In UX design, research is a fundamental part of solving relevant problems and / or reducing to the “right” problems that users face. A designer's job is to understand their users. This means going beyond initial assumptions to put yourself in the shoes of other people in order to create products that meet a person's needs.
Good research doesn't just end with good data, it ends with good design and functionality that users love, want, and need.
Design research is often overlooked as designers focus on what design looks like. This leads to a superficial understanding of the people for whom it is intended. Having such a mindset is contrary to what isUX... It's user-centric.
UX design is centered around research to understand the needs of people and how the products or services we create will help them.
Here are some research techniques that every designer should know when starting a project, and even if they don't do research, they can communicate better with UX researchers.
Primary research
Primary research essentially boils down to new data to understand who you are designing for and what you plan to design for. This allows us to test our ideas with our users and develop more meaningful solutions for them. Designers usually collect this data through interviews with individuals or small groups, using surveys or questionnaires.
It's important to understand what you want to research before you stop looking for people, and the type or quality of the data you want to collect. In an article from the University of Surrey, the author draws attention to two important points that should be taken into account when conducting primary research: validity and practicality.
Validity of data refers to the truth, it is what it tells about the studied subject or phenomenon. It is possible that the data is reliable without being well founded.
The practical aspects of research should be carefully considered when developing a research project, for example:
- cost and budget
- time and scale
- sample size
Bryman in his book Social Research Methods(2001) identifies four types of validity that can influence the results obtained:
- Validity of measurement or validity of design: whether the measurable measure uses what it claims.
That is, do church attendance statistics really measure the strength of religious belief?
- Internal validity: refers to causality and determines whether the conclusion of a study or theory is developed as a true reflection of causes.
That is, is unemployment really the cause of crime, or are there other explanations?
- External validity: considers whether the results of a particular study can be generalized to other groups.
That is, if one kind of community development approach is used in this region, will it have the same impact elsewhere?
- Environmental soundness: considers “... social scientific outcomes are appropriate for the everyday natural environment of people” (Bryman, 2001)
That is, if the situation is observed in a false situation, how can this affect the behavior of people?
Secondary research
Secondary research uses existing data such as the Internet, books, or articles to support your design choices and the context behind your designs. Secondary studies are also used as a means to further validate information from primary studies and create a stronger case for overall design... Typically, secondary studies have already summarized the analytical picture of existing studies.
It's okay to only use secondary research to evaluate your design, but if you have the time I would definitely recommended doing primary research along with secondary research to really understand who you are developing and collecting ideas for that are more relevant and compelling than existing data. When you collect user data specific to your design, this will generate best ideas and the best product.
Evaluation studies
Evaluation studies describe a specific problem to ensure usability and justify it by needs and desires. real people... One way to conduct evaluative research is to use your product and give them questions or assignments to reason out loud as they try to complete a task. There are two types of assessment studies: summing and forming.
Summative evaluation study... Summative assessment aims to understand the results or effects of something. She emphasizes the result more than the process.
Pooled research can measure things like:
- Finance: Impact in terms of costs, savings, profits, etc.
- Impact: broad effect, both positive and negative, including depth, spread and time factor.
- results: Whether desired or unwanted effects have been achieved.
- Secondary analysis: Analyze existing data for more information.
- Meta-analysis: integrating the results of multiple studies.
Formative evaluative research... Formative assessment is used to help strengthen or improve a person or item being tested.
Formative research can measure things like:
- Implementation: monitoring the success of a process or project.
- Needs: a look at the type and level of need.
- Potential: the ability to use information to form a goal.
Exploratory research
Combining pieces of data and making sense of them is part of the exploratory research process. Exploratory research is conducted around a topic that little or no one knows about. The goal of exploratory research is to gain a deep understanding and familiarity with this topic, immersing yourself as much as possible in it in order to create direction for the potential use of this data in the future.
With exploratory research, you have the opportunity to gain new ideas and create worthwhile solutions to your most significant problems.
Exploratory research allows us to validate our assumptions about a topic that is often overlooked (i.e. prisoners, homeless people), providing an opportunity to generate new ideas and developments for existing problems or opportunities.
Based on an article from Lynn University, exploratory research tells us that:
- Design - convenient way obtaining background information on a specific topic.
- Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how).
- Provides the ability to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
- Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and to develop more precise research problems.
