Saudi capital. Saudi Arabia - recreation and tours. A brief excursion into history

Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical and geographical essay), N. A. Bozhko (Nature: geology), A. V. Sedov (Historical essay), G. G. Kosach (Historical essay), G. L Ghukasyan (Economy), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed Forces), V. S. Nechaev (Health), M. N. Suvorov (Literature), E. S. Yakushkina (Architecture and fine arts)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical and geographical essay), N. A. Bozhko (Nature: geology), A. V. Sedov (Historical essay), G. G. Kosach (Historical essay); >>

SAUDI ARABIA(arab. Al-Arabiya as-Saudi), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (arab. Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya as-Saudi).

General information

S.A. is a state in the Southwest. Asia, on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders in the north with Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, in the east with Qatar, in the southeast with the United Arab Emirates and Oman, in the south with Yemen. In the west it is washed by the Red Sea, in the east by the waters of the Persian Gulf. Pl. OK. 2.15 million km 2 (official data; according to other sources, from 1.6 to 2.4 million km 2, the boundaries of SA in the south and southeast pass through deserts and are not clearly defined). Us. 30.8 million people (2014). The capital is Riyadh. Official language is Arabic. The monetary unit is Saudi. rial. Adm.-terr. division - 13 adm. districts.

Administrative-territorial division (2013)

Administrative region	Area, thousand km 2	Population, million people	Administrative center
Asir	76,7	2,1	Abha
Oriental	672,5	4,5	Dammam (Ed-Dammam)
jizan	11,671	1,5	jizan
Medina	152	2	Medina
Mecca	153,1	7,7	Mecca
Najran	149,5	0,6	Najran
Tabuk	146,1	0,9	Tabuk
hail	103,9	0,6	hail
El Baha	9,9	0,4	El Baha
El Jauf	100,2	0,5	El Jauf
El Qasim	58	1,3	Burayda
El Hudud esh Shamaliyya	111,8	0,3	Arar
Riyadh	404,2	7,5	Riyadh

S. A. - member of the UN (1945), Arab League (1945), IMF (1957), IBRD (1957), OPEC (1960), GCC (Cooperation Council of the Arab States of the Persian Gulf; 1981), OIC (Organization Islamic Cooperation, 1969, until 2011 Organization of the Islamic Conference), WTO (2005).

Political system

S.A. is a unitary state. Absolute theocratic. monarchy.

Head of state, legislator. and perform. power is the king. He is the personification of the power of the Saudi family. The special position of this family is enshrined in an act of the constitution. character - Basic nizam (regulation) on power 1992. The king elects the crown prince and removes him by his decree. The king may by decree transfer some of his powers to him.

Performed power is exercised by the king and the Council of Ministers headed by him.

As a council. body under the king and the government operates the Advisory Council (CC), whose functions include the development of recommendations on socio-economic issues. development of the country, examination of draft regulations and international. agreements. The council consists of 150 members appointed by the king for 4 years.

Political there are no parties in SA.

Nature

Shores of the Persian Gulf. and Red m. low, sandy, slightly indented.

Relief

Plateau-like plains are widespread, gradually decreasing from 1000–1300 m in the west to 200–300 m in the east and weakly dissected by dry river valleys (wadis). To the center. parts are dominated by stratified accumulative-denudation plains, bordered from the east by a strip of kuesta uplands, including Tuvaik (altitude up to 1143 m, ledges up to 300–400 m). So. the area is occupied by the Nejd high plateau. 400–1000 m with mountain ranges (Jabal-Shammar, Harrat-Khaibar, heights up to 1850 m), sandy-pebble and rocky deserts (hamads, including the El-Hamad desert), wadi channels.

On horizontally occurring sedimentary rocks, stratified accumulative plains are formed, overlain by loose Quaternary plains, in the main. sandy deposits. The processes of arid denudation and accumulation are typical. Forms of eolian relief (ridged, sand dunes and dune-hummocky sands) occupy vast areas in the deserts of Big Nefud, Little Nefud (Dehna), Nafud-ed-Dakhi (Nefud-Dakhi) and Rub al-Khali, where dunes of heights are found. up to 200 m. In parts of S. A., the mountains of Ash-Shifa, Hijaz, and Asir (up to 3032 m high - the highest in S. A.) with steep, strongly dissected west stretches parallel to the coast of the Red Sea. slopes and gentle eastern ones. Lava plateaus (harrats) are widespread. The mountains break off in steps to a narrow (up to 70 km) coastal lowland Tihama with sandy deserts, rocky outcrops and salt marshes. To the east along the coast of the Persian Gulf. stretches the flat lowland of El-Khasa (up to 150 km wide) with rocky and sandy deserts, saline depressions (sebkhs) and wetlands.

Geological structure and minerals

C. A. is located within the north-east. parts of the Precambrian African-Arabian platform. West and center. in parts, the rocks of the Nubian-Arabian belt of the platform basement protrude to the surface - gneisses and migmatites of the Archean - Lower Proterozoic and the Upper Proterozoic complex, in which metamorphosed volcanogenic-sedimentary strata and granitoids predominate; several are allocated. suture zones with the development of melange and covers of ophiolites. In the north-east. in the direction of the basement rocks are submerged under the platform cover of the Arabian Plate - Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Paleogene terrigenous and anhydrite-carbonate (partly siliceous-carbonate) deposits, forming int. districts of S.A. monoclines. B East part of the plate is the Gaza structural terrace, where a meridional system of swell-like uplifts (En-Nala and others) can be traced in the sedimentary cover up to 7 km thick. In the south, there is the Rub al-Khali syneclise (precipitation up to 8 km). Along the coast of the Persian Gulf. thick Neogene molasses of the Mesopotamian foredeep are developed. In the north, west and south - Late Cenozoic continental basalts.

Main the wealth of the subsoil is oil and natural combustible gas. Almost the entire territory of C.A. is included in Persian Gulf oil and gas basin; open several dozens of fields, among them - the largest in terms of oil reserves Gavar, Saffania-Khafji, Manifa , Abqaiq . There are known deposits of ores of copper, zinc, gold, silver, lead (pyrite copper-zinc with gold and silver El-Masane, Jebel-Said, Mahd-ed-Dahab; copper-zinc Khnaigiya, as well as gold El-Amar, Bulgah, etc. .). C. A. owns part of the unique sulfide copper-zinc deposit with lead, silver and gold Atlantis-II in the depression of the axial rift of the Red Cape (115 km west of Jeddah). Main iron ore reserves are associated with the Wadi Sawavin deposit in the northwest. There are deposits of bauxite (Ez-Zabira in the north), phosphorites (in the northwest), rock salt and gypsum (the coast of the Red Cape and the Persian Gulf), pyrite, barite, native sulfur, magnesite, marble, limestone, clay, sand Manifestations of ores of tin, tungsten, rare metals and REE.

Climate

Prem. tropical, sharply continental, dry, subtropical in the north. Summer is very hot, winter is warm. Wed January temperatures (in Riyadh) 14 °C, July 35 °C (absolute maximum 54 °C). Frosts occasionally occur in the north. There is a significant difference between night and day temperatures. Precipitation is almost everywhere less than 100 mm per year, in Rub al-Khali - less than 35 mm (in the central regions, predominantly in spring, in the north - in winter); in the mountains - up to 400 mm per year, maximum in spring and summer. The amount of precipitation varies greatly from year to year, in some areas in otd. they have been missing for years. Tihama is characterized by high relative humidity. Sultry south. the sumum wind in spring and early summer often causes sandstorms and a strong rise in temperature. Winter sowing. the shemal wind brings a decrease in temperature to the east. areas.

Inland waters

Almost all of S.A. is an endorheic region without permanent rivers, temp. streams are formed only after intense rains. The largest wadis are Es-Sirhan, Er-Rumma, Ed-Dawasir, Bisha, Najran. After rare showers, wadis sometimes turn into powerful mud flows. Oases are confined to the wadi.

Ch. groundwater plays a role in the country's water supply, providing more than 95% of water intake. Shallow groundwater accumulates in loose sedimentary strata and weathering crust, ch. arr. in the western, relatively humid mountainous part of S. A. Osn. water resources are associated with underground aquifers occurring at great depths (150–1500 m) over an area of ​​approx. 1.5 million km 2. On b. part of the country's territory, water supply is carried out through artesian wells and deep wells. The extraction of groundwater significantly exceeds the volume of their renewal.

Annually renewable water resources are 2.4 km 3 , water supply is low - 928 m 3 /person. per year (2006). The annual water intake is 23.7 km 3, of which 88% is used in the village. x-ve, 9% - in domestic water supply, 3% - in industry. Partial coverage of the shortage of fresh water is carried out by desalination of the sea. waters (S.A. - leader in the field of desalination of sea waters: 1.03 km 3 per year, 2006), reuse treated wastewater for the village. x-va and prom. water consumption.

Soils, flora and fauna

Primitive desert soils predominate, there is no soil cover over vast expanses, and salt crusts are widespread. In the north, coarsely skeletal subtropics are developed. gray soils and gray-brown soils, in depressions - solonchaks and meadow solonchak soils.

Vegetation preim. tropical desert, semi-desert in the north. White saxaul, dzhuzgun, dwarf sagebrush, aristid grasses and wild millet grow in places on the sands, lichens grow on hamads, wormwood, astragalus grow on lava plateaus, solitary acacias, prosopis, in more saline places - tamarisk ; along the coasts and solonchaks - halophytic shrubs (sveda, calotropis). Manna lichen is widespread. Loose sands are almost completely devoid of growth. cover. In spring and in wet years, the role of ephemera in the composition of vegetation increases. In the mountains, in the southwest, there are areas of savannahs (acacia, commiphora, olive), above 2000 m, evergreen shrubs are typical, from high. 2500 m - Afroalpine vegetation with juniper. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, cereals (wheat, barley) and horticultural crops. Deserts and semi-deserts occupy 62% of the territory, grassy ecosystems and shrubs - 33%, forests - approx. 2%.

Seventy-seven species of mammals live in SA (wolf, jackal, fennec fox, hyena, caracal, sand cat, onager wild ass, antelope, gazelle, hyrax, and hare). The number of domesticated camels (dromedaries) is large. There are many rodents (gerbils, ground squirrels, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles). 10 species of mammals are under the threat of extinction, including the Arabian oryx (oryx), Nubian (mountain) goat, Arabian gerbil. There are 125 species of nesting birds (larks, sandgrouse, bustards, kites, vultures, eagles, etc.), of which 13 are endangered. In east. areas - locust foci.

State and environmental protection

For b. h. pasture lands are characterized by desertification processes. Wind erosion of varying intensity is widespread, and secondary soil salinization is to a lesser extent. Due to the pumping of groundwater, aquifers are depleted. On the coast of the Persian Gulf. there is an increased risk of oil pollution.

The system of protected areas includes 128 objects decomp. status, including 3 nat. parks (Asir, Harrat, and Farasan in the archipelago of the same name), many nature reserves and reserves, as well as extensive wildlife management zones in the north of the country and in the Rub al-Khali desert. In the national Harrat Park and Uruk-Bani-Maarid Nature Reserve reintroduced gazelles and oryx, almost completely exterminated in the country.

Population

The indigenous population is 74.1% of us. S. A., in the main. Saudi Arabs, as well as South Arabian speakers Mahra and Shahari (0.3%). Immigrants and their descendants (including Filipinos, Punjabis, Urdu, Persians, Palestinians, Lebanese, Syrians, Egyptians, Sudanese, Somali, Swahili) account for 25.9% (2010, census).

According to official data (2013), out of the total number of us. 20.3 million people - Citizens of S.A. (approx. 68%), approx. 9.6 million people - immigrants (approx. 32%). The population for 1950-2014 increased by almost 10 times (3.1 million people in 1950; 5.8 in 1970; 16.1 in 1990). natural us growth. 15.5 per 1000 inhabitants (2014). Birth rate 18.8 per 1000 inhabitants, death rate 3.3 per 1000 inhabitants. Fertility rate 2.2 children per woman; infant mortality is 14.6 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15–64 years) - 69.2%; the proportion of children (under 15 years old) 27.6%, people over 65 years old 3.2%. Wed life expectancy is 74.8 years (men - 72.8, women - 76.9 years). There are 121 men for every 100 women. Wed us density. St. 15 persons/km2 (2014; some oases have a density of more than 1000 persons/km2). The most densely populated areas are off the coast of the Red Cape and the Persian Gulf, as well as around Riyadh and to the northeast of it, where the main. areas of oil and gas production. St. 60% of the country's territory (main arr. desert) does not have a permanent settled population. Share of mountains us. 83% (2014). Largest cities (million people, 2010): Riyadh 5.2, Jeddah 3.4 (Mecca), Mecca 1.5, Medina 1.1, Dammam 0.9, Al Hofuf 0.7 (Eastern district), Et-Taif 0.6 (Mecca district), Tabuk 0.5. Economically active us. OK. 11.3 million people (2013; including approx. 5.3 million citizens of S.A.). In the structure of employment, the service sector accounts for 71.3%, industry - 23.3%, with. x-va - 5.4% (2013). Unemployment rate 6% (2014; among citizens of SA 11.8%). Since 1996, the government has been implementing a policy of restricting the hiring of foreigners. labor force and its replacement by citizens of SA - so-called. Saudiization of personnel (most successful in the public sector).

Religion

OK. 90% of the population are Muslims, including 85–90% Sunnis (mainly Hanbalis), 10–15% Shiites: Imamis, Zaidis, a significant Ismaili minority (about 2.5%) (2014, estimate ). Among the representatives of other confessions are Christians (Catholics 2.5%, Protestants 1.5%, Orthodox 0.1%), Hindus (0.6%), Bahais (0.1%). Public practice of all religions except Islam, the opening of non-Muslim temples and prayer houses is prohibited. On the territory of SA, in the cities of Mecca and Medina, Ch. shrines of Islam. Pilgrimage to the shrines of S.A. is made by St. 1.4 million Muslims per year (2014).

Historical outline

The territory of Saudi Arabia from ancient times to the first centuries AD. uh

The oldest traces of human activity (probably ca. 1.3 million years ago), related to the Oldovan (see. Olduvai culture), are known in the north (near the city of Shuvaikhitiya) and southwest (Bir-Khim, Najran region) of the territory of modern. S. A.; finds of the Ashel era - to its center. and east. parts, the Middle Paleolithic - everywhere. The absence of Late Paleolithic finds may be due to unfavorable climatic conditions. conditions.

Since the Neolithic period (c. 8th millennium BC), connections with the territory of the Levant are recorded, from where, apparently, there was a migration of the population, the exchange of obsidian with the territory of Yemen, Ethiopia, Eritrea. Since the 7th millennium, petroglyphs have been known (mainly hunting scenes). Since the 6th millennium, ties with the South have been intensifying. Mesopotamia (Ubeid culture), North-East. and Southwest. Arabia.

In the early metal era (from the end of the 4th millennium), monumental ground-based tombs, sanctuaries, and, probably, anthropomorphic stone steles associated with them, appeared. In the 3rd millennium, stable ties with Mesopotamia were established. Among the finds are examples of sculpture and glyptics, items made of lapis lazuli, carnelian (the main sample was imported from Mesopotamia, from the territory of Afghanistan, Gujarat). coast of the Persian Gulf. was part of the Dilmun civilization zone.

The oases of Hijaz, Teima (now Taima), Dedan (now El-Ula), Madyan have been permanently inhabited since the 3rd–2nd millennium. In the 1st millennium, they played an important role on the "path of incense" (from the territory of Yemen to the Mediterranean), are mentioned in the Assyrians. cuneiform sources of the 8th–7th centuries, the Old Testament. From the 7th c. there are inscriptions in local languages ​​with varieties of the North-Arabian alphabetic writing. In 550, a number of oases were conquered by the Babylonian king Nabonidus, who made Teima his residence for 10 years. At the settlement of Kraia (probably the capital of Teima), a “stele of Nabonidus” was found with an inscription in Akkadian. and the image of the king in front of the symbols of the Babylonian gods Sin, Shamash, Ishtar. Other cuneiform texts mentioning Nabonidus and rock inscriptions containing greetings to the "King of Babylon" are also known from Teima. In the 5th c. these oases became dependent on Achaemenid states. In the 4th-1st centuries. important political the power was the state of Lihyan with the capital Dedan (preserved approx. 10 giant stone statues of its rulers). From the 2nd century BC e. part of the North-West. Arabia was included in Nabataean kingdom; Hegra (now Madain Salih) was a large city, and many are associated with it. rock tombs (analogues - in Petra). In 106 AD e. The Nabataean kingdom became part of Rome. empire.

The central and southwestern parts of the territory of modern. S.A. belonged to the civilization of the South. Arabia; one of its centers was in the oasis of Najran (first mentioned c. 700). The center of the tribal union Mukhaamir was located in the city of Ragmat, from the 6th century. The Amir tribe began to play a dominant role in the oasis. After a series of wars, Najran became dependent on the South Arabian kingdom of Main. Ragmat is mentioned among the cities conquered by the Romans during the campaign of Aelius Gallus to "Happy Arabia" in 25/24 BC. e. In the 1st–5th centuries n. e. Najran was under the rule of the state of Saba and Himyarite kingdom .

The oasis of Karyat-al-Fau (Karyat-al-Fau; mentioned from the end of the 4th century BC) in the northwest. border of the Rub al-Khali desert from the first centuries AD. e. was the center of the Kinda tribal union and a point on the "path of incense", left in the beginning. 4th century, probably due to the drying up of fresh water sources. Residential quarters, a market, sanctuaries (including the supreme god Kahl), and a necropolis have been excavated here. Inscriptions in the Dedan, Nabataean, Sabaean languages, coins (including local coinage), bronze, stone, terracotta images of Greek. and Greek-Egyptian. gods, Sabaean funerary sculpture, frescoes, glassware, semi-precious stones, gold, silver, and other finds demonstrate a combination of local and Western Asian, Egyptian, Hellenistic, Roman. traditions.

With the settlement of Saj near the Persian Hall. identify Mr. Guerra - an important point in the system of trade incense. The finds (including glass and metal utensils, gold and silver jewelry, locally minted coins) testify to the strong influence of Hellenism. In Ain Javan (to the north of the modern city of El Katif), a tomb of the 1st-2nd centuries was excavated. with numerous jewelry.

The territory of Saudi Arabia in the 4th - early 7th centuries

So. influence on the situation on the Arabian Peninsula in the 4th–7th centuries. provided by external forces, the most important of which were Byzantium and Sassanid Iran competing with each other. Their confrontation turned the Arabic-speaking states that emerged on the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula or within it into satellites of one or another of these powers. If formed in 380 and existed until 611 in Yuzh. Mesopotamia The Lakhmid kingdom, which extended its possessions up to Al Hasas and officially professed Nestorianism, was a vassal of Iran, then emerged in Vost. Palestine, the Ghassanid kingdom (529–636), which included the north of the Hijaz and adhered to monophysitism was a Byzantine vassal.

One of the forms of external influence on the intra-Arabian situation was the spread of Judaism and Christianity. This impact was especially strong in the south of the peninsula, where, under the influence of Christianized Ethiopia, the local pantheon of deities was unified, which contributed to the emergence of the idea of ​​a single ruler of Heaven and Earth - Rahmanan (his name, modified in accordance with the phonetics of the North Arabic dialects, later became in the form Rahman is one of the epithets of Allah). At the same time, Judaism penetrated into Arabia geographically deeper than Christianity. If the latter became widespread in the peripheral regions of the peninsula (the Lakhmid and Ghassanid kingdoms), then it means. Jewish colonies existed in the oases of Hijaz (including Medina) and Nejd.

However b. hours of the territory of modern. SA was still pagan. The local pantheon included both male and female deities. Everyday practice was the veneration of stones, trees, stars and celestial phenomena, good and evil spirits as mediators between gods and people. Temples and sanctuaries were dedicated to the gods, one of which was the Meccan Kaaba, which gradually turned into a recognized cult center with rituals developing around it, which later became part of the Islamic ritual. A special status for this center as “God-saving” was given by an unsuccessful campaign against Mecca in 570 Ethiopians. king Abraha.

Arabian Peninsula in the 7th–17th century

The prophetic mission of Muhammad, which began in 603-605, transformed the political. Geography of the Arabian Peninsula. Its result was the formation of an early Islamic state, which included in its composition the entire territory of the modern. Saud. Arabia.

The non-recognition by the Meccan Quraysh of Muhammad as a Prophet forced him to emigrate to Yathrib (now Medina). There was a system of Muslims. dogmatism and rituals (including due to the confrontation with the local Jewish tribes), as well as the foundations of the new statehood, family ethics and morality based on the norms of this system, the formation of Muslims began. ummah. While in Medina, Muhammad made the first conquests, limited to the territories adjacent to this city. Strengthening own. authority as a religion. leader, commander and politician allowed Muhammad in Jan. 630 victoriously return to Mecca, which recognized his authority. By 632 all tribes are center. Arabia, as well as the population of Asir, Najran and Yemen, converted to Islam, which was promoted as a military. threats and diplomacy. the efforts of its founder. However, the first attempts of Muhammad to introduce zakat and sadaqah for the population of the territories subject to him caused uprisings. Disputes between the closest companions and relatives of the Prophet, which began after his death in 632, ended with the election of Abu Bekr as caliph. He managed to break the resistance of the rebels and pacify the rebellious tribes, and the campaign he organized against Byzantium turned out to be successful. But his election brought the first fault lines into the Muslims. community. Prerequisites for Shiism arose - supporters Ali ibn Abi Talib they believed that it was he who should succeed Muhammad, and not Abu Bekr, whom they considered a usurper.

After the death of Abu Bekr, the caliphs were Omar ibn al-Khattab and then Osman ibn al-Affan. The murder of the latter in 656 by opponents of strengthening the role of his clan in the life of the Caliphate marked the beginning of fitnah - a turmoil that divided Muslims into Shiites, Kharijites and Sunnis. The power of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who became the new caliph, was immediately challenged by the governor of Syria Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan. After the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib, his son Hassan, who became caliph after the death, renounced the title in favor of Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, as a result of which power in the Caliphate passed from the companions and relatives of Muhammad to the Umayyads who ruled in Damascus. Political center of Muslims. state-va became the capital of Syria. After the transfer of power in the Caliphate in 747 to the Abbasids, the center of political. life of the Islamic world moved to Baghdad. Mecca retained only the status of religions. center, and the Arabian Peninsula became the periphery of a huge state. education.

The protracted process of the collapse of the Caliphate had a significant effect. influence on the political situation in the Arabian Peninsula. The emergence in 899 in Bahrain of the state of the Karmatians, which included El-Khasa, made possible the further expansion of the representatives of this trend in the direction of the Hijaz. In 930, the Qarmatians attacked Mecca and stole Ch. the object of worship is the “black stone” (returned only in 952).

After Ahmed ibn Tulun came to power in Egypt in 858, the state of the Tulunids arose, which also included the Hijaz. With the conquest of Egypt in 969 by the Fatimids, the Hijaz entered their state, in 1171 - into the state of the Ayyubids who replaced the Fatimids, in 1250 - in Mamluk Sultanate. After the defeat of the latter in 1516 by Sultan Selim I the Terrible (1512–20), Hijaz and Asir were part of Ottoman Empire. In 1638, the power of the Ottomans also extended to El-Khasa. Ottoman expansion did not touch the semi-desert interior. regions of the Arabian Peninsula, but the rulers of the oases and the tribal leaders of this territory, solving the problems of their own. rise or maintain power, repeatedly turned to the Porte for help.

Arabia in the 18th - late 19th century. First Saudi states

If in Hijaz, which became part of the Ottoman Empire, Hanafi Islam became the dominant Sunni legal school (see Hanafi), then in Nejd it means. To a lesser extent, the Hanbali madhhab (interpretation) of Sunnism was established (see Hanbalites). This legal school required a strict adherence to religion. dogmas and live practically the way the Prophet and his companions lived. In the 1st floor. 18th century these ideas were developed Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who became the spiritual mentor of the inhabitants of the small town of Uyaina in Najd. The activity of Mohammed ibn Abd al-Wahhab displeased the ruler of Uyaina. In 1744/45, the preacher was forced to move to the town of Ad-Diriya (now within the administrative borders of Greater Riyadh). The resettlement of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his conclusion of an alliance with the emir of Ad-Diriya Muhammad ibn Saud (1726/27–1765) is considered the beginning of the Saud. statehood. This union later became the basis for interaction between the descendants of the emir - the Saudis and the teachers from the Al ash-Sheikh family (Al-Sheikh, Ali-sh-Sheikh) - the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab.

To con. 1780s the rulers of Ad-Diriya established dominance over the entire territory of Najd. Int. strife in al-Has eased the Saudi. expansion towards the coast of the Persian Gulf. Despite the resistance of local tribes, in the 1st floor. 1790s Al-Hasa became part of the Saudi. possessions. An attempt by the Ottoman Wali of Basra to restore Ottoman rule in Al-Khas ended in the summer of 1797 with the invasion of the tribes subordinate to the ruler of Ed-Diriya into the territory of Iraq. In the spring of 1802 they took and plundered the largest Iraq. Shiite center of Karbala. From the beginning 1790s Saudi started. raid the Hijaz. In 1805, with the establishment of Saudi control over Medina and the ports of the Red Sea, Hijaz became part of their possessions. The power of the Saudis was also consolidated in Asir, from where attempts were made to penetrate into Yemen. In the beginning. 19th century one of the directions of the saudi. expansions became Muscat and Hadhramawt, as well as the territory of the current states of the Persian Gulf zone. (including the Bahraini archipelago). However, agreements concluded by local rulers with Great Britain, for which this area played an important role in ensuring the security of communications with British India put a limit on her. The Saudis were forced to abandon the continuation of the expansion in connection with the landing of Egyptian troops in 1811 in the Hijaz. ruler Muhammad Ali .

Saudi establishment. dominance over Mecca and Medina, which had previously been subject to Ottoman jurisdiction, dealt a blow to the prestige of the Istanbul sultans and caliphs, who were unable to ensure the safety of the hajj. To restore its former position, the Port took advantage of Muhammad Ali's interest in returning Egypt's trade monopoly in the Red Sea zone. Egypt troops after landing in the Hijaz Yanbu (Yanbu el-Bahr), despite initial failures, gradually managed to develop an offensive in the direction of the interior. areas of the Arabian Peninsula and in Sept. 1818 take and destroy Ed-Diriya. First Saudi. the state has fallen, b. h. saudi nobles and members of the Al ash-Sheikh family were taken to Egypt.

Egypt The