Standardization is not only a type of activity, but also a set of methods necessary to establish the optimal solution to repetitive tasks and legitimize it as norms and rules.
Standardization method Is a technique or a set of techniques with the help of which the goals of standardization are achieved.
Standardization is based on general scientific and specific methods used in standardization work.
Ordering of objects of standardization- a universal method in the field of standardization of products, processes and services. Ordering as managing diversity is primarily concerned with reducing it. The streamlining work results in, for example, restrictive lists of components for the final finished product; albums of typical product designs; standard forms of technical, managerial and other documents. Ordering as a universal method consists of separate methods: classification and systematization, selection and simplication, typification and optimization.
Classification Is the division of a set of objects into subsets based on similarity or difference in accordance with accepted methods.
To classify objects of technical, economic and social information, hierarchical and faceted methods are used.
The hierarchical classification method is characterized by the fact that the original set of classification objects is sequentially divided into subsets (classification groupings), and those, in turn, are divided into subsets, etc. The division of the set of objects into sections, classes, groups proceeds according to the principle from general to particular according to the main features that characterize these objects.
The faceted classification method is characterized by the fact that a set of objects is divided into independent subsets (classification groupings, facets), which have certain specified characteristics necessary for solving specific problems. From the total number of facets, those that are necessary to solve the task are selected, a strict sequence is established taking into account the task.
Systematization- This is an activity that consists in scientifically based classification and ranking of a set of specific objects of standardization.
An example of the result of work on systematization is the All-Republican Classifier of Industrial and Agricultural Products (OKP). According to the OKP, all industrial and agricultural products are divided into classes, subclasses, groups, subgroups and types on the basis of the most essential characteristics. The specific classification groupings are further specified in the assortment part of the sectoral sections of the OKP.
All products are divided into 98 classes on the basis of industry affiliation. Products Food Industry belongs to class 91. Products of the canning and vegetable drying industry - to subclass 91 6. Subclass 91 6 contains 9 groups: canned vegetables, fruit, frozen products, etc. For example, canned products "Pepper stuffed with vegetables in tomato sauce" of the highest grade, with a net weight of 320-340g, will receive the code 91 6111 4001.
Selection objects of standardization - an activity consisting in the selection of such specific objects from a variety of types of products, which are recognized as appropriate and sufficient to meet the needs and further production. An example of selection is a set of weights, which makes it possible to obtain any value of mass with a minimum of weights.
Simplication- activity consisting in the identification of such specific objects that are recognized as inappropriate for further production and use in social production. The method consists in a simple reduction of the number of types (types, grades) of products to the number of economically and technically feasible and sufficient to meet the current needs. At the same time, no changes are made to the standardization object, no additional research is carried out. An example of simplication is the gradation of clothing by height, when, out of a number of values corresponding to a person's height, five out of six values were recognized as inappropriate:
…157,158, 159,160,161,162,163,164 …170 …176 …182 …
Selection and simplication processes are carried out in parallel. They are preceded by the classification and systematization of objects.
Typification of objects of standardization- this is an activity on the creation of standard (exemplary) objects (structures, technological rules, forms of documentation) based on progressive methods and modes of operation and characteristics common to a number of products. Unlike selection, selected specific objects are subjected to technical transformations aimed at improving their quality and versatility.
So, in the early 60s. more than 100 design varieties of TVs were in operation (including those previously discontinued). The task was set - to eliminate the unjustified variety of schemes. To do this, the entire set of structures was subjected to systematization, as a result of which, based on the size of the screen diagonally, three options were selected - the schemes of TVs with a screen of 35, 47 and 59 cm. In each variant, the most successful schemes were selected, which were then improved to improve reliability and maintainability. As a result, standard (unified) designs were created - CNT-35, CNT-47, CNT-59.
Optimization objects of standardization is to find the optimal parameters, optimal values other indicators of quality and economy.
At the state level, the main criterion for optimization is national economic efficiency. However, simpler optimization criteria are often used - safety margin, permissible heating, etc., which are optimized in advance based on the conditions for obtaining maximum national economic efficiency.
Unlike works on selection and simplication, based on simple methods for assessing and justifying decisions made, for example, on expert methods, the optimization of standardization objects is carried out by using special economic and mathematical methods and optimization models. The aim of optimization is to achieve the optimal degree of ordering and the highest possible efficiency according to the selected criterion.
Product unification–Activity for the rational reduction of the number of types of parts, units of the same functional purpose is called unification. Unification consists in bringing a set of objects to a single form, to uniformity
Unification is based on classification and ranking, selection and simplication, typification and optimization of finished product elements. The main areas of unification are:
Development of parametric and standard-size series of products, machines, equipment, instruments, assemblies and parts;
Development of standard products in order to create unified groups of homogeneous products;
Development of unified technological processes, including technological processes for specialized production of products - cross-industry use;
Restriction to a reasonable minimum of the range of products and materials permitted for use.
Aggregation is a method of creating machines, devices and equipment from separate standard unified units, which are repeatedly used to create various products on the basis of geometric and functional interchangeability. For example, the use in furniture production of panels of 15 sizes and standard drawers of three sizes makes it possible to obtain 52 types of furniture with a different combination of these elements.
Aggregation is very widely used in mechanical engineering. For the design and manufacture of a large number of various machines, it was necessary, first of all, to dismember the structure of the machine into independent assembly units (units) so that each of them performed a specific function in the machine. This ensured the manufacture of units as independent products, the operation of which can be checked independently of the entire machine. The generalization of particular design solutions, the development of unified units, assemblies and the creation of machines based on these units made it possible to reduce the cost of production and ensure frequent changes in the design of machines.
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Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia
Saint Petersburg University
Faculty of Distance Learning
Department of Psychology
TEST
On the subject: "Psychology"
On the topic: " Methods of psychological research. Briefmethod characteristics»
Completed:
Listener 305 study group
Faculty of Distance Learning
police lieutenant
Vasiliev Nikolay Alekseevich
Saint Petersburg 2011
Introduction
All science is based on facts. She collects facts, compares them and draws conclusions - establishes the laws of the field of activity that she studies.
The specificity of scientific psychology lies in the fact that it uses a whole arsenal of scientific methods to accumulate its data.
Consider the methods of psychology based on four main positions:
1) non-experimental psychological methods;
2) diagnostic methods;
3) experimental methods;
4) formative methods.
Notexperimentalmethods
1. Observation is one of the most commonly used research methods in psychology. Observation can be used as an independent method, but usually it is organically included in other research methods, such as conversation, study of the products of activity, Various types experiment, etc.
Observation is called purposeful, organized perception and registration of an object. Observation, along with introspection, is the oldest psychological method.
Distinguish between non-systematic and systematic observation:
non-systematic observation is carried out during field research and is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, social psychology... For a researcher conducting non-systematic observation, it is not the fixation of causal dependencies and a strict description of the phenomenon that is important, but the creation of a certain generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or a group under certain conditions;
systematic observation is carried out according to a specific plan. The researcher identifies the recorded behavioral features (variables) and classifies the conditions external environment... The systematic observation plan corresponds to the correlation study (which will be discussed below).
Distinguish between "continuous" and selective observation:
in the first case, the researcher (or a group of researchers) records all the behavioral features available for the most detailed observation.
in the second case, he pays attention only to certain parameters of behavior or types of behavioral acts, for example, he records only the frequency of manifestation of aggression or the time of interaction between the mother and the child during the day, etc.
Observation can be carried out directly, or with the use of observational instruments and means of recording the results. These include: audio, photo and video equipment, special surveillance cards, etc.