- Exploratory research helps to prioritize research.
In UX design, research is a fundamental part of solving relevant problems and / or reducing to the “right” problems that users face. A designer's job is to understand their users. This means going beyond initial assumptions to put yourself in the shoes of other people in order to create products that meet a person's needs.
Good research doesn't just end up with good data, it ends up with good design and functionality that users love, want, and need.
Design research is often overlooked as designers focus on what design looks like. This leads to a superficial understanding of the people for whom it is intended. Having such a mindset is contrary to what isUX... It's user-centric.
UX design is centered around research to understand the needs of people and how the products or services we create will help them.
Here are some research techniques that every designer should know when starting a project, and even if they don't do research, they can communicate better with UX researchers.
Primary research
Primary research essentially boils down to new data to understand who you are designing for and what you plan to design for. This allows us to test our ideas with our users and develop more meaningful solutions for them. Designers usually collect this data through interviews with individuals or small groups, using surveys or questionnaires.
It's important to understand what you want to research before you stop looking for people, and the type or quality of the data you want to collect. In an article from the University of Surrey, the author draws attention to two important points to consider when conducting primary research: validity and practicality.
Validity of data refers to the truth, it is what it tells about the studied subject or phenomenon. It is possible that the data is reliable without being well founded.
The practical aspects of research should be carefully considered when developing a research project, for example:
- cost and budget
- time and scale
- sample size
Bryman in his book Social Research Methods(2001) identifies four types of validity that can influence the results obtained:
- Validity of measurement or validity of design: whether the measurable measure uses what it claims.
That is, do church attendance statistics really measure the strength of religious belief?
- Internal validity: refers to causality and determines whether the conclusion of a study or theory is developed as a true reflection of causes.
That is, is unemployment really the cause of crime, or are there other explanations?
- External validity: considers whether the results of a particular study can be generalized to other groups.
That is, if one kind of community development approach is used in this region, will it have the same impact elsewhere?
- Environmental soundness: considers “... social scientific outcomes are appropriate for the everyday natural environment of people” (Bryman, 2001)
That is, if the situation is observed in a false situation, how can this affect the behavior of people?
Secondary research
Secondary research uses existing data such as the Internet, books, or articles to support your design choices and the context behind your designs. Secondary studies are also used as a means to further validate information from primary studies and create a stronger case for overall design. Typically, secondary studies have already summarized the analytical picture of existing studies.
It's okay to only use secondary research to evaluate your design, but if you have the time I would definitely recommended doing primary research along with secondary research to really understand who you are developing and collecting ideas for that are more relevant and compelling than existing data. When you collect user data specific to your design, it will generate better ideas and a better product.
Evaluation studies
Evaluation studies describe a specific problem to ensure usability and justify it by the needs and desires of real people. One way to conduct evaluative research is to use your product and give them questions or assignments to reason out loud as they try to complete a task. There are two types of assessment studies: summing and forming.
Summative evaluation study... Summative assessment aims to understand the results or effects of something. She emphasizes the result more than the process.
Pooled research can measure things like:
- Finance: Impact in terms of costs, savings, profits, etc.
- Impact: broad effect, both positive and negative, including depth, spread and time factor.
- results: Whether desired or unwanted effects have been achieved.
- Secondary analysis: Analyze existing data for more information.
- Meta-analysis: integrating the results of multiple studies.
Formative evaluative research... Formative assessment is used to help strengthen or improve a person or item being tested.
Formative research can measure things like:
- Implementation: monitoring the success of a process or project.
- Needs: a look at the type and level of need.
- Potential: the ability to use information to form a goal.
Exploratory research
Combining pieces of data and making sense of them is part of the exploratory research process. Exploratory research is conducted around a topic that little or no one knows about. The goal of exploratory research is to gain a deep understanding and familiarity with this topic, immersing yourself as much as possible in it in order to create direction for the potential use of this data in the future.
With exploratory research, you have the opportunity to gain new ideas and create worthwhile solutions to your most significant problems.
Exploratory research allows us to validate our assumptions about a topic that is often overlooked (i.e. prisoners, homeless people), providing an opportunity to generate new ideas and developments for existing problems or opportunities.
Based on an article from Lynn University, exploratory research tells us that:
- Design is a convenient way to get background information on a specific topic.
- Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how).
- Provides the ability to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
- Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and to develop more precise research problems.
- Exploratory research helps to prioritize research.
Design of medical clinical trials The concept of design in translation from English (design) means a plan, project, sketch, construction. Qualitative and quantitative research methods in evidence-based medicine. Clinical trials, definition, classification. Statistical analysis in evidence-based medicine. Evidence Levels and Grades of Recommendations for Clinical Trials Results
A clinical trial is any prospective study in which patients are included in an intervention or comparison group to determine a causal relationship between a medical intervention and clinical outcome. it final stage clinical research, which tests the validity of new theoretical knowledge. CI design - a way of conducting scientific research in a clinic, that is, its organization or architecture.
CI design type is a set of classification features that correspond to: 1) certain typical clinical tasks; 2) research methods; 3) methods of statistical processing of results.
Classification of studies by design Observational studies (observation) is a study in which one or more groups of patients are described and observed according to certain characteristics, and the researcher collects data by simply observing events in their natural course, without actively interfering with them; Experimental research- the results of the intervention (drug, procedure, treatment, etc.) are evaluated, one, two or more groups are involved. The subject of research is being observed.
1. Observational ↓ Descriptive Analytical ↓ Reporting Case-Control Cases Cohort 2. Experimental ↓ Clinical Trials
The most important requirements for medical research Correct organization(design) of the study and a mathematically sound way of randomizing. Clearly defined and followed criteria for inclusion and exclusion from the study. Right choice criteria for the outcome of the disease under the influence of treatment and without it. Location of the study Continue the study Correct use of statistical processing methods
General principles of classical scientific research. Clinical Trials Controlled - Comparison of a drug or procedure with other drugs or procedures - More common, more likely to detect a difference in treatment Uncontrolled - Experience with a drug or procedure, but not compared to another treatment option - Less common, less reliable - Likely to be performed to compare procedures more than the comparison drug
Types of clinical questions facing the physician in caring for a patient The main categories of clinical questions are: prevalence of diseases, risk factors, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment efficacy. Abnormality - Healthy or Sick? Diagnosis - How accurate is the diagnosis? Frequency - How common is the disease? Risk - What are the factors associated with increased risk diseases?
Prognosis - What are the consequences of the disease? Treatment - How will the course of the disease change with treatment? Prevention - Are there methods to prevent disease in healthy people? Is the course of the disease improved with early recognition and treatment? Cause - What factors lead to the disease? Cost - How much does it cost to treat this condition?
Types of medical research Systematic reviews, meta-analyzes Randomized clinical researches(RCT) Cohort studies Case-control study Case series, case description In vitro and animal studies
Systematized Reviews (SRs) are scientific work where the object of the study is the results of a number of original studies on one problem, i.e., the results of these studies are analyzed using approaches that reduce the possibility of systematic and random errors; are a generalization of the results of various studies on a given topic and are one of the most "read" options for scientific publications, since they allow you to quickly and most fully get acquainted with the problem of interest. The goal of JI is a balanced and impartial study of the results of previous studies.
Quality systematic review the results of original research on one problem or system are considered, but statistical analysis is not carried out.
Meta-analysis is the pinnacle of evidence and solid scientific research: quantifying the cumulative effect based on the results of all scientific studies (H. Davies, Crombie I. 1999); a quantitative systematic review of the literature or a quantitative synthesis of primary data to obtain summary statistics.
Randomized controlled trials (studies) - RCTs RCTs - in modern medical science are a generally recognized standard of scientific research for assessing clinical effectiveness. Randomization is a technique used to form a sequence of random assignment of test subjects to groups (rand - French - case). RCT - Treatment Evaluation Criteria
Research structure in RCT 1. Presence of a control group 2. Clear selection criteria (inclusion and exclusion) of patients 3. Enrollment of patients in the study before randomization into groups 4. Random method of allocating patients into groups (randomization) 5. "Blind" treatment 6. " Blind "evaluation of treatment results
Study design - presentation of results 7. Information on complications and side effects treatment 8. Information about the number of patients who dropped out during the experiment 9. Adequate statistical analysis, there are links to the use of the article, program, etc. 10. Information about the size of the revealed effect and the statistical power of the study
RCT - comparison of the end results should be carried out in two groups of patients: Control group - no treatment or standard, traditional (conventional) treatment is carried out or patients receive placebo; Active treatment group - treatment is carried out, the effectiveness of which is being investigated.
A placebo is an indifferent substance (procedure) for comparing its effect with the effects of a real drug or other intervention. In CI, placebo is used using a blind method so that the participants do not know what treatment they are prescribed (Maltsev V., et al., 2001). Placebo control technology is ethical in cases where the subject is not significantly harmed by going without medication.
Active control - a drug is used that is effective in relation to the studied indicator (more often the drug of the "gold standard" is used - well-studied, long and widely used in practice).
Homogeneity of compared groups - patient groups should be comparable and homogeneous in: Clinical features diseases and comorbidities Age, gender, race
Representativeness of groups The number of patients in each group should be sufficient to obtain statistically significant results. The distribution of patients into groups should be randomized, that is, by a random sampling method that excludes all possible differences between the compared groups that could potentially affect the study result.
Blinding method - to minimize the conscious or unconscious possibility of influence on the research results by its participants, that is, in order to exclude the subjective factor, the method of "blinding" is used in evidence-based medicine.
Types of "blindness" Simple "blind" (single - blind) - the patient does not know about belonging to a certain group, but the doctor knows; Double "blind" (doubl - blind) - the patient and the doctor do not know about belonging to a certain group; Triple-blind - the patient, doctor and organizers do not know about belonging to a certain group (statistical processing) Open-label research - all research participants are aware
RCT results - should be practically meaningful and informative: This can only be carried out with a sufficiently long observation of patients and a low number of patients' refusals to continue participating in the study (<10%).
True criteria for the effectiveness of treatment - Primary - the main indicators associated with the patient's life (death from any cause or the main one - the disease under study, recovery from the disease under study) - Secondary - improving the quality of life, reducing the frequency of complications, alleviating the symptoms of the disease - Surrogate (indirect), tertiary - the results of laboratory and instrumental studies, which are assumed to be associated with true endpoints, i.e., with primary and secondary.
Randomized clinical trials - objective outcome criteria should be used: Mortality from this disease Overall mortality The incidence of "major" complications Frequency of readmission rates Assessment of the quality of life
Cohort study (cohort-group) A group of patients is selected for a similar feature, which will be traced in the future Begins with the assumption of a risk factor Patient groups: - exposed to a risk factor - not exposed to a risk factor Prospective (in the future) definition of the required factors in exposed group Answers the question: “Will people get sick (in the future) if they are exposed to a risk factor? ". Mostly prospective, but there are also retrospective ones. Both groups are monitored in the same way. Outcome Assessments Historical cohort - case-based cohort selection and current follow-up.
Case-control study A study designed to determine the relationship between a risk factor and clinical outcome. Such a study compares the proportion of participants who experienced an adverse effect in two groups, one of which developed and the other did not observe the clinical outcome under study. Main and control groups belong to the same risk population Main and control groups should be equally exposed Disease classification at t = 0 Exposure is measured the same in both groups May be the foundation of new scientific research, theories
Case - control study (retrospective): - At the beginning of the study, the outcome is not known - Cases: presence of disease or outcome - Control: no disease or outcome - Answers the question: “What happened? "-This is a longitudinal or longitudinal study
Case Series Study or Descriptive Study Case Series Study - Study of the same intervention in selected sequential patients without a control group For example, a vascular surgeon can describe the results of carotid revascularization in 100 patients with cerebral ischemia Describes a number of characteristics of interest in small groups observed of patients Relatively short study period Does not include any research hypotheses Does not have control groups Precedes other studies This type of study is limited to data on individual patients
At first glance, design and psychology are not related to each other - well, perhaps when building sites, when the individual wishes of the customer are taken into account. But the scope of application of the foundations of psychology can be much wider, incorporating the latest achievements in this area of science.
Architecture is sometimes poetically called frozen music. Indeed, the influence of the external appearance of the building, and especially its internal space, on the human psyche is comparable to the influence of melody. Sometimes even an insignificant nuance can plunge into sadness or, conversely, cause a feeling of cheerfulness, a surge of strength and joy.
Fortunately, those times have sunk into oblivion when in the arrangement of the interior they were guided exclusively by pragmatic considerations of expediency and utilitarian benefits. The desire to fully follow in this often very dubious criteria of fashion and prestige also ceases to be the main thing, but the personal and psychological aspect of the room design comes to the fore. An apartment or a private house is gradually becoming not just a space for life, but a kind of expression of the inner world of the owners. The style of the home is focused, first of all, on creating a comfortable and harmonious psychological climate, and with a careful selection of all design components, it can serve as a kind of passive psychotherapist.
Psychological design examines the complex of interactions in the "person-environment" system. This is the psychological rationale for design. Justification of its causality, its existence in general, its components in a broad sense and in each specific case.
Psi-design is based on data from general psychology, social psychology (design as a channel of media systems), ethnopsychology, ethnography, sociology (approach from the point of view of design globalization), philosophy, cultural studies, synergetics, information science and physics.
Psi-design assimilates data from all ways of knowing reality - science, art, religion, etc., as well as empirically accumulated knowledge of traditional teachings.
The structure of psi-design includes consideration of two-way connections between man and the environment: videoecology, color and light psychology, psychology of form, psychology of materials science, psychology of composition, psychology of individual differences, etc.
In the applied aspect of psi-design, there are three main sections:
- the formation of the integrity of ideas about the environment of human existence (in other words, diagnostics of the environment as a point of application of the transformative impact of design),
- research methods of specific situations and interactions in the "person-environment" system,
- design recipe for the formation of the environment.
Psi-design develops non-standard and independent thinking, creativity, breadth of outlook on the world of things and Nature, their connections. The one who has mastered it opens up new bottomless sources for creativity, inspiration, intuition. From this moment on, life becomes clearer, more meaningful, brighter, more interesting, "tastier", its quality increases many times over. And no witchcraft.
Psychology is interesting to everyone, because it concerns everyone. Because she is about the secrets of the psyche, she deeply knows about us even what we do not know ourselves. Supposedly we do not know. In fact, not so deep, not everything and not always right. But he tries. Conducts research, collects statistics, analyzes. He is often fond of theorizing and thinks like science for the sake of science. But its applied part works, though not one hundred percent. Still, the main developments were made a long time ago and, most importantly, in the West. The basis was European thinking. Both subjects and psychologists.
As a result, the methods do not fully fit the Russian mentality, and often do not suit at all for understanding the “mysterious Russian soul”. Strictly speaking, just as it is impossible to compare the intelligence of representatives of different cultures with each other, so it is impossible to apply the techniques created in a different mentality to analyze a different mentality.
Design has received increased attention in recent years. First, this is a new phenomenon for us. Secondly, interesting. Finally, simply beautiful. And few people realize how influential. In terms of influence on a person as an environmental factor. Nobody argues anymore about the importance of ecology as an environmental factor. Moreover, all the troubles are now being placed in this area. But the subject environment has no less influence on a person. From this point of view, it is the responsibility of the designer to ensure that these influences are positive and not negative. This is a separate topic, but let's say that violation of the rules of videoecology can lead to diseases, including provoke mental disorders. And the sick person will never guess that the reason is poor design.
The second reason is that the designer often cannot take the position of the customer and design the environment for him. When fulfilling an order, he expresses his worldview, guided by his own taste. It is not for nothing that almost everyone complains of psychological problems with the customer as the main ones. This has already become a commonplace. A designer is the same person with his own system of views, and even if he tries to adapt to the taste of the customer, he rarely gets into the top ten. Lack of objectivity.
In addition, designers often act dishonestly, they "take the customer into circulation", impose their taste and preferences. Many people do this unintentionally. Partly due to the fact that the customer himself does not know what he wants. And even if he formulates his wishes, it is not at all a fact that in the realized form they will not harm him in the future. After all, the customer's desire can be dictated by mood, fashion, someone's tip.
To be honest in the profession, we must admit that a designer, although he is an artist, is still a person from the service sector. That is, "what you please." The designer is obliged (literally like a doctor) to love all his customers (patients), to love all styles (diseases), all colors (syndromes) and textures, and skillfully operate them. But even that is not enough. There is a lack of a tool for objectifying a design solution.
It turned out, however, that the creation of such a psychological method is real. Moreover, it has already been developed and tested. The beauty is that it helps to avoid subjectivity on both sides of the contract and, with a greater degree of certainty, determine what, in fact, the customer wants. As a result, a unique "design recipe" is formulated for this customer. Similar to custom tailoring in the atelier. Specific recommendations are given on the style, shape, space, texture of materials, light, according to the mental disposition of the individual. If the customer is a family, then an average general recipe is issued without "harmful" factors for any of its members.
As a result, the designer manages to express the customer's worldview and sense of self by means of the interior. It is not easy to turn a client into a co-author (then the size of the fee will look unprofitable for the designer), but “to sew a suit according to the figure”.
It is also quite remarkable that the technique provides a real opportunity to exert a therapeutic effect by means of the interior. Yes, physics, in particular, new sections - synergetics and eniology.
Of course, in fairness, it must be said that the psychological technique is not a device for the use of which you need to know several buttons. It is necessary to acquire a minimum of psychological knowledge on the interpretation of the data obtained. But this is quite realistic for an ordinary person and does not require deep knowledge.
The psychological approach to interior design conventionally includes two main functions. The most widespread and well-known harmonizing function is when the atmosphere of a single room or the whole house reflects a person's temperament, habits and worldview. The task of such a room is to create an atmosphere of harmony and peace. Bold and non-trivial decisions are hardly justified here. In fact, such a technique presupposes the passivity of the interior in relation to its owner. Thanks to the optimal combination of shades and textures of finishing materials, as well as decorative elements and accessories, the interior adjusts to a particular individual, being a continuation of his inner self.
The second, much more interesting function can be called stimulating. Design now plays an active role: it favorably accentuates certain features of the owner's character and temperament, or, conversely, smoothes and neutralizes unwanted traits. For example, such an interior can balance an impulsive choleric person or inspire a melancholic who is prone to depression. It is no secret that the popularity of Feng Shui these days is largely due to the variety of methods of organizing stimulating spaces that this ancient teaching offers. However, the followers of Feng Shui look even deeper, claiming that the correct arrangement can mysteriously influence not only the psyche of the inhabitants of the house, but also the events in their lives, business and personal success. Of course, a room design that combines both stimulating and harmonizing functions could be considered ideal.
Interior design begins with the layout of the premises, with the creation of a certain structure of the interior space. From the point of view of psychology, such structuring is of paramount importance. In fact, it sets the rhythm of life in the house and often dictates specific models of relations between its inhabitants with each other and with guests. Although the options for spatial planning are countless, they can be reduced to two main types: indoor and outdoor interiors. A closed interior implies a clear and fixed division of a single whole into several isolated rooms, each of which performs a specific function. For example, a living room cannot be a dining room, and a bedroom cannot be a study. From a psychological point of view, privacy is at the forefront here, and even the intimacy of the life of the owners of the premises. An open interior, on the other hand, is a design embodiment of the concept of an accessible society, demonstrating a kind of show-off life, an active, dynamic and communicative style of behavior and, possibly, the priority of public and business interests over personal ones.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY, ITS ORGANIZATION
Every research begins with a basic question: why things are as we see them. We are looking for an explanation of the phenomena we observe. Where to begin?
First of all, with search for the necessary literature... If we are lucky, this search leads to a ready-made explanation in the form of a theory - a theory formulated by someone who has observed similar phenomena before us. More often than not, we have to use literature in a more creative manner, trying to construct the most appropriate possible explanation. The rest of the research process is then devoted to testing this explanation: in order to understand how much it gives to our understanding - the understanding of the essence of the phenomenon under investigation.
The first step in this process verification our theory consists in the formulation of certain hypotheses, which, from a logical point of view, must correspond to reality - if our initial assumptions about the essence of the observed phenomenon are observed. These - workers - hypotheses serve for the following:
- they determine those variables that will appear in our study;
- they dictate the ways and methods of organizing research in the most optimal way - from the point of view of obtaining irrefutable evidence of the correctness of our understanding - the way.
If our theory is a prototype building, then a separate working hypothesis is element of this building. A necessary brick of this particular building- the theory we use. The working hypothesis explains one of the possible connections that form - in a complex - the process we are investigating.
When formulating a hypothesis, it is necessary to be aware of whether it is practically possible to observe the connection of phenomena explained by it. Will we be able to find the data we need, do we have the ability to do this? It seems imperative that the researcher choose hypotheses that can be adequately tested - taking into account the time, resources and abilities of the researcher himself. Otherwise, we will fail.
Then the variables used in the study should be operationalized in such a way that they can be worked with, and as a result, it is possible to draw conclusions that are significant for our research. Here, again, the question of resources arises - if we do not have the time, money necessary to carry out measurements, assistance (from, say, persons participating in a public opinion poll), there is no point in getting down to work. In addition, it is necessary to ask oneself a question: is there a substitution of concepts in the process of research in connection with the use of an unacceptable method? The scientific value of the method must be analyzed very biasedly even before we start collecting data, because no matter how carefully they are collected, the unsuitability of the research method can devalue the results of the research.
In developing the method of our research, we must also think about the analysis of the collected data ahead of us. The researcher must determine, based on the accepted working hypothesis, what specific mathematical and statistical comparisons will be needed to test it. The main problem here is to find correct ratio between the measurement level resulting from the accepted operationalization of variables, and the level of measurement adopted in those standard statistical procedures that will be used in research; that is, the data obtained during the collection must be suitable for use in the statistical processing. It is necessary to make sure that they are not only the data that is commonly used in these procedures, but that they are also accurate enough to be processed. The distribution of the obtained data must also follow the standard statistical distribution, otherwise it will be difficult to process.
The next step is design, designing our research in such a way that the procedure for measuring, collecting data was applied with the greatest efficiency. The main task of design is to make sure, to be completely sure that the connection between the phenomena that we observe, is explained by our working hypothesis, and is not a random phenomenon or the product of a completely different system of relationships. Alternative working hypotheses should be rejected - and not without proof, but on the basis of serious analysis. Therefore, good design begins, first of all, by reviewing the literature related to our field of research. This literary review, a survey - together with a logical analysis of the situation - should aim to reject other possible working hypotheses even before we give space for our own explanation of the observed phenomena.
Research design should be developed with:
1) identification of comparisons used in testing a working hypothesis;
2) determining what kind of observations should be carried out (who or what, in what order, by what means, under what conditions);
3) determining the place of the data collected during the comparative study (no connection, positive connection, negative connection, etc.);
4) identifying major competing hypotheses that also claim to explain a possible research outcome, and
5) organizing a set of observations in such a way that additional comparisons (testing the applicability of the main competing hypotheses) are made (regardless of the actual results of the study).
When choosing the design of our study, it is necessary to know which statistical methods of analysis it is desirable to use, since design determines the nature of the data collected. In the process of designing our research, as well as in choosing a hypothesis and choosing a method, it is absolutely necessary to ask yourself: is the task set by us overwhelming given our resources, time and our abilities. The best design will do nothing if we don't have the ability to implement it. Therefore, one must be careful about the cost and logic of the data collection process in the study design process.
COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
As mentioned above, data collection and analysis are aimed at testing the validity of the working hypothesis. The following should be noted here.
Various methods of data collection can be applied both individually and in combination. Different methods serve different purposes. A researcher can, for example, engage in direct observation of a certain political group in order to collect general information in order to develop a working hypothesis, come to some preliminary conclusions, and then, in order to obtain accurate data, test this hypothesis, resort to a survey. ... Besides, the use of several methods in one study increases the scientific value of its result. For example, in studying the variations in the quality of utilities around a city, one may find it desirable to validate the results obtained through public opinion polls — statistics, official documents, interviews with officials, and the judgments of professionally trained observers. If all of these methods of data collection lead to the same results regarding the relative position of each of these areas on the service quality scale, the researcher can be confident in their applicability to the task at hand.
Empirical research can take on the character of discovery. Instead of testing hypotheses that flow from the explanations accepted by the researcher, the researcher can collect data that provide ground for fundamentally new interpretations - usually each study leads to new questions, suggests new explanations, and leads to new research.
DEFINITION OF THE SCIENTIFIC VALUE OF RESEARCH
In the design of your own or in the evaluation of someone else's research, it is important to be able to assess whether it meets general but clearly defined criteria of objective value. The list below is rather broad, and a separate study may contain some minor technical errors. But if the researcher is able to answer these questions positively (at least in the main), he can be sure that his project is free from fundamental errors that invalidate the significance of the work done.
1. Is the question to be answered correctly formulated? Do we know the objectives of the research in their entirety? Is the research related to a more fundamental question or problem? Is the object of research important?
2. Have the main objects of analysis been correctly selected, clearly identified and consistently applied?
3. Are the concepts on which the research is based clearly formulated and adequately used? Where are they taken from?
4. Is it clear which explanations need to be verified? If a theory is used, is it logically correct? Where is the source of the theory and its constituent explanations?
5. Is the theory or explanation consistent with existing literature on the subject? Has the literature been studied in detail? Is the project related to previous research or more fundamental research questions?
6. Are working hypotheses clearly identified and formulated? Do they follow logically from the explanation or theory being tested? Are they subject to empirical verification?
7. If more than one hypothesis is tested, what is the relationship between them? Are all hypotheses related to theory, is their role in testing the theory obvious?
8. Are all variables clearly defined and their status (dependent or independent) formulated in the working hypothesis?
9. Did the study include variables that could modify the hypothesized relationship?
10. Are the concepts clearly operationalized? Are measurement procedures detailed so that others can use them? Have they been used by other researchers?
11. Can these procedures be relied upon as being fully consistent with the object of analysis? Have they been verified in this regard?
12. Is the research design clearly defined and appropriate for the task at hand - testing a working hypothesis? Is attention paid to alternative competing hypotheses, and is the design process created to test them in light of possible alternative explanations? Is there a coherent basis for identifiable relationships?
13. Is the “population” of interest to the researcher defined correctly? Is the sample representative? If not, is the researcher aware of the limitations this places on his results? Is the sampling procedure adequately explained?
14. Is the data collection technique (survey, content analysis, etc.) appropriate for the purpose of the study with its objects of study and the type of information collected? Have all the rules for this method of collecting information been followed?
15. Is the data collection process clearly presented? Are their sources fully identified and can others identify them?
16. Is the chosen coding system fully defined and justified (such as bringing certain income groups into more general categories or interpreting “in support” or “no” answers?).
17. Is the construction of the scales or indices used in the study explained? Are they one-dimensional? Does their use retain the original meaning of the concepts?
18. Have the tools been checked?
19. Have there been any attempts to verify the results against other sources?
20. Is the graphics appropriate to the nature of the data collected? Is this noted in the text? Do the tables and graphs distort the results obtained?
21. Are these graphs and tables easy to interpret?
22. Is their proposed interpretation correct?
23. Is the statistical method of data processing chosen correctly? Is it suitable for summarizing them in tables and graphs?
24. When examining the relationship between variables, does the researcher provide data on their strength, direction, shape and meaning?
26. Is the level of statistics used consistent with the level of the selected variables, as well as the purpose of the study?
27. Do the obtained data correspond to the capabilities of the method and how is it shown by the researcher?
28. Does the researcher confuse the concepts of statistical and substantive significance of the results obtained? Is he not using them one instead of the other?
29. Have statistically alternative hypotheses been investigated, have the results of this research been correctly presented and interpreted?
30. Is each stage of data analysis linked to the main conclusion of the study? Are the proposed interpretations consistent with the original theory or explanation?
31. Does the research report contain:
a) a clear formulation of the objectives of the study;
b) the necessary review of the literature to demonstrate the place of research in the general context of this direction in science;
c) adequate explanation of design, data and research methods;
d) clear wording of conclusions?
32. Are the conclusions reached supported by the data presented and the choice of study design? Does it represent a significant contribution to the literature on the problem, or does it seem too general?
It should be emphasized that the above criteria for the scientific value of research have a very wide field of application - they are by no means tied to sociology, they are universal.
Topics for essays
1. The program of political and sociological research is an increment of new knowledge to the already existing one.
2. Hypothesis - the locomotive of political and sociological research.
3. Types of sociological research - how many can there be?
4. Interpretation of basic concepts - what method of philosophical knowledge is analogous to this interpretation?
5. Problematic situation, its significance in the program of political and sociological research.
Review questions and tasks
1.What does any serious research start with? Why?
2. What role does theory play in research? What is the relationship between theory and a working hypothesis?
3. What dictates the choice methodology research? Is it not accidental? Justify.
4. Why does the use of several methods in one study increase its value? Give examples.
5. What is study design? What should be guided by when choosing a design?
6. What does the term mean research correctness? How is it determined?
7. What numerical methods are used in applied sociology? What is the criterion for their selection?
8. What is the difference between statistical and substantive the significance of the result obtained?
9. What kind ethical problems can arise in the course of sociological research and how should they be resolved?