists in church law. Scientists from Oxford and Cambridge universities supported the king, and professors from six other European universities agreed with them. Clement VII remained deaf to their opinion, and then Henry - as a means of pressure on the pope - decided to strengthen his own power over the church.
Representatives of the English clergy found themselves in a difficult position: on the one hand, they were obliged to remain faithful to their spiritual leader in the person of the pope, but on the other hand, they remained Englishmen who were obliged to remain loyal to the king. As they say, you won't envy... Of course, conflicts between the papacy and the monarchy have happened before: suffice it to recall King John and Innocent III, but, as a rule, relations between popes and kings were quite friendly. The same Wolsey was an excellent example - he embodied both ecclesiastical authority (being a papal legate) and secular authority granted to him by the king. This combination of power in the same hands somewhat softened the opposition of the Catholic Church to attacks from the crown.
Before his death, Wolsey had to stand trial on charges of treason. Allegedly using the power of the papal legate, he weakened the position of the English king. Now Henry used the same technique with success against his clergy. He accused them of bowing their heads to the Pope by acknowledging Wolsey's authority. Frightened clerics tried to pay off, this gave Henry a good income. Canterbury Abbey alone paid a hundred thousand pounds to regain the king's favor.
Between November 1529 and May 1532 there were four sittings of Parliament. Henry used them again to push the pope to a positive decision in the divorce case. By means of his own statutes and Acts of Parliament, he substantially curtailed the privileges of the English clergy. The final break with the Vatican occurred in 1531, when the king was declared "under Christian law, protector and supreme head of the Church of England and its clergy". Thus, the power of the Pope in England was abolished. Even more important was the "Annates Law" of 1532, which put an end to annual payments to the pope.
Towards the end of 1532, Henry's need for a divorce became even more acute, as it turned out that Anne Boleyn was pregnant. The unborn child, especially if it is a boy - the heir to the throne, was supposed to be born in a legal marriage. In January 1533, Henry and Anna were secretly married, despite the fact that the divorce from Catherine of Aragon was never formalized. To alleviate his own situation, the king consecrated his protege Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) to the rank of Archbishop of Canterbury. He supported Henry VIII in everything. Ironically, the pope himself, taking a step towards reconciliation, granted Cranmer full power. Perhaps he did not know this man well, but one way or another the deed was done - Thomas Cranmer became an archbishop. Parliament, for its part, further contributed to his rise. In 1533, he passed the "Act of Appeals", which transferred the final decision of theological disputes not to the pope, but to the Archbishop of Canterbury. Thus, the gulf between Catholic Rome and England widened. Further events developed at an accelerated pace. On May 8, 1533, Cranmer began legal proceedings in Dunstable against Catherine of Aragon. On May 23, he issued a decision declaring her marriage to Henry VIII invalid, respectively, the secret marriage concluded with Anne Boleyn acquired legal force. And a week later, on June 1, Anna became Queen of England.
When news of these events reached the pope, he excommunicated Thomas Cranmer, and gave Henry a month to come to his senses. Obedient to the will of Henry, the parliament of 1533-1534 severed the last ties with Rome. Now the pope was deprived of the right to appoint bishops in England, all payments in his favor were prohibited. In 1534, the "Act of Supremacy" was adopted, according to which the head of the Anglican Church was proclaimed the king of England. The pope was henceforth referred to simply as "Bishop of Rome". The church in England was freed from subordination to Rome, the papal power was replaced by the royal. The Anglican Church gained independence.
The separation happened at a truly dizzying pace, which was dictated primarily by the need for a legitimate male heir. In September of the same year, Anna was relieved of the burden. To the great disappointment of the king, a girl was born, who was named Elizabeth. Thus, the question of inheritance - the very one that underlay the break with the Roman Church - still remained open and required a speedy resolution.
Oddly enough, despite the extraordinary nature of what happened, the storm did not break out in the civilized world. And then to say - Henry took care to furnish what happened as a completely legitimate decision taken by the English Parliament. In addition, he did not formally change religion: the British remained the same Catholics, only not subject to the pope. Nevertheless, there were some dramatic events here. The chief Catholic martyr was Sir (1478-1535). At that time, he was acting Lord Chancellor at the court of Henry VIII, taking the place of the late Wolsey. The entire enlightened world is known as the author of "Utopia". Being a zealous Catholic, he boldly defended his ideas in Parliament. Alas, public opinion turned against him, and in the end More was executed for refusing to recognize Henry as the head of the English church. The same fate befell John Fisher (1459-1535), Bishop of Rochester, and four Carthusian monks. In 1539, Parliament passed the "Six Articles Act", which essentially represented the dogmas of the Anglican Church. There was no hint of radical Protestantism. And so that no one would have any doubts on this score, the king used the old tried and true remedy - he publicly burned twenty-two Protestants.
Thomas Cromwell
Cromwell (1485-1540) started out as Wolsey's protégé. Like his benefactor, he was born into a simple family - his father was a blacksmith in Putney, Suburb. In 1529 he became a member of parliament, and after the fall of Wolsey inherited his ranks at the king's court. Cromwell's career took off sharply in 1533 when he became Chancellor of the Exchequer and then in 1536 became Lord Privy Seal. However, the real power of Cromwell was given not by official posts, but by the friendship and trust of the king. Cromwell had an undoubted talent for government, some historians consider him the ancestor of a revolution in the government scheme of government. If earlier decisions were made in accordance with the wishes of the king (sometimes reckless and inconsistent), then Cromwell developed a whole system of departments with proven management techniques. Not all researchers agree with this statement, but as for the history of the destruction of the monasteries, here Thomas Cromwell undoubtedly played a leading role.
If the initial break with Rome was due to problems with the heir to the throne, then the subsequent sacking of the monasteries was clearly dictated by the acute shortage of money from Henry VIII. Large sums were required to strengthen coastal defenses in anticipation of an attack by the pope and Charles V. But wealth was at hand. This property of the church - not only relics, jewelry and church utensils, but also huge land holdings, which, according to preliminary estimates, amounted to from one fifth to a quarter of all cultivated land in England. And this at a time when the royal treasury is empty! It is easy to imagine how seductive such an opportunity looked to Henry VIII, the head of the entire Anglican Church. In 1535, he sent his representatives to inspect the small abbeys to identify the "existing sins, vicious and vile way of life" of the clergy there. Having a clear and precise goal, the "commissars" set to work with enthusiasm and, of course, immediately discovered a lot of evidence. Their reports served as the basis for the closure of the monasteries, which was carried out in two stages.
First of all, they "processed" small monasteries, whose annual income did not exceed two hundred pounds. It happened in 1536, and in the same year an uprising called the "Greyan Pilgrimage" took place in the north of the country. Its participants, of course, protested against the destruction of the monasteries, but perhaps more dissatisfaction with them was caused by the problems of agriculture and the behavior of the authorities. Be that as it may, the uprising was quickly crushed, and over the next three years, the property of larger church monasteries passed into the hands of Henry. In 1539 Parliament passed the "Second Closing Act of the Monasteries", according to which the monasteries were to "of their own free will ... without coercion or physical pressure" self-destruct. All their property passed into the hands of the royal power. Like this in short term, in just three years, Henry VIII did away with the medieval power of the monasteries.
End of medieval England
Usually the end of the Middle Ages in England is considered to be 1485 - the year of accession to the throne of Henry VII. It is more correct to attribute this milestone to 1538, when the last monasteries were closed. At the same time, Cromwell issued a decree according to which each church parish was obliged to have a Bible for English language. The same decree ordered the destruction of all tombs. The order was not slow to be executed: all the tombs and shrines, including the main shrines, such as the grave of Thomas Becket in Canterbury, were destroyed. The values found in them entered the royal treasury. After the break with Rome, the king arrogated to himself the right (which for a thousand years belonged to the pope) to play the role of arbiter in all religious matters.
When historians write about the destruction of monasteries, they mean physical destruction. They were literally taken down. The stones were taken away for the construction of other buildings, lead was stripped from the roofs, precious metals were sent for remelting. It's scary to even think how many old books and objects medieval art was destroyed. As a result, only the fragments of the choirs remained lonely sticking out - as a living reminder of the once rich monasteries, the main element of medieval life.
This process had not so obvious, but very important long-term consequences. In pursuit of momentary profit, Henry immediately sold off the huge monastic lands. Thus he destroyed the source of the future revenues of the crown and placed himself completely at the mercy of Parliament. The new owners of the monastery lands from among the gentry and the wealthy bourgeoisie gleefully rubbed their hands: over time, their incomes, and, consequently, their political power increased inexpressibly. Naturally, they were vitally interested in the fact that the deposed clergy would in no way - regardless of the wishes of the monarch - return to the country.
Another important trend should also be noted. It concerned the gradual reduction of the role of hereditary nobility. This was due, on the one hand, to the growing influence of the Star Chamber at the state level; and on the other hand, in the localities, many questions were decided by the power of magistrates, who were often elected from among the same gentry. As a result, an increasing number of government posts were occupied by people of low birth, and, of course, they defended the interests of their class. These changes were reflected in the nature of such an important body as the Parliament. In the 16th century, the House of Lords and the House of Commons were clearly formed in it. The first written mention of the House of Lords occurs in 1544 as a possible reaction to the emergence of the gentry class, claiming the power of the lords.
At the same time, the medieval era came to an end in Wales. Although officially by 1284 this area was conquered by Edward I, nevertheless, in many areas of Wales, the Welsh language, laws and customs were preserved. In 1536 and 1543 the Acts of Parliament legalized the union of England and Wales. In fact, this meant a simple absorption of Wales by a more powerful neighbor. English laws were established here, English system. The Welsh tenure and inheritance principles were replaced by English ones. Is it any wonder that the two peoples assessed the results of the unification in completely different ways? If the English were talking about the civilization they brought to the semi-wild land, then the Welsh called what was happening raw violence.
To the great joy of Henry VIII, Catherine of Aragon died in 1536. At that time, the king's passion for Anne Boleyn faded, and he was looking for a way to get rid of her. While Anna kept Heinrich at a respectful distance, she seemed irresistible to him, but now she openly tired her husband. So without waiting for her heir to the throne, Henry began to look for a new wife. This time it was a young lady-in-waiting named Jane Seymour (1509-1537) who caught his attention. However, in order to marry her, it was necessary to first free yourself from Anna. A ridiculous accusation of "criminal adultery" with courtiers was hastily fabricated. Anne Boleyn was found guilty and executed in May 1536: the poor thing was beheaded.
According to contemporaries, Henry loved his third wife, Jane Seymour, more than anyone else. In addition, she gave birth to his long-awaited son - the future King Edward VI. Now Henry could be calm about the fate of the throne. But, unfortunately, Jane died on the twelfth day after giving birth - October 12, 1537. In order to somehow console himself, heartbroken Henry showered honors on the family of the deceased.
Now his chief minister has taken up the search for a new wife for the king Thomas Cromwell. His choice for political reasons fell on Anna of Cleves (1515-1557). Cromwell took care to order an exceptionally successful (maybe even flattering) portrait of the bride, which was presented to Henry for consideration. He agreed to marry on the basis of correspondence acquaintance. However, what was Henry's disappointment when he saw the girl with his own eyes: Anna turned out to be a nondescript simpleton. The king christened her that, with his usual rough frankness: "my filly of Flanders." The marriage turned into a farce that ended quickly and painlessly. Anna was content with two houses and an annual allowance of five hundred pounds. Parliament annulled the marriage, Cromwell lost his head in 1540 for embarrassment with Anna of Cleves and other offenses. And Heinrich ... Heinrich began to look for a new wife.
Cromwell's rivals offered him Catherine Howard, daughter of a Catholic duke of Norfolk. She became the fifth wife of Henry VIII. However, she was also unlucky: she compromised herself with premarital affairs and in 1542 was also beheaded in the Tower of London. Accusations of treason cost royal wives dearly.
Henry's sixth (and last) wife turned out to be happier: Catherine Parr (1512-1548), who had been widowed twice before, also survived this husband. Her fate was successful: she enjoyed the respect of royal relatives and subsequently married Jane Seymour's brother, named Thomas. The succession to the throne of Henry was reliably provided by his son from his third wife, Edward.
By 1538, Henry already owned everything in the kingdom. He established his own, national church, which he himself led. He finally had a son, Prince Edward. Having staked on the speedy enrichment, he sold off the confiscated monastic lands. But even this operation, coupled with the devaluation of silver money (a decrease in the silver content compared to the specified face value), still could not cover the costs of Henry VIII's high-cost wars: in 1542-1546 he fought with Scotland, and in 1543-1546 with France . The Battle of Solway Moss, which took place in 1542, ended in a crushing defeat for the Scots and the death of King James V (according to the prevailing opinion at that time, from a broken heart). The Scottish crown passed to his six-year-old daughter Mary. And in 1545, Henry conquered Boulogne from the French. Unfortunately, all these victories did little for England, and in 1546 peace treaties were concluded.
Towards the end of his life, Heinrich's health, as well as his character, deteriorated greatly. He had terrible leg ulcers (possibly of syphilitic origin) that made him literally howl in pain. The young "prince of the Renaissance", highly spiritual and well educated, turned into a gloomy and gloomy ruin. Heinrich became so fat that he could hardly pass through the doors, he was lifted up the stairs with the help of special device. But even on his deathbed, he retained his formidable authority, those close to him were afraid to argue with him. Early on the morning of January 28, 1547, Henry VIII died at the age of fifty-five.
Reign of Henry VIII
Since the accession of Henry VIII (1509–1547) to the throne, support for Spain and participation in hostilities against France have become traditional. The expression of this alliance with Spain was the marriage of Henry VIII to Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry VIII's deceased brother Arthur. Catherine of Aragon, daughter of the Spanish king Ferdinand, was the native aunt of the German emperor and the Spanish king Charles V of Habsburg. The conductor of Spanish policy in England at that time was Cardinal Wolsey.
The situation changed dramatically when, after the Battle of Pavia (1525), the position of Spain was strengthened and the Spanish king occupied a virtually dominant position on the continent. From that moment on, relations between England and Spain worsened, and Henry VIII began to gravitate towards an alliance with France.
The internal policy of the English government up to 1530 was also led by Cardinal Wolsey (1515–1530). The most significant feature of this period was the policy of further strengthening the positions of the absolute sovereign, which was reflected in some reorganization of internal administration. Taking on an increasing role royal council, whose members were appointed at the choice of the king, mainly from officials, and not from representatives of the feudal nobility. The composition of this council was permanent. The council had a number of committees that actually carried out the government. Parliament continued to be convened and provided all possible support to Henry VIII, as if entrusting him with all power.
Cardinal Wolsey's attempts to increase taxes caused the strongest displeasure in the House of Commons, and the collection of forced loans aggravated the situation even more. Irritation grew among the people against the intensified financial extortions. All this in 1523-1524. greatly injured Cardinal Wolsey. The luxurious lifestyle he led was defiant and turned public opinion against him. The nobility was unhappy with Wolsey because he pursued a policy of strengthening absolutism, while the people hated him for an excessive increase in the tax burden. However, it was not the people and not the representatives of the feudal nobility that determined the policy of Henry VIII. The decisive word actually belonged to the new nobility and bourgeoisie, and Cardinal Wolsey incurred the hatred of these circles as well. In an effort to strengthen the foundations of Tudor dominion and mitigate the sharpness of the social contradictions caused by enclosures, he carried out a series of measures against enclosures, restricting new nobles and capitalist farmers who drove the peasants. It was this circumstance that made him a completely odious figure in the eyes of the rural gentry and the bourgeoisie, and ultimately played a decisive role in his downfall.
Wolsey's position became more complicated because in the second half of the 1920s there was a sharp turn in the foreign policy of England towards rapprochement with France, which was possible only on condition of a break with Spain and, in general, with the Habsburgs. All this inevitably had to entail a refusal to obey the Pope in ecclesiastical terms. The reason for the break with the Habsburgs and the Pope was the divorce case between Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon.
At the court at that time was the lady-in-waiting Anna Boleyn, who enjoyed the location of the king. A large party of courtiers formed around her, mostly from representatives of the new nobility, among whom the Duke of Suffolk played the main role, hoping with the help of Anne Boleyn to bring about the fall of Cardinal Wolsey. In 1529 the king demanded that his marriage to Catherine of Aragon be declared illegal (because she was his brother's widow). The commission of legates, headed by Wolsey, postponed the hearing of the divorce case, and from that moment the story of Wolsey's fall begins: at first he was only removed from the court, but after a while he was arrested and sent to the Tower of London. Wolsey died on the way there.
After Wolsey's death, the government of Henry VIII moved decisively to formalize the king's divorce from Catherine of Aragon. It soon became clear that this policy was dictated not so much by the desire to break off relations with Spain as by the desire of the English king to get out of the power of the pope, who stubbornly refused to approve the divorce.
The king needed a break with Rome primarily for purely financial reasons. Papal extortion was a heavy burden on the masses, and this made the break with Rome quite popular. At the same time, the Reformation thus begun was by no means a popular movement. The closure of monasteries and the seizure of monastic lands, which were an inevitable consequence of the break with Rome, were necessary and beneficial primarily to the king, the new nobility and the new nobles. This was the basis of the anti-Catholic policy of the government of Henry VIII, who found in the divorce proceedings a convenient pretext for reforming England and seizing huge church property into his own hands.
After the fall of Wolsey, for a short time, the famous humanist, author of Utopia, Thomas More, was the chancellor of the kingdom. The impending reformation forced him to resign from this post. Soon Thomas More, accused of high treason, as he did not want to recognize the supremacy of the king in church affairs, was executed.
From 1532, Thomas Cromwell, a man who made a quick career by the most shameless methods, played a major role in the government. His policy was aimed at maximizing the strengthening of the central government. T. Cromwell became the all-powerful ruler of the state. He was in charge of all financial affairs, disposed of the three seals of the kingdom, was the chief royal secretary, had a large staff of officials and actually led the Privy Council, which at that time became the highest government body. Of particular importance was the reform of the financial departments and administration initiated by Cromwell.
In every area central control medieval methods and forms were replaced in the course of this reform by more modern methods and forms. Medieval palace administration turned into a bureaucracy of a centralized state.
From the book of 100 great plagues author Avadyaeva Elena Nikolaevna author Bonwetsch Bernd From the book History of Germany. Volume 1. From ancient times to the creation of the German Empire author Bonwetsch Bernd From the book Great Historical Sensations author Korovina Elena Anatolievna"And the secrets of the plans of fate ...", or What do Henry VIII and Peter I have in common? History is studied in a peculiar way. We remember that there was such and such a tsar-sovereign, and it seems that he “did” something there: either he fought, or he fell at the hands of a mercenary. Few people look at the dates, although they are told to memorize them at school. But
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From the book Ireland. Country history by Neville Peter author Gregorovius Ferdinand3. The firm rule of Benedict VIII. — His campaign against the Saracens. The first flowering of Pisa and Genoa. - Southern Italy. - Rebellion of Mel against Byzantium. - The first appearance of the Norman bands (1017). The unfortunate fate of Mel. - Benedict VIII convinces the emperor to go to war. - Hike
From the book History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages author Gregorovius Ferdinand4. Benedict VIII initiated the reform. - Death of Benedict VIII, 1024 - His brother Roman. - Pope John XIX. - Death of Henry II, 1024 - State of Italy. - John XIX calls Conrad II to Rome from Germany. - Conditions for campaigns in Rome in those days. - Coronation of the emperor, 1027 - Stormy
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From the book Artillery and Sailing Fleet author Cipolla CarloTHE INFLUENCE OF HENRY VIII AND THE QUEEN ELIZABETH CANON Gun barrels became a convenient way for craftsmen to showcase their art. Some casters created long elegant forms, decorated with notches and flutes, like graceful architectural
From the book The World History in faces author Fortunatov Vladimir Valentinovich6.1.1. The habit of marrying King Henry VIII The thirty-eighth king of England and the second English monarch from the Tudor dynasty - Henry VIII - was born in 1491. He was the son of Henry VII and in the Russian manner could be called Henry Genrikhovich. Henry VIII became king at eighteen
So, we are with you at the Cathedral of Saints Peter, Paul and Andrew in Peterborough (UK, Cambridgeshire).
In addition to the magnificent facade (the temple was built 120 years at the beginning of the 12th century) and the ancient interior decoration(massive columns, an organ at the top, a beautiful pulpit, commemorative plates on the walls and on the floor, on the stele are the names of all the priests who served in it, starting with those who served and before the construction of the temple) of historical interest is the grave of the first wife of Henry VIII Catherine of Aragon - left side of the Cathedral, on the grave - flowers and a postcard on Christmas, remember!).
Nearby is an exhibition-stand from the history of England and the Cathedral (apparently permanent: two years ago it was in the same place), a portrait of Henry VIII - a strong figure in a royal costume with regalia, a face expanding downwards, a portrait of his first wife Catherine of Aragon - a sweet female a rather strong-willed face, parted in the middle of the hair hidden under a light brown cap; downcast eyes. Brown dress, matching decoration - beads around the neck.
CATHERINE OF ARAGONSKAYA
She was the youngest daughter of the founders of the Spanish state, King Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, the first wife of King Henry VIII of England.
Catherine of Aragon arrived in England in 1501. She was 16 years old, and she was to become the wife of Crown Prince Arthur - the son of King Henry VII. Thus, the king wanted to protect himself from France and raise the authority of England among European states.
Arthur at the time of marriage was only 14 years old. He was a sickly, consumptive youth. And a year after the wedding, he died without leaving an heir, since he did not enter into an intimate relationship with his young wife.
Catherine remained in England as a young widow, but in fact as a hostage, because by that time her father had not yet managed to pay her dowry in full, and besides, it seems that he was not going to pay. She lived in such uncertainty for the next eight years.
She saw salvation in renunciation of the worldly bustle and turning to God (she had nothing but the title of dowager princess, a small allowance and a retinue exclusively consisting of Spanish nobles who came with her. She was a burden both for King Henry VII of England and for her father, King Ferdinand.Her mother, the brave Queen Isabella, has died.
By the age of twenty, she indulged in severe asceticism - constant fasting and masses. One of the courtiers, fearing for her life, wrote to the Pope. And an order immediately came from him: to stop self-torture, since it could be life-threatening.
In fact, the same state considerations as during the marriage of Catherine and Arthur contributed to the marriage of Henry, the youngest son of the King of England, and now the heir, to Catherine, who was six years older than the groom. Negotiations regarding their marriage began during the life of Henry VII and continued after his death. Catherine became Queen of England two months after Henry VIII's accession to the throne. However, before the wedding, Henry had to get permission from the Pope - Julius. Church law forbade such marriages, but the Pope gave the English king special permission, largely because Catherine and Arthur never actually became husband and wife.
Due to Catherine's lack of surviving sons, Henry insisted, after 24 years of marriage, on a divorce (more precisely, annulment) in 1533. This step was one of the reasons for Henry's conflict with the Pope, a break with the Roman Catholic Church and the reformation in England.
In May 1533 Henry married Anna. He never received the consent of either the Pope or Catherine. It was decided that from that moment on, the power of the Pope did not extend to England. Henry declared himself the head of the Church (since 1534), and the marriage with Catherine was invalid.
The people loved Queen Catherine: when Henry decided to fight the French, he longed for the glory of an outstanding military leader, he left Catherine as regent. At this time, taking advantage of the absence of the king, the Scottish lords, led by James IV, invaded the territory of England. The Queen personally designed much of the defense plan. On September 9, 1513, the Scots were defeated in the hills near Flodden, King James himself was killed. Catherine was proud of this victory.
Catherine did not recognize this marriage. She continued to call herself queen and answered all threats that she was the legitimate wife of the king of England.
Catherine spent two more years in obscurity, spiteful critics continued to pester her, she was not allowed to see her daughter. However, despite all the troubles in her heart there was a place for love for her husband. She wrote to the Pope, imploring him not to forget Henry and Mary.
She lived in a small room, the windows of which overlooked the moat, filled with rotten water, and the neglected hunting park of Kimbolton. Her retinue consisted of three ladies-in-waiting, half a dozen maids, and a few devoted Spaniards looking after the household. In 1535, she fell ill, as it later became known, incurably.
On January 7, 1536, Catherine felt that she was dying. She managed to dictate a will, according to which she left all the money she had to her close associates. Daughters (eldest daughter of Henry VIII from marriage with Catherine of Aragon - Mary I Tudor
(1516-1558) - Queen of England since 1553, Also known as Bloody Mary (or Bloody Mary), Mary the Catholic. Not a single monument was erected to this queen in her homeland) she bequeathed her furs and a gold necklace, which was part of her dowry brought from Spain. She also wrote Farewell letter Heinrich. In it, she asked him not to forget his daughter, reminded him of her legal title and said that she still loved him.
Henry VIII was married six times.
His wives, each of whom was backed by a certain political or religious faction, were sometimes forced to make changes in their political or religious views.
In 1524, in the retinue of Catherine of Aragon, who was already rather tired of the king, the monarch noticed a new pretty face.
ANN BOLEIN -
Daughter of one of the king's dignitaries, Earl Thomas Boleyn. The engagement to her former fiancé, Lord Percy, is broken off and preparations are made for a new wedding.
In 1533, Henry married Anne Boleyn, in September their daughter Elizabeth was born. So, this passion of the king was worth the break with Rome, the elimination of Catholicism and its institutions in the country and the cooling of relations with Spain.
Only two years lasted love for Anne Boleyn. In his wife's retinue, Heinrich meets a new object of adoration - Jane Saymour. Possession of it becomes his goal for the near future. The wife, as luck would have it, does not give a divorce, it is worse for her. You have to understand that you can't command your heart. The king finds a way to gain freedom. If you do not disperse, then "remove" (in the modern language of criminal elements). The most convenient pretext is adultery. And "well-wishers", always ready to help their beloved king, begin to look for "evidence". At one of the balls, the queen drops her glove. She is raised and returned to her owner by Henry Noris, who is in love with her. The "Watching Eye" took note of this. Ease in communication with his brother, Lord Rochefort, provides a pretext for accusations of incest. Several more nobles are seen falling in love with the queen. One of them, Smytoks, promised to testify about adultery for a "moderate fee".
Apparently, Henry guessed that the church would not forgive him for a second divorce. In addition to divorce, only her death could free her from her former wife.
Henry called an executioner from France to execute his wife (the French succeeded in chopping off the head, because it was they who invented the guillotine - a device for quickly and painlessly chopping off the head). On May 15, 1536, the executioner cut off Anna's head not with an ax, but with a sharp and long sword, the first time. Anna did not suffer for long.
Her daughter Elizabeth was denied the right to inherit the throne.
Subsequently, the king, not without regret, remembered Anne Boleyn.
Henry VIII's love letter to his future second wife, Anne Boleyn, has recently been published. French, presumably January 1528.
This letter has been kept in the Vatican for five centuries, it will be exhibited for the first time in the British Library in London.
"From now on, my heart will belong only to you."
“The expression of your affection for me is so strong, and the beautiful words of your message are so cordial that I am simply obliged to respect, love and serve you forever,” the king writes. “For my part, I am ready, if possible, to surpass you in loyalty and desire please you."
The letter ends with the signature: "G. loves A.B." and
the initials of the beloved enclosed in a heart.
After Pope Clement VII refused to invalidate Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon (in order to marry Anne Boleyn), the English monarch broke with the Vatican and eventually created the Church of England, independent of Rome.
The British monarch holds the title of Sovereign of the Church of England.
Anne Boleyn was executed in May 1536 in the Tower (the towers of the fortress were a state prison), where she was kept. After the execution, her body was hastily buried in the chapel of St. Peter, in the Tower. But the soul of the unfortunate queen did not calm down. Since then, her ghost appears regularly for several centuries at regular intervals, sometimes at the head of a procession heading to the chapel of St. Peter, sometimes alone in different places in the old fortress: at the place where the execution took place ...
JANE SAYMOUR
In September 1535, while traveling through the country, the King and Queen stopped at Wulfhall, the Seymours' hereditary domain. It was there that Henry first paid close attention to the owner's daughter, Lady Jane Seymour. It was complete opposite Anna, both in appearance and in character: a blond, pale, calm and modest girl. If everyone compared Anna to a witch - she was thin, dark-haired and black-eyed, and besides, impudent and capricious, then Jane looked more like a bright angel, the embodiment of peace and humility.
Jane was educated just enough to be able to read and write. The main emphasis in the education of girls from noble families in the 16th century was on traditional women's activities, such as needlework and housekeeping.
She first appeared at court as a lady-in-waiting to Catherine of Aragon in the mid-1520s. Her older brother, Edward Seymour, by that time had already achieved some success in the career of a courtier: as a child, he served as a page in the retinue of the "French Queen" Mary Tudor, and upon his return to England, he held various positions under the king and Cardinal Wolsey.
After the annulment of his marriage to Catherine and Henry's marriage to Anne Boleyn in 1533, Jane and her sister Elizabeth moved into the new queen's staff.
Lady Jane's brothers, Thomas and Edward, on the contrary, were brought up at the king's court from childhood (they were pages), and subsequently occupied various lucrative positions. Therefore, there was nothing surprising in the fact that from the mid-1520s, their sister Jane was adopted as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine of Aragon.
After Anne Boleyn became queen, Lady Jane passed "at the disposal" of the new lady.
On Christmas Day 1533, the King gave gifts to several ladies-in-waiting, Lady Seymour among those honored.
After Anne Boleyn "disappointed" the king - instead of the desired son she gave birth to a girl (the future Elizabeth I), relations between Henry and the queen began to noticeably worsen. Moreover, Anna was intolerant, quick-tempered and ambitious. Having made many enemies at court, the queen gradually turned Henry and Henry away from herself. The years 1534 and 1535 passed in family scandals, stormy showdowns and the vain expectation of another queen's pregnancy.
It was at this time, in 1535, that the king became interested in the modest maid of honor Seymour. She was the complete opposite of Anna: blond, pale, very quiet and in agreement with everyone. If Anna was compared with a witch, and even with a witch - she was thin, dark-haired and black-eyed, then Jane looked much more like a bright angel.
The King marries Jane Cymour. The royal wedding of 1536 was unusually modest. In the spring of 1537, Jane informed Henry of her pregnancy. The king surrounded his wife with unprecedented care and fulfilled all her requirements and whims.
The heir was born healthy, handsome and similar to both spouses. But only Jane was not destined to rejoice ...
For two days the young queen suffered in childbirth. I had to choose - mother or child. Doctors, knowing the explosive nature of the sovereign, were even afraid to hint about it. "Save the child. I can get as many women as I like,” was the decisive and calm answer.
Jane died of puerperal fever. According to Henry VIII, Jane Seymour was his most beloved wife. Before his death, he bequeathed to bury himself next to her.
Known portrait of Jane Cymour, third wife of King Henry of England VIII Tudor(years of her life: c. 1508/1509 - October 24, 1537) by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1536-37
The famous ballad of the English group The Rolling Stones "Lady Jane" is dedicated to Jane Seymour and is based on the letters of King Henry VIII. The song also mentions Anna Boleyn (lady Ann) and Mary Boleyn (Mary). Each of the three women has their own verse.
ANNA KLEVSKAYA
In Europe, the monarch, so cold-bloodedly getting rid of his wives, began to be afraid.
In 1539, Henry VIII met his "beloved", Princess Anna of Cleves, from a portrait. The daughter of the Duke of Cleves - Johann III and Maria von Geldern - was born on September 22, 1515, in Düsseldorf.
The portrait of Anna, painted by the great artist Holbein, made an excellent impression on the 48-year-old Heinrich. He was not embarrassed by the fact that his chosen one was engaged to the Duke of Lorraine for a short time - according to English laws, a new marriage could not be considered legitimate.
On September 4, 1539, the marriage contract was signed. At the very beginning of 1540, Anna arrived in England. The first meeting of the bride and groom took place in Rochester, where Henry arrived as a private person.
One look at Anna was enough - the king was disappointed. Instead of the pale and graceful beauty that Holbein portrayed, Heinrich was confronted by a large, massive woman with rather rough features. Straightforward Henry took out all his anger on Cromwell, who allegedly "slipped him a hefty Flemish mare."
The original was quite disappointing. Probably, it was not Anna's appearance that was repulsive at all, but her stiffness, inability to stay in society, the cut of her clothes, unusual for the king's eyes, and the lack of proper grace.
"Where did you find this scarecrow? Send her back immediately! ”He got angry at Cromwell (the Protestant party, led by the favorite and first minister of the king, Thomas Cromwell, found the bride for the king). "It's impossible, Your Majesty! If you break the marriage contract, Europe may declare war on England."
Anna did not like Heinrich either, besides, she heard rumors about the ruined Anne Boleyn even in Kleve.
Heinrich reconciled, however marital debt he could not fulfill. For six months, the Princess of Cleves lived in England - her husband did not honor her with his attention.
Anna was a kind stepmother to both Prince Edward and Princesses Betsy and Mary.
She got used to the English court: she fell in love with music and dancing, got herself dogs and parrots.
The divorce of the spouses went, surprisingly, calmly. Anna, having judged everything sensibly and sorted out all the pros and cons, gathered the Privy Council to give an answer to the divorce proposal.
Heinrich left Anna in his family - as a "sister". This was dictated by a number of circumstances: Anna of Klevskaya fell in love with the children of the king, a number of courtiers found her an extremely amiable and pleasant woman. Heinrich did not want to come into conflict with Anna's brother, the Duke of Berg-Julig-Cleve, who was one of the most influential rulers of Germany. And Anna herself sincerely fell in love with her new homeland.
Henry proclaimed Anna his "sister" and thus she remained the most noble lady after the new queen and princesses Mary and Betsy. Anna received generous gifts from the king: the castles of Richmond and Hever, as well as a solid annual income.
The correspondence between Heinrich and Anna suggests that the former spouses lived very friendly. The king always signed his messages "Loving Brother Heinrich".
The instigator of this marriage, Thomas Cromwell, was arrested and placed in the Tower. He lived only to testify in the divorce case - on June 28, 1540, he was executed on charges of treason and heresy.
Anna did not remarry. She survived both Henry VIII and his son Edward VI. Anna von Cleve died on July 16, 1557 in London.
Anna of Cleves was buried in Westminster Abbey.
KATE HOWARD
In July 1540, Henry married 19-year-old Kate Howard. The wedding was modest.
After the wedding, Henry seemed to be 20 years younger - tournaments, balls and other entertainment resumed at the court, to which Henry remained indifferent after the execution of Anne Boleyn. He adored his young wife - she was incredibly kind, simple-minded, sincerely loved gifts and rejoiced at them like a child. Heinrich called Kate "a rose without thorns."
However, young Howard was extremely careless in her actions - Kate took all her "friends of youth" to the court, and they knew too much about the queen's life before marriage. In addition, Kate renewed her relationship with Francis Dirham, whom she made her personal secretary.
Then another gentleman from the "past life" appeared at the court - Thomas Kelpeper (Kate's distant relative on the maternal side, whom she once wanted to marry).
However, the young woman had enemies at court (or rather, they were the enemies of her influential uncle Norfolk...
The innocence of the young "rose" began to irritate the elderly king.
When Heinrich was informed that his naive Kate was not such a "rose" at all, he was simply confused. The reaction of the king was quite unexpected - instead of the usual anger, there were tears and complaints. The meaning of the complaints boiled down to the fact that fate did not give him a happy family life, and all his women either cheat, or die, or are simply disgusting.
In early February 1542, Lady Howard was transferred to the Tower, and two days later she was beheaded in front of a curious crowd. The young woman met her death in a state of deep shock - she had to be carried to the place of execution.
After the execution, the body of Lady Kate was buried next to the remains of Anne Boleyn, another executed queen, who, by the way, was also a relative of the Howards.
Feeling in my heart that I am unloved,
Henry the Eighth executed his wives.
KATERINA PARR
Henry's sixth wife is Katherine Parr, daughter of a baronet, widow of the elderly Lord Edward Borough. Young Kat Parr was only 14 or 15 years old when she was married in 1526 to an elderly, sixty-three-year-old lord. The family life of the spouses was quite happy. Moreover, Catherine managed to become a true friend for the children of Lord Borough, who were almost twice as old as their stepmother. However, in 1529 Lady Borough became a widow.
In 1530, the young widow received a new marriage proposal. It came from John Neville, Lord Latimer, a widower. Accepting this offer, Lady Catherine moved to her husband in Snape Castle. Here she again found herself in the role of a stepmother - Latimer had a daughter, Margaret, from her first marriage.
In the second half of the 1530s, the Latimers were often at the court of the king, and Henry VIII treated this couple very friendly.
After the execution of his fifth wife, Catherine Howard, Henry increasingly drew attention to the smart and friendly Lady Latimer. She was already thirty-one years old, which by the standards of the 16th century was not considered the age of youth, however, the king himself was far from young.
Lord Latimer at that time was already seriously ill and, alas, there was no hope of recovery. When he died in 1543, the king began to aggressively court Lady Latimer.
Lady Latimer's first reaction to the King's offer to be his "comfort in old age" was fright. However, Heinrich did not abandon his intention to marry Catherine and, in the end, she gave her consent.
On July 12, 1543, the wedding took place in the royal chapel of Hampton Court. The wedding was played in Windsor.
From the very first days of his living together with Heinrich, Catherine tried to create conditions for a normal family life for him. Princess Elizabeth, the daughter of the executed Anne Boleyn, enjoyed her special disposition.
A strong friendship developed between the stepmother and stepdaughter - they corresponded actively and often had philosophical conversations.
Clever and energetic, Catherine skillfully neutralizes the court intrigues weaving against her. Despite the increased suspicion of her husband, Katerina throughout the four years of marriage does not give him a reason for discontent.
In 1545 - 1546, the king's health deteriorated so much that he could no longer fully engage in solving state problems. However, the suspiciousness and suspicion of the king, on the contrary, began to acquire a threatening character. Catherine was several times, as they say, on the verge of death: the queen had influential enemies, and, in the end, the king could believe them, and not his wife. The king several times decided to arrest Catherine, and each time he refused this step. The reason for the royal disfavor was mainly the radical Protestantism of Catherine, who was carried away by the ideas of Luther. January 28, 1547, at two o'clock in the morning, Henry VIII died. And already in May of the same year, the Dowager Queen married Thomas Seymour, Jane Seymour's brother.
Who knows, perhaps Henry VIII served as a prototype for the character of Charles Perrault's fairy tale "Bluebeard" (Perrault wrote it down in the 17th century in France, the name of the hero is Gilles de Ré.
The last wife of Bluebeard does not have a name in the fairy tale, but her older sister's name is Anna)?..
"Once upon a time there was a man who had beautiful houses both in the city and in the countryside, crockery, gold and silver, furniture all embroidered, and carriages gilded from top to bottom. But, unfortunately, this man had a blue beard..."
Heinrich and his wives:
By The king "s Singer" s Greensleeves ... A ballad written by Henry VIII for his second wife, Anne Boleyn
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lmOb5H8kL30&feature=share
http://elkipalki.net/author/lavinia/2009-02-19/
Photo: "mysterious" woman... amazing Hans Holbein.
Portrait of a Lady 1535-40
Toledo Museum of Art, Toledo, Ohio
Portraits of Henry VIII and his (Family)
JANE SAYMOUR?