The fixation of observation results can be carried out during the observation process or delayed. In the latter case, the value of the observer's memory increases, the completeness and reliability of the registration of behavior "suffers", and, consequently, the reliability of the results obtained. The problem of the observer is of particular importance. The behavior of a person or group of people changes if they know that they are being watched from the outside. This effect increases if the observer is unknown to the group or individual, is significant and can competently evaluate the behavior. The observer effect is especially strong when teaching complex skills, performing new and complex tasks, for example, when studying "closed groups" (gangs, military collectives, teenage groups, etc.), external observation is excluded. Participatory observation assumes that the observer is himself a member of the group whose behavior he is investigating. When examining an individual, for example a child, the observer is in constant, natural communication with him.
There are two options for enabled surveillance:
the observed know that their behavior is recorded by the researcher;
the observed do not know that their behavior is being recorded. In any case, the most important role is played by the personality of the psychologist - his professional important qualities... With open observation, after a certain time, people get used to the psychologist and begin to behave naturally, if he himself does not provoke a "special" attitude towards himself. In the case when covert observation is used, the "exposure" of the researcher can have the most serious consequences not only for the success, but also for the health and life of the observer himself.
In addition, participatory observation, in which the investigator is masked and the objectives of the observation are hidden, raises serious ethical problems. Many psychologists consider it unacceptable to conduct research by the "method of deception" when its goals are hidden from the people under study and / or when the subjects do not know that they are objects of observation or experimental manipulation.
A modification of the method of participatory observation, combining observation with self-observation, is the "labor method", which was very often used by foreign and domestic psychologists in the 1920s and 1930s.
The purpose of observation is determined by the general objectives and hypotheses of the study. This goal, in turn, determines the type of observation used, i.e. whether it will be continuous or discrete, frontal or selective, etc.
As for the methods of recording the data obtained, it seems that in the process of initial observations it is better to use not pre-compiled protocols, but expanded and more or less ordered diary entries. As these records are systematized, it is possible to develop a form that is quite adequate to the research objectives and at the same time a more laconic and rigorous form of protocol records.
Observation results are usually systematized in the form of individual (or group) characteristics. Such characteristics are detailed descriptions of the most significant features of the research subject. Thus, the results of observations are at the same time the source material for subsequent psychological analysis. The transition from observation data to an explanation of the observed, which is an expression of more general laws of cognition, is also characteristic of other non-experimental (clinical) methods: questioning, conversation, and studying the products of activity.
What specific disadvantages of the observation method cannot, in principle, be excluded? First of all, all the mistakes made by the observer. The distortion of the perception of events is the greater, the stronger the observer seeks to confirm his hypothesis. He gets tired, adapts to the situation and stops noticing important changes, makes mistakes when taking notes, etc. etc. A.A. Ershov (1977) distinguishes the following typical mistakes observation.
Gallo effect. The generalized impression of the observer leads to a coarse perception of behavior, ignorance of subtle differences.
The effect of indulgence. The tendency is always to give a positive assessment of what is happening.
Central trend error. The observer seeks to give an earnest assessment of the observed behavior.
Correlation error. One behavioral trait is assessed based on another observable trait (intelligence is assessed by fluency).
Contrast error. The tendency of the observer to distinguish in the observed traits that are opposite to his own.
First impression error. The first impression about an individual determines the perception and assessment of his future behavior.
However, observation is an indispensable method if it is necessary to investigate natural behavior without outside interference in a situation, when it is necessary to get a holistic picture of what is happening and reflect the behavior of individuals in full. Observation can act as an independent procedure and be considered as a method included in the process of experimentation. The results of observation of the subjects in the course of their performance of the experimental task are the most important additional information for the researcher.
2. Questioning, like observation, is one of the most common research methods in psychology. The survey is usually carried out using observational data, which (along with data obtained using other research methods) are used in the compilation of the questionnaires.
There are three main types of questionnaires used in psychology:
These are questionnaires composed of direct questions and aimed at identifying the perceived qualities of the subjects. For example, in a questionnaire aimed at identifying the emotional attitude of schoolchildren to their age, the following question was used: "Do you prefer to become an adult now, right away, or do you want to remain a child and why?";
These are questionnaires of a selective type, where the subjects are offered several ready-made answers to each question of the questionnaire; the task of the subjects is to choose the most appropriate answer. For example, to determine the student's attitude to various academic subjects, you can use the following question: "Which of academic subjects- the most interesting? "And as possible answers, you can offer a list of academic subjects:" algebra "," chemistry "," geography "," physics ", etc .;
these are scale questionnaires; When answering the questions of the questionnaire scales, the subject should not just choose the most correct of the ready-made answers, but analyze (evaluate in points) the correctness of the proposed answers. So, for example, instead of answering "yes" or "no", the subjects can be offered a five-point scale of answers:
5 - sure yes;
4 - more yes than no;
3 - I'm not sure, I don't know;
2 - no more than yes;
1 - surely not.
There are no fundamental differences between these three types of questionnaires; they are all just different modifications of the questionnaire method. However, if the use of questionnaires containing direct (and even more indirect) questions requires a preliminary qualitative analysis of the answers, which significantly complicates the use of quantitative methods of working out and analyzing the data obtained, then scale questionnaires are the most formalized type of questionnaires, since they allow a more accurate quantitative analysis of survey data.
The indisputable advantage of the questionnaire method is the rapid acquisition of mass material, which allows tracing a number of general changes depending on the nature of the educational process, etc. The disadvantage of the questionnaire method is that it allows one to reveal, as a rule, only the uppermost layer of factors: materials, using questionnaires and questionnaires (composed of direct questions to the subjects), cannot give the researcher an idea of many patterns and causal dependencies related to psychology. Questioning is a means of first orientation, a means of preliminary reconnaissance. To compensate for the noted shortcomings of the questionnaire, the use of this method should be combined with the use of more meaningful research methods, as well as repeated questionnaires, masking the true goals of the surveys from the subjects, etc.
3. Conversation- a psychology-specific method for studying human behavior, since in other natural sciences communication between the subject and the object of research is impossible. A dialogue between two people, during which one person identifies the psychological characteristics of the other, is called a conversation method. Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. Suffice it to name Piaget and representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists, founders and followers of "deep" psychology, etc.
Conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of the experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives him instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview. Researchers distinguish between clinical conversation, an integral part of the "clinical method," and focused face-to-face interviews.
Compliance with all the necessary conditions for conducting a conversation, including the collection of preliminary information about the subjects, makes this method a very effective tool for psychological research. Therefore, it is desirable that the interview is conducted taking into account the data obtained using methods such as observation and questioning. In this case, its goals may include checking the preliminary conclusions arising from the results of psychological analysis and obtained using these methods of primary orientation in the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects.
4... Monographic method... This research method cannot be embodied in any one methodology. It is a synthetic method and is concretized in the aggregate of a wide variety of non-experimental (and sometimes experimental) techniques. The monographic method is used, as a rule, for a deep, thorough, longitudinal study of the age and individual characteristics of individual subjects with the fixation of their behavior, activities and relationships with others in all major spheres of life. At the same time, researchers strive, based on the study of specific cases, to identify general patterns the structure and development of certain mental formations.
Usually in psychological research, not one particular method is used, but a whole set of different methods that mutually control and complement each other.
Diagnostic methods
Diagnostic research methods include various tests, i.e. methods that allow the researcher to quantify the phenomenon under study, and various techniques qualitative diagnostics, with the help of which, for example, different levels of development of psychological properties and characteristics of the subjects are revealed.
1. Test- a standardized task, the result of which makes it possible to measure psychological characteristics the subject. Thus, the purpose of a test study is to test, diagnose certain psychological characteristics of a person, and its result is a quantitative indicator correlated with previously established relevant norms and standards.
The use of specific and specific tests in psychology most clearly manifests the general theoretical attitudes of the researcher and the entire study. So, in foreign psychology, test research is usually understood as a means of identifying and measuring innate intellectual and characterological characteristics of the subjects. In Russian psychology, various diagnostic methods are considered as means of determining the present level of development of these psychological characteristics. Precisely because the results of any tests characterize the present and comparative level of a person's mental development, due to the influence of many factors that are usually uncontrollable in a test test, the results of a diagnostic test cannot and should not correlate with a person's capabilities, with the characteristics of his further development, i.e. these results are not predictive. These results cannot serve as a basis for the adoption of certain psychological and pedagogical measures.
The need for absolutely exact observance of the instructions and the use of the same type of diagnostic examination materials imposes another significant limitation on the widespread use of diagnostic methods in most applied areas of psychological science. Due to this limitation, a sufficiently qualified diagnostic examination requires special (psychological) training from the researcher, mastering not only the material and instructions of the test method used, but also the methods of scientific analysis of the data obtained.
The main disadvantage of most diagnostic techniques is the subject's awareness of the artificial examination situation, which often leads to the actualization of the subjects 'motives uncontrollable by the technique (sometimes the subjects' desire to guess what the experimenter wants from them begins to act, sometimes the desire to raise their prestige in the eyes of the experimenter or other subjects, etc.) n.), which distorts the results of the experiment. This disadvantage diagnostic techniques require careful selection of experimental material that is significant for the subjects and their combination with a conversation, including direct and indirect questions to the subject, and with psychological observation of the characteristics of the subjects' behavior during the experiment.
The advantage of diagnostic methods consists in a very wide range of research tasks that can be solved using these methods, from the study of the degree of preschoolers' mastery of various perceptual and mental actions and some prerequisites for the formation of the operational and technical side of educational activity and the identification of personality traits subjects before studying the specifics of intracollective relations.
So, the difference between diagnostic methods and non-experimental methods is that they not only describe the phenomenon under study, but also give this phenomenon a quantitative or qualitative qualification, measure it. The common feature of these two classes of research methods is that they do not allow the researcher to penetrate behind the studied phenomenon, do not reveal the laws of its change and development, do not explain it.
Experimental Methods
observation test experiment research
Unlike non-experimental and diagnostic methods " psychological experiment presupposes the possibility of active intervention of the researcher in the activity of the subject in order to create conditions that clearly reveal a psychological fact ... The specificity of experimental methods, therefore, is that they assume:
a) the organization of special conditions of activity that affect the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects;
b) changes in these conditions during the study.
At the same time, experimental methods involve the use of non-experimental and diagnostic methods, directly include them as their natural moments.
In psychology, there are three types of experimental method proper:
natural (field) experiment;
modeling experiment;
laboratory experiment.
1. Natural The (field) experiment, as the very name of this method suggests, is closest to non-experimental research methods. The conditions used in conducting a natural experiment are organized not by the experimenter, but by life itself (in the highest educational institution, for example, they are organically included in the educational process). The experimenter in this case uses only a combination of different (contrasting, as a rule) conditions of the subjects' activity and fixes the investigated psychological characteristics of the subjects with the help of non-experimental or diagnostic methods.
The advantages of a natural (field) experiment are a consequence of its organic involvement in the living conditions and activities of the subjects. The disadvantages of this method include the complexity of the selection of contrasting natural conditions and, in particular, all the disadvantages of those non-experimental and diagnostic techniques that are used as part of a natural experiment and serve to select experimental data.
2. Simulation experiment... When conducting a simulation experiment, the subject acts according to the instructions of the experimenter and knows that he is participating in the experiment as a subject. A characteristic feature of this type of experiment is that the behavior of the subjects in the experimental situation simulates (reproduces) at different levels of abstraction actions or activities that are quite typical for life situations: memorizing various information, choosing or setting goals, performing various intellectual and practical actions, etc. ... A simulation experiment allows you to solve a wide variety of research problems.
3. Laboratory experiment- a special type of experimental method - involves conducting research in a psychological laboratory equipped with special instruments and devices. This type of experiment, which is also characterized by the greatest artificiality of experimental conditions, is usually used in the study of elementary mental functions (sensory and motor reactions, choice reactions, differences in sensory thresholds, etc.) and much less often in the study of more complex mental phenomena (thinking processes, speech functions, etc.). The laboratory experiment is more consistent with the subject of psychological research.
Formative methods
All the research methods described above (non-experimental, diagnostic and experimental) differ in their ascertaining nature: empirical, spontaneously formed (or, in extreme cases, modeled in the narrow and artificial framework of a laboratory experiment) features and levels of mental development are subject to description, measurement and explanation.
The use of all these methods does not imply the task of significantly changing the existing subject of research, the task of formation. Such a fundamentally new research goal requires the use of special, formative methods.
Formative research methods in psychology include different varieties so called social experiment, the object of which is a certain group of people:
transformative experiment,
psychological and pedagogical experiment,
formative experiment,
experimental genetic method,
method phased formation etc.
The use of formative research methods is associated with the restructuring of certain characteristics of the educational process and the identification of the influence of this restructuring on the age, intellectual and characterological characteristics of the subjects. In essence, this research method acts as a means of creating a broad experimental context for the use of all other methods of psychology.
A formative experiment is often used to compare the impact of different educational programs on the mental development of subjects.
A formative experiment is:
mass experiment, i.e. statistically significant (this means that its area is the minimum - school, teaching staff);
long, prolonged experiment;
an experiment not for the sake of experiment, but for the sake of realizing one or another general theoretical concept in a certain area of psychology (age, child, pedagogical and other branches);
a complex experiment requiring the joint efforts of theoretical psychologists, practicing psychologists, research psychologists, didactics, methodologists, etc. And therefore this is an experiment taking place in special institutions where all this can be organized.
Thus, a formative experiment is a significant restructuring of psychological and pedagogical practice (as a joint activity of a researcher and a subject) and, first of all, a restructuring of its content and methods, leading to significant modifications in the course of mental development and characterological characteristics of the subjects. It is because of these characteristics that this type of research methods various industries psychology reveals the reserves of mental development and at the same time constructs, creates new psychological characteristics of the subjects. Therefore, formative and educational experiments are included in a special category of methods of psychological research and influence. They allow you to purposefully form the features of such mental processes as perception, attention, memory, thinking.
In conclusion, it should be noted that in the process of development of psychology, not only theories and concepts change, but also research methods: they lose their contemplative, ascertaining character, become formative or, more precisely, transforming. The leading type of research method in the experimental field of psychology is the formative experiment.
So, the development of the methodological arsenal of modern psychology consists in a special consolidation of all research methods, the result of which is the formation of a new set of research methods - a formative experiment.
List of used literature
1. Sandalov L.N., Eliseev S.N. introduction to experimental psychology of personality. - Moscow, 2011.
2. Semenov D.A. "Psychology as a Science" Moscow 2003.
3.L.A. Wenger, V.S. Mukhina "Psychology" Moscow "Renaissance" 1999.
4. Didenko D.S., Dmitriev R.A. introduction to general psychology. Lecture course. - M .: Publishing house Moscow MSU, 2001.
5. Mironenko RS, "Psychology and Essence", St. Petersburg 2011.
6. Aliev EV, Volkova DR, "Psychological processes and research methods." Moscow 2010.
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In Russian psychology, there are 4 groups of methods:
I. Organizational methods:
1. Comparative method–It consists in the consideration of individual mechanisms of behavior and psychological acts in the development process and in comparison with similar phenomena in other organisms. Most widespread this method, called "comparative genetic", was obtained in zoopsychology and in child psychology. (comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.)
2. Longitudinal method- these are multiple examinations of the same persons over a long period of time. The purpose of longitudinal research is to record the somatic and mental development of a person
3. Complex method- representatives of other sciences participate in the research, while one object is being studied by different means... This allows you to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds, for example, physiological, mental and social development personality,
4. Cross-sectional method(or cross-sectional research) of mental development - comparing different groups of people by age, education, activity and communication. It consists in the fact that conclusions about the features of development are made on the basis of studies of the same characteristics in compared groups of people of different ages, different levels of development, with different personality traits.
II. Empirical methods:
1. Observation - a method consisting in a deliberate, systematic, purposeful and fixed perception of external manifestations of the psyche.
Observation types:
Slice (short-term observation),
Longitudinal (long, sometimes for a number of years),
Selective and
Solid
And a special kind of ~ included observation (when the observer becomes a member of the investigated group).
The general monitoring procedure consists of the following processes:
1) definition of the task and purpose;
2) the choice of an object, subject and situation;
3) the choice of the observation method that has the least effect on the object under study and the most ensuring the collection of the necessary information;
4) the choice of the way of registering the observed (how to keep records):
5) processing and interpretation of the information received. Observation is used primarily when minimal interference with natural behavior, human relationships is required, when they seek to get a holistic picture of what is happening
Introspection (introspection)- observation of a person for their own mental phenomena. Two types: immediate or delayed (in memories, diaries, a person analyzes what he thought).
Scientific observation, although it comes in contact with everyday life, differs from it in a clear target setting. The main requirement is the presence of a clear target setting. In accordance with the goal, an observation plan must be determined, recorded in the scheme. Planned and systematic observation is the most essential feature of it as a scientific method. All observation is selective, partial. The main advantage of the objective observation method is that it allows you to study mental processes in natural conditions. However, objective observation, while retaining its value, for the most part should be complemented by other research methods. The following requirements are imposed on the observation procedure:
2. Experiment (laboratory, natural, formative)
Experiment (the main method) differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, who systematically manipulates some factors and records the corresponding changes in the state and behavior of the studied person.
is a research activity aimed at studying causality, which involves the following:
The researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying and actively influences it;
The experimenter can vary, change the conditions under which the phenomenon occurs;
In the experiment, there is the possibility of repeated reproduction of the results:
As a result, the experiment establishes quantitative laws that can be formulated mathematically.
The main task of the psychological experiment is to make the essential features of the internal psychological process admissible for objective external observation.
A laboratory experiment is carried out under artificial conditions, as a rule, using special equipment, with strict control of all influencing factors. The subject knows that an experiment is being carried out, although he may not know the true meaning of the experiment until the end. The experiment is carried out many times with a large number of subjects, which makes it possible to establish general mathematical-statistical reliable regularities in the development of mental phenomena.
Natural experiment - a psychological experiment included in activity or communication unnoticed by the subject,
Formative (teaching) experiment - a method of research and formation mental process, state or personality traits. Its originality lies in the fact that it simultaneously serves as both a means of research and a means of forming the phenomenon under study. The formative experiment is characterized by the active intervention of the researcher in the mental processes studied by him.
3. Psychodiagnostic methods(test and survey).
The purpose of modern psychological diagnostics is to fix and describe psychological differences both between people and between groups of people united by some characteristics.
The number of diagnosed signs, depending on the objectives of the study, may include psychological differences in age, sex, education and culture, mental state, psychophysical characteristics, etc.
1) One of the types of psychodiagnostic method are psychological tests ... The English word "test" means "trial" or "test". Test - short-term, the same task for all subjects, according to the results of which the presence and level of development of certain mental qualities of a person are determined.
This is a short, standardized test that does not usually require complex technical devices, amenable to standardization and mathematical data processing. With the help of tests, they seek to identify certain abilities, skills, abilities (or their lack), to most accurately characterize some personality traits.
Achievement tests are one of the psychodiagnostic methods that allows to identify the level of the subject's possession of specific knowledge, skills, and abilities.
Intelligence tests are a psychodiagnostic technique for identifying the mental potential of an individual.
Creativity tests are a set of methods for studying and evaluating creative characteristics.
Personality tests are a psychodiagnostic technique for measuring various aspects of an individual's personality.
Projective (projective) tests - a set of methods for a holistic study of the personality, based on psychological interpretation, i.e. conscious or unconscious transfer by the subject of his own properties to external objects
2) Among the most common means of cognition of the phenomena of psychology are all kinds of polls .
The purpose of the survey is to obtain information about objective and subjective facts from the words of the respondents.
Types of survey: 1) face-to-face survey - conversation, in interview, anamnesis; 2) correspondence survey - questionnaires.
Anamnesis (lat. from memory) - information about the past of the studied, received from him or - with an objective history - from people who know him well.
Conversation method- a method providing for the direct or indirect obtaining of psychological information by verbal communication... It is an auxiliary tool for additional coverage of the problem under study. The conversation should always be organized in a planned manner in accordance with the objectives of the research, but should not be of a stereotyped and standard nature.
Interview- the method of social psychology, which consists in the collection of information received in the form of answers to questions posed, as a rule, formulated in advance. In a standardized interview, the wording of the questions and their sequence are predefined, they are the same for all interviewees. Non-standardized technique interview on the contrary, it is characterized by complete flexibility and varies widely. The researcher, who is guided only by the general plan of the interview, has the right to formulate questions and change the order of the points of the plan in accordance with the specific situation.
In the case when questions and answers are submitted in writing, a questionnaire takes place.
Application form- a methodological tool for obtaining primary socio-psychological information on the basis of verbal (verbal) communication, representing a questionnaire for obtaining answers to a pre-compiled system of questions. Questioning (correspondence survey) also has its own specifics. It is believed that it is more expedient to resort to an absentee survey in cases when it is necessary to find out the attitude of people to acute discussion or intimate issues, or to interview a large number of people in a relatively short time.
The method of studying the products of activity widely used in historical psychology, in child psychology.
A variety of methods for studying the products of activity is biographical method. The material here is letters, diaries, biographies, creative products, handwriting, etc.
In many cases, psychological research uses not one, but several methods, each of which complements the others, revealing new sides mental activity.
III. Data processing methods: quantitative and qualitative methods - this is the analysis of the material - they include "quantitative (the use of mathematical statistics, data processing on a computer) and qualitative (differentiation of the material by groups, analysis) methods."
IV. Correction methods: auto-training, group training, psychotherapeutic influence, education.- Modern psychology in various ways affects practical activities of people. Psychological help is most often and most effectively provided in a situation of not only objectively existing, but also subjectively experienced distress. This experience can be acute and expressed in deep dissatisfaction with oneself, others, life in general, and sometimes in suffering. In such cases, it is required to provide not only advisory, but also psychotherapeutic assistance. And here it is necessary to talk about the correctional methods of the work of a psychologist. Currently, psycho-corrective methods are a fairly extensive set of techniques, programs and methods of influencing people's behavior, including auto-training, group training.
The origin and implementation of the method autogenous training associated with the name of the German psychotherapist I.G. Schultz. Thanks to his work in all countries, autogenic training has become widespread primarily as a method of treatment and prevention of various kinds of neuroses and functional disorders in the body. Subsequently, practical experience showed that autogenic training is an effective means of psychohygiene and psychoprophylaxis, as well as managing the state of a person in extreme conditions... In autogenous training, three main ways of influencing the state of the nervous system are used:
1) developing the ability to completely relax the muscles of the body;
2) the use of the active role of representations, sensory images;
3) the regulating and programming role of the word, pronounced not only aloud, but also mentally.
The set of exercises, which is the essence of autogenous training, is the means that not only contributes to the growth of a person's reserve abilities, but also constantly improves the activity of the programming mechanisms of the brain.
Under group training usually understand the peculiar forms of teaching knowledge and individual skills in the field of communication, as well as the forms of their corresponding correction. As for the methods of social psychological training, then there are many classifications, but, in fact, they all highlight two large, partially overlapping areas - group discussions and games. The group discussion method is used mainly in the form of case studies and in the form of group introspection. Among the game methods of socio-psychological training, the method of role-playing games has received the broadest significance.
Currently, the practice of group training is a rapidly developing branch of applied psychology. Socio-psychological training in our country is used to train specialists in various fields: leaders, teachers, doctors, psychologists, etc. It is used to correct the dynamics of marital conflicts, improve relations between parents and children, etc.
The concept of "method of psychological research" can be used in the meaning a special technique for solving a specific psychological problem.
In these specific techniques, methodological principles are implemented that are common not only for this problem, but also for many other ways of knowing. However, the specificity of specific techniques is determined primarily by the nature of a particular problem, which is solved with their help. Arsenal of specific psychological techniques used modern psychology is extremely important.
The forms they take are also very diverse and are determined by the originality of a particular field of psychology.
At the same time, it is possible to highlight some common features inherent in most specific psychological techniques.
Research usually falls into four stages:
First - preparatory. In the course of it, preliminary information about the object of research is collected and studied. Observation is used during training and work activities, in everyday life, in the course of deliberately organized conversations. A questionnaire, anamnesis can be used, i.e. description of the conditions preceding the occurrence of the investigated fact.
The second stage is the experiment itself. Implements a specific research methodology and, in turn, breaks down into a number of sequential experimental series.
The third is quantitative processing of research data. It involves the use of various statistical techniques and the application of the basic provisions of the theory of probability, which make it possible to judge the reliability of the conclusions obtained, confirming the initially put forward hypothesis.
The fourth stage of the study is interpretation of the results obtained, their interpretation on the basis of psychological theory, the final clarification of the correctness or fallacy of the hypothesis.
Thus, the use of specific techniques includes many of the characteristics of objective psychological research. Observation, analysis of the products of activity, conversations, clarification of anamnestic data, an experiment, mathematical processing of its results, conclusions and their interpretation - all this is organically included in the course of the study.
The scientific solution of psychological problems presupposes the ability of the researcher to apply specific methods, if necessary.
Topic 2. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHE(2 hours)
1. The emergence of the psyche. Consciousness and unconsciousness. Forms of behavior.
2. Mind and brain.
LITERATURE
1. Nemov R.S. Psychology. In 2 books. - M .: Vlados, 1994.
2. General psychology / ed. E.I. Rogova., -M., 2001
3. General Psychology / ed. A.V. Petrovsky. - M., Education, 1976.
4. Bassin F.V. The problem of the unconscious. –M., 1968.
5. Wooldridge D. Brain Mechanisms. - M., 1965.
6. Ladygina-Kots N.N. The development of the psyche in the process of evolution of organisms. - M., 1968.
7. Fabri K.E. Animal games and human games. -Questions of psychology -1982 -№ 3 - С.26-34
End of work -
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In psychology, there are various classifications of research methods. Consider the classification, the criterion of which is research task.
1) The task identifying and describing psychological facts solve observation, conversation (questionnaire, survey, interview), method of studying the products of activity (study of documents, content analysis).
2) More difficult task studying patterns, that is, identifying the presence of a stable repeating relationship solves experiment (laboratory and natural).
3) The task identifying mechanisms, i.e. causal relationship, in psychology, decides a formative experiment (transformative experiment, experimental genetic method).
Observation- systematic, purposeful and in a certain way fixed perception of mental phenomena in natural conditions Everyday life... This method is one of the most accessible and widely used in psychology. During the observation, certain conditions must be observed.
1. Before any observation, a goal is formulated: what psychic manifestation will be studied.
2. Depending on the purpose of the study, an object is selected (a person of the corresponding gender and age) and the situations in which the observation will be carried out.
3. When observing, it is necessary to maintain the natural living conditions of the object of research. To do this, you should first get acquainted with the group where the observation will be carried out, adapt in this environment in 2-3 days. Then the observed behave in a relaxed and natural way.
4. In order to preserve natural conditions, the researcher does not interfere with the activities of the object of study, which does not know that he is being watched.
5. It must be remembered that social stereotypes can affect the objectivity of recording and processing data. If a positive attitude has been formed in relation to the object of observation, then the researcher may not notice negative mental manifestations, and if he does record them, then, most likely, he will explain them as accidental. And vice versa, with a negative attitude, the researcher may not notice the positive aspects, but concentrate his attention on negative facts and, when interpreting the data, explain them as regular and constant.
6. Observation provides objective data if it is carried out consistently and systematically, ie. the object of research is observed at least 2-3 times in the same types of activity. This is due to the fact that the observed facts are not separated from many incidental phenomena.
7. It is necessary to develop and master the ways of fixing data in the protocol in advance. It is necessary to make a "photographic" record of all psychological facts, without distorting or altering them. The minutes sheet is usually divided into two parts. The first part records the observed facts, and the second - their possible interpretation (i.e., interpretation).
The observation method has the following positive features:
· Not knowing that he is an object of research, a person behaves freely, naturally, the manifestations of his psyche are not distorted;
· The researcher can see the personality of the observed as a whole, perceives each fact as a part of it;
· Surveillance is not limited by age: all types of activities and behavior of a person of any age are monitored.
At the same time, observation has a number of disadvantages:
· The observed facts are merged with a multitude of related phenomena;
· The researcher takes a wait-and-see attitude, not being able to interfere with the activities of the objects of observation. A mental phenomenon may not manifest itself, unless the corresponding situation accidentally arises;
· With the help of observation, one cannot quickly collect a lot of material for two reasons: first, one person must be observed repeatedly, and secondly, the researcher cannot cause the phenomenon of interest to him, but must wait for it to occur;
· In the process of repeated observation, it is impossible to obtain absolutely identical psychological facts, and therefore, to check the initially obtained data;
· In the observation and processing of data, some subjectivity is possible. The observer, in the spirit of his expectations, can ascribe to a person thoughts and feelings unusual for him;
· Without the use of special recording means, it is difficult to accurately and correctly record the observed facts. Making a record of facts, the researcher fixes them in a descriptive form, which greatly complicates their processing and interpretation. In this method, the use of mathematical data processing is limited.
Conversation - method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication (i.e. in the process of two-sided or multilateral discussion of the issue of interest to the researcher). The effectiveness of the conversation depends on meeting the following requirements:
1. Preparing and conducting a conversation includes setting a goal, choosing material for it. Questions for conversation should be clear, concise, specific, not too general, should not prompt the person to answer.
2. The researcher memorizes the questions and asks them to all respondents in a strictly defined order, seeking detailed answers. It is possible to use clarifying questions, if in the course of the conversation the need arises.
3. Conversation is conducted individually in a separate, carefully selected room.
4. Before conducting a conversation, it is necessary to select an object of research and establish a trusting relationship with it. To do this, you can first talk with him on a topic of interest to him and only then proceed to the previously drawn up questions. The conversation should be carried out in a relaxed, tactful, unobtrusive manner and in no case be “inquiring”. It is very important that the researcher shows the person that he is interested in talking with him, listens to his answers.
5. Methods of data fixation are preliminarily developed. It is possible to use technical means (tape recorder, dictaphone). Separation of the functions of the investigator and the recorder is allowed. The respondent's answers, his behavior, emotional manifestations are recorded in detail in the protocol.
Merits conversations are:
· The ability to simultaneously explore many aspects of the human psyche;
· The ability to quickly collect a large enough material both about one person and about a group;
· The researcher is more active than in observation, as he asks questions;
· The possibility of re-conducting in order to clarify changes (for example, age);
The possibility of using different stages research.
The conversation method has and limitations:
· Manifestations of subjectivity, since the selection of material, preparation of questions, getting in contact with the respondent, fixing and interpreting the answers depend on the skills of the researcher;
· Age restrictions in the application of the conversation. A child cannot always give an account of his experiences, feelings, explain his preferences and actions, since he only masters speech as a means of communication.
Survey - conversation with standard set questions. The survey can be conducted orally and in writing:
1) interview -method of obtaining psychological information through oral questioning;
2) questioning(fr. enquête- the list of questions) – obtaining information in the form of written answers from respondents to pre-formulated questions.
Method for analyzing products of activity. Various documents, essays, diaries, drawings, other creative works, etc. can be considered as products of activity.
Dignity this method:
· The ability in a short time to collect a sufficiently large factual material both from one person and from a group of persons;
· With constant use, the ability to obtain qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the psyche of the investigated;
· The possibility of repeated repetition to find out how natural the obtained fact is;
· Since the result of mental activity is embodied in a material product, this object can be assessed by an infinite number of people (expert assessment);
· The material product can be stored for a long time;
· Preservation of naturalness in the manifestation of the psychological characteristics of the object of study, which does not know that research is being carried out with it.
disadvantages method of analysis of activity products:
It can be used only when the child has already begun to master a certain kind activities;
· The processing of the obtained data sometimes turns out to be extremely difficult, since it requires specially developed analysis schemes, which depends on the ability of the researcher to isolate all the psychological characteristics of the product obtained. Then a violation of objectivity and the manifestation of subjectivity is possible, for example, when assessing the degree of originality of a drawing.
When studying documents, it is used special welcome named "Content analysis"(literally - "content analysis") . This is a fairly formalized method of document analysis, when special "units" are highlighted in the text. Then the frequency of their use is calculated. It makes sense to apply this method only in cases where the researcher deals with large array information, analyzes numerous texts. In practice, content analysis in psychology is used in research in the field of mass communications.
Experiment(from lat. experimentum- trial, experience) - it is the active intervention of the researcher in the life of the subject in order to create conditions under which some psychological regularity is revealed. In psychology, there are two main types of experiment:
· laboratory experiment carried out in specially equipped rooms, which provides especially strict control of independent and dependent variables;
· natural experiment - in this case the subject doesn't know, doesn't guess that he participates in the research (the subject performs his usual activity, and the experimenter for him is a familiar person).
For both types, there are some general rules: the experimenter systematically manipulates one or more independent variables(this is the reason) and registers concomitant changes in the behavior of the studied object, i.e. monitors change dependent variables(this is a consequence). The organization of the experiment requires compliance with a number of conditions:
1. An experiment, like all research methods, requires a preliminary goal setting and the choice of an object.
2. It is necessary to carefully develop a technique for conducting an experiment, to prepare material for research. The material must be manufactured in strict accordance with the recommendations contained in the methodology.
3. It is necessary to prepare in advance the conditions in which the study will be carried out.
4. It is necessary to compose and memorize in advance the instructions and description of the procedure for conducting the experiment. Moreover, it must be remembered that the instruction must be understandable to the subjects.
5. Before conducting an experiment, it is necessary to choose a subject and establish friendly, trusting relationships with him. The researcher should endear the subject to himself, which is accompanied by a relaxed, calm conversation, a smile, approving gestures. It is impossible to emphasize the singularity, exclusivity of the situation, to take the position of the inspector. It is advisable to give the experimental procedure the character of ordinary friendly communication. Method materials cannot be used to establish contact.
6. It is necessary to react with restraint and evenness to the successes and failures of the subject during the experiment, unless otherwise provided by the research methodology.
7. The pace of the research should correspond to the individual psychological characteristics of the subject.
8. The experiment with the child should not be very long. As a rule, it is limited to 15 - 20 minutes, if no other time is provided by the research methodology. Moreover, the younger the child, the shorter the study should be.
9. An experiment always assumes a standard procedure, so you cannot make any changes to it, for example, change the instructions. It is necessary to ensure that the subject understands and accepts the instruction. It can be repeated 2-3 times without changes, but it cannot be explained if it is not provided for by the research methodology. All subjects must be presented with tasks in a strictly uniform way, with the same intonation, voice strength, without accentuating any words, except for specially stipulated cases.
10. The experiment is usually carried out by the experimenter and the recorder. It is important that the latter is out of sight of the subject, but he himself can see and hear him well. In the protocol, he fixes the behavior, speech and emotional reactions of the subject in accordance with the criteria provided for by the research method. We emphasize that the speech of children is recorded with the preservation of all its features, without correcting grammatical and other errors. The function of the recorder, therefore, is to accurately record psychological facts, the function of the experimenter is to conduct research.
The experiment has a number of merits:
· Active position of the researcher (he does not wait for the subject to develop a mental phenomenon that he is studying. He himself causes it by creating appropriate conditions);
· The experiment can be repeated, i.e. once again call the studied mental phenomenon, which means, check and clarify the initially obtained data;
· The experiment allows you to quickly collect a large amount of factual material;
· Experiment is a more objective method than observation, since its methodology contains clear criteria for fixing and processing data;
· The method of fixing data has been greatly facilitated, since the phenomenon under study is separated from a number of life circumstances;
· Analysis of the protocol of the experiment is built in accordance with the specified method of the sequence. The analysis of the obtained facts can be expressed in numerical terms, subjected to quantitative processing.
TO disadvantages experiment include the following:
· The experiment requires lengthy and thorough preparation. The reliability of the data obtained depends on the experimenter's ability to set a goal, choose a material, use the instructions accurately, monitor the time and sequence of the task, the characteristics of the subject's reaction, as well as the ability to get in touch with him, from the knowledge of methods of statistical processing of the facts obtained;
· The researcher is involved in communication with the subject and can involuntarily influence his behavior. The mental model can influence the facts obtained;
· A holistic view of the psyche of the subject is not created;
· During a laboratory experiment, naturalness in the mental manifestations of the subject may disappear.
Formative experiment – a method of tracing changes in the human psyche in the process of active influence of the researcher on the subject. Having studied the mechanisms, we are able to model the phenomenon and actively control it.
The stages of the formative experiment:
1) ascertaining stage (control and experimental groups of subjects participate in it);
2) formative stage (only the experimental group of subjects participates);
3) control stage (control and experimental groups of subjects participate).
At the ascertaining and control stages, the same research methods are used, which makes it possible to compare the results of these stages with each other, on the basis of which to draw conclusions about the changes in the studied characteristics as a result of formative influences.
The visual research method is the most important of the methods used in the TKED to search for informative signs.
Microscopic method - a method of examining material evidence with the help of special devices - microscopes, which allow obtaining enlarged images of the external structure of objects and their smallest details, invisible to the naked eye.
The research method in oblique light is a method of increasing the visibility of the details of an object when it is illuminated by a directed beam of light with an angle of incidence of light significantly less than 90 °: optimal 10 ° * 35 °. In TKED, this method is used to detect insignificant relief of pressure traces, traces from writing instruments, damage to the surface layer of paper in the form of raised fiber, glued areas that are not in the same plane with the surface of the document, as well as to identify strokes on the background of the paper or among other fragments images by the difference in their brilliance (specular reflection). To exclude the interfering effect of extraneous light, observation with oblique illumination is carried out in a darkened room.
The research method in transmitted light (transmission) is used to reveal the details of an object with different optical density. Such a study is used to detect areas of a document that have undergone erasure, etching, washing away, as well as to study the structure of paper, watermarks (or filigree), to read sealed texts, flooded, smeared, crossed out notes, as well as to read texts on carbon paper.
Spectral methods - allow you to study the results of the interaction of the selected narrow range of the light spectrum with matter or with the material of the object. Radiant energy, passing through a substance (material) or from one medium to another, changes under the action of the object's substance. In this case, the indicators of reflection, absorption, light transmission change. The dependence of the reflection coefficient (the ratio of the radiation reflected from the object to the entire incident flux) on the radiation wavelength is a characteristic of any substance. This characteristic can be recorded visually, photographically, using electronic and optical technology.
Color separation method - reveals differences in color and shades of objects. When examining documents, it happens that one colored object is invisible or poorly distinguishable against the surrounding background or among other colored objects. It is possible to enhance the contrast between them by converting spectral differences into a difference in brightness, such a conversion is called color separation (color discrimination).
In TKED, the color separation method is used to identify flooded, smeared, crossed out texts, to establish the fact of addition by differentiating dyes, strokes with different degrees of spectral absorption. This method is also used to enhance the contrast between poorly visible recordings and the background of the document by examining in the spectral zone where the streak material has a maximum absorption (determined empirically).
In color separation, it is important to choose the right filter, following the complementary color rule and using the color wheel that everyone knows from school.
For example (Fig. 1.1), to enhance the contrast of a blue stroke on white paper, an additional color, orange, is found in the opposite sector of the circle, and the document is examined through an orange filter. In this case, the strokes look darker and more contrasting, since the additional color filter transmits the maximum of the rays of that part of the light spectrum that correspond to the maximum absorption of the strokes' substance, while the paper reflects these rays. To yellow and orange flowers purple and blue are optional.
Rice. 1.1. Color interdependence in color separation
Research methods in reflected UV and IR rays. These methods of examining documents are based on the selective absorption, transmission and reflection by the substance of the document materials of exposure to electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet and infrared ranges of the spectrum (on the different ability of the stroke material to reflect, absorb and transmit these rays).
It is known that UV light occupies the spectral region from 10 * 400 nm: the near spectral zone (400 - 315 nm), middle (315 - 280 nm), far (280 - 10 nm). In the practice of TKED, the UV region of the spectrum from 250 nm to 385 nm is most often used, the selection of the desired zone is provided by UV light filters (UFS-1, ... UFS-4).
High and ultrahigh pressure mercury quartz lamps are used as UVL sources (Fig. 1.2): in devices of various modifications, as well as lasers that generate UV radiation. Also widely used are UV illuminators OI-18, illuminators for special microscopes, for example, MLD-1, LYUMAM and other brands.
Rice. 1.2. Scheme of photography in reflected UVL, where: 1 - UV illuminator;
2 - document; 3 - UV filter; 4 - camera lens
The method of research in reflected infrared rays (PCL) is based on the ability of some writing materials containing carbonaceous substances as components (ink, graphite pencil, printing ink, carbon paper, typewriter tape, electrographic toner, black ink inkjet printers) and metal salts absorb infrared radiation, unlike other, carbon-free, dyes (ballpoint pen pastes, ink, stamp ink, etc.). It is used to differentiate one-color, but different in composition, letter materials when identifying additional and additional printing, filled and crossed out texts.
Sources of infrared radiation (Fig. 1.3) are mainly incandescent lamps and special flash lamps. The cutoff of the IR spectrum is carried out by light filters KS-17, KS-18, KS-19, IKS-1, IKS-2, IKS-3, which are placed in front of the radiation receiver. To visualize the resulting invisible picture in the infrared region of the spectrum, there are image intensifiers, which display the visible image on the screen, and also provide its photographic recording in the "Photographing" mode.
Rice. 1.3. Scheme of photographing a document in reflected ICL, where: 1 - IR illuminator; 2 - document; 3 - ICL light filter;
4 - camera lens; 5- EOP
The methods of luminescence analysis are based on the ability of certain substances to fluoresce when exposed to UV or blue-green rays in a darkened room.
In the case of fluorescence, the luminescence decays almost instantly after the termination of the excitation.
In accordance with Stokes' law, the luminescence spectrum is always shifted towards longer wavelengths compared to the spectrum of exciting radiation (the exciting wavelength is always shorter than the luminescence wavelength).
Depending on the spectral composition Exciting radiation, luminescence can be observed in the visible, in the far red and in the near infrared regions of the light spectrum. When the streaks and the base of the document are exposed to UV rays, visible luminescence appears, which can be recorded by photographing. To do this, a light filter is placed in front of the lens that transmits visible rays by the color of the luminescence (if orange, then OS-12) and blocks UV rays (see Fig. 1.4).
Rice. 1.4. Scheme of photographing visible luminescence excited by UVL, where: 1 - UV illuminator; 2 - document; 3 - UV filter; 4 - luminescence color filter, 5 - camera
To excite red and IR luminescence in documents, blue-green radiation is used using an SZS-21 light filter, which transmits blue-green rays. When photographing luminescence, light filters are placed in front of the lens, which delay blue-green rays and transmit either red (s / f KS-17 and KS-18 with luminescence in the far red region), or infrared rays (s / f KS-19 and IKS filters with luminescence in the IR region) (Fig. 1.5). Luminescence can also be recorded using an image intensifier tube and other more modern technology.
Rice. 1.5. Scheme of photographing red and infrared luminescence excited by SZ rays, where: 1 - illuminator; 2 - document;
3 - SZ light filter; 4 - luminescence color filter,
5- camera, 6 - image intensifier
Luminescent methods are used to identify invisible and weakly visible recordings, traces of etching, washing off, erasing, adding, the sequence of applying intersecting strokes, as well as to differentiate writing materials of the same color.
Research method in the field of high frequency currents. The method is based on obtaining, under the action of a high-frequency electrostatic discharge, a photographic image of surfaces and internal structure object. For this purpose, a capacitor is used, between the plates of which a document and photographic film (photographic paper) are placed. The capacitor is placed in the circuit of a high-frequency current generator, when turned on, a spark discharge occurs, which illuminates the corresponding sections of the photographic film.
Photography in the field of high frequency currents (TVI) allows:
Detect indented strokes and erased records;
Establish the content of filled, blurred and crossed out texts;
Determine traces of replacing a photograph on a document;
Identify new, free from visible defects, typewriters by the embossed marks on the paper from the blows of the typewriter of the typewriter.
So, the above physical methods of TKED have one common feature that unites them - they are non-destructive, do not destroy the document, do not change its appearance and content. Therefore, in the production of TKED, these methods are primarily used.
Forensic photography methods. A special place in the TKED is occupied by photographic research methods that are not destructive. The advantage of photographic processes over ordinary visual perception is explained by three factors:
1) extremely wide spectral sensitivity, which makes it possible to register images not only in the visible part of the light spectrum, but also in the UV and IR regions of the spectrum, as well as in X-rays;
2) the ability to obtain an optical image with a higher contrast than in reality;
3) the ability of the photodetector material to accumulate light energy, which makes it possible to obtain an image of normal quality in low illumination of the shooting object.
Forensic photography methods are divided into types: a) large-scale photography with significant magnification; b) enhancing the contrast of a poorly visible image; c) photography in invisible areas of the spectrum; d) photography of luminescence (visible and invisible).
Large-scale photography with significant magnification is subdivided into subspecies: macro- and microphotography (up to 20 x and over 20 x times).
The photographic enhancement of contrast refers to the methods used to change the brightness ratio of an object on black and white f / material (color separation) or color tones - on color (color discrimination).
Contrast enhancement methods are divided into three subtypes: contrast enhancement during shooting; in the process of manifestation; finished negative photographic image.
The methods of photography in reflected invisible rays of the spectrum are subdivided into four subtypes: photography in the infrared and UV zones of the spectrum; in x-rays and gamma rays.
Luminescence photography methods: photography of visible luminescence excited by UV and blue-green rays; photographing infrared luminescence invisible to the eye.
Wet copy method (fig. 1.6). This method is based on the phenomenon of adhesion (sticking) or diffusion on a contact material moistened with the simplest organic solvent - water.
The wet copying method reveals the differences in writing materials in the degree of their copyability on a wet sticky surface. Upon contact with the wetted surface of the fixed photographic paper, particles of dyes from some of the writing materials adhere to it, leaving on this new medium mirror strokes of written signs and other images.
The method is used to identify flooded, smeared, crossed out texts, to establish an addition, to determine the sequence of intersecting strokes (document details).
Rice. 1.6. Scheme of the wet copy method, where: 1 - fixed photographic paper; 2 - a layer of organic solvent - water; 3 - dye of the strokes on the basis of the document; 4 - the basis of the document (paper, etc.); 5 - dye of the strokes, copied onto fixed photographic paper
To copy water-soluble dyes, a gelatin layer of the fixed photographic material (sometimes filter paper) moistened with distilled water is used. Photographic paper is pretreated with non-actinic light in fixer, thoroughly washed in running water and dried. The surface of a piece of photo paper is moistened with water for 30-60 seconds. The resulting mirror copy is photographed at the desired scale.
Adsorption-luminescent method (ALM). The method is based on an increase in the luminescence intensity of dyes when they are adsorbed by a polymer film treated with an organic solvent. ALM is used to differentiate the materials of the letter in order to establish an addition, identify filled, crossed out, blurred texts, determine the sequence of execution of intersecting strokes.
The lines are copied with PVC film moistened with a solvent (dimethylformamide, cyclohexanone, tetrahydrofuran, etc.). The print is irradiated with ultraviolet light and its luminescence is studied in a darkened room.
The method is most effective for differentiating dyes with similar colors. When determining the sequence of execution of intersecting strokes, it is effective to observe and fix the luminescence of the copied strokes in the visible and in the far red zones of the spectrum.
It is recommended to use white PVC film for white goods. PVC film will dissolve in many organic solvents (cyclohexanone, dimethylformamide, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, ethyl alcohol). Solvents are active on many writing materials.
On a film of a preselected size, 1-3 drops of solvent are applied with a pipette, evenly distributed over the surface for 4-10 seconds so that the solvent is absorbed, and then the film is brought into close contact with the examined area of the document for 1-3 seconds.
The contact time and the pressure force depend on the solubility of the investigated substance, the problem being solved and on the properties of the document paper, therefore they are selected experimentally. The copying ability of the substance of the strokes is judged by the results of experiments, i.e. preliminary tests on the peripheral sections of the document. It should be borne in mind that if the contact is incorrect, especially for a long time, peeling of the paper surface of the document may occur, and its damage. In addition, in any case, ALM leads to irreversible changes in the strokes of the document's details: the amount of coloring matter decreases, and the structure of the paper at the point of contact also changes.
Diffuse copying method (DKM). This method is based on the phenomenon of diffusion - the surface penetration of molecules and ions of the test substance into a moist or dry gelatin layer of non-illuminated black-and-white (non-color) photographic paper (the phenomenon was discovered and experimentally tested in 1903-1907).
When detecting invisible and weakly visible texts, it is often possible to achieve good results by using a highly sensitive DCM. DKM technology uses the property of some organic water-soluble dyes to change its initial photosensitivity (sensitization) when exposed to the photoemulsion layer.
As you know, colorless halide silver, which is part of a photographic emulsion, has the property of being destroyed with the formation of black granular metallic silver under the action of light and chemical reducing agents contained in developing solutions. In this case, only short-wavelength radiation of the blue-violet region of the spectrum acts on the emulsion. The sensitivity of an unsensitized photographic layer to shortwave blue-violet radiation is the natural sensitivity of photographic material.
Upon contact of the document under study with a moistened gelatinous photographic emulsion layer, the dye particles that have penetrated as a result of diffusion into the photographic emulsion cause a change in the photosensitivity of the photographic material at the sites of their introduction. In some cases, the dye increases the sensitivity of the photographic emulsion to radiation in the long-wavelength part of the spectrum (yellow, orange, red rays, to which non-sensitized photographic material is not sensed): the effect is called optical sensitization. In other cases, under the influence of a dye, the photographic emulsion becomes insensitive or very slightly sensitive to short-wave blue-violet radiation, to which the photographic material has a natural sensitivity: a phenomenon called desensitization. In addition, the dyes of writing materials to one degree or another increase the photographic veil, increasing the ability of silver halide to degrade under the action of the developer without preliminary exposure of the photographic layer.
Depending on the concentration of the dye diffusing into the emulsion, either a sensitizing or a desensitizing effect is observed. Usually, a small amount of dye causes sensitization of a photographic emulsion, i.e. when the strokes of the text to be detected are practically invisible or hardly distinguishable. The dye in a higher concentration causes the opposite, desensitizing effect.
The effect of the dye on the photosensitive photographic layer largely depends on the properties of the photographic emulsion itself. Since the essence of the method consists in changing the natural sensitivity under the influence of dyes, only non-sensitized photographic material (photographic paper) is suitable for diffuse copying.
The use of DKM for detecting invisible and weakly visible texts, as well as recordings made with water-soluble dyes and then smeared, flooded, crossed out with water-insoluble dyes, consists in sequentially performing the following actions in a darkroom in a dark red light (Fig. 1.7):
The photographic material is soaked in water (preferably distilled) until the gelatinous emulsion layer swells (from 1 to 20 minutes);
Excess water from the emulsion layer is removed by shaking the photographic material (apply filter paper without pressing it, since when pressed, its fibers can adhere to the photographic emulsion and interfere with the diffusion of the dye);
The swollen emulsion layer is applied to the surface of the document, in the area of which the text or print to be detected is located (the contact time is determined experimentally);
The photographic material with the dye molecules diffused into the emulsion is placed in a black-and-white contrast developer in a cuvette under the lens of the enlarger, and illuminated through a KS-2 or OS-18 or ZhS-8 s / f: red, orange or yellow light until the contrast appears. images (or veils);
The resulting mirror image is reproduced and a direct image of the identified document property is printed.
Rice. 1.7. DKM scheme, where:
1 - diffusion of the coloring matter of the strokes into the emulsion
photo paper layer:
2 - strokes of the coloring matter:
3 - document background:
4 - a source of non-actinic lighting:
5.8 - filtered light source (s / f OS. KS. FS)
6 - photo emulsion layer of photo paper with a latent image
7 - a cuvette with a developer;
9 - emulsion layer of photographic paper with a visible image:
10 - cuvette with fixing solution
Due to the high sensitivity of DCM, its use often gives nice results in cases where the dye in the strokes is almost absent. In this case, copying can be performed several times with equal success, since the penetration of even an insignificant amount of dye into the photoemulsion layer causes a noticeable effect.
DKM is widely used to detect faded, erased, washed away texts, "faint" imprints of seals and stamps, texts smeared with graphite pencil, black ink, as well as poorly distinguishable texts on dark substrates.
The traditional DKM technique involves the use of moistened photographic material, thereby not excluding the risk of damage to some of the details or fragments of the document, or its significant alteration or damage. The use of DKM modifications avoids this disadvantage.
Modification No. 1: "dry" DKM. A piece of dry, non-illuminated glossy photographic paper is applied with an emulsion layer to the object on the document props in non-active light. The photographic paper is tightly pressed against the document and for 2-7 minutes, intensive rubbing of its reverse side with a woolen cloth flap is carried out to obtain an electrostatic charge, which promotes the diffusion of the dye into the photoemulsion layer. Subsequent processing of photographic material is carried out in accordance with the traditional DKM technique described above.
Modification No. 2: "fingerprint" DKM. A piece of transparent dactyloscopic film is placed on the fragment of a document with a weakly visible record and pressed tightly, the duration of contact is 15-30 seconds. Then, in relation to the film, the traditional DKM technology is applied: from dacto film to photographic paper, its exposure in the developer until streaks appear, etc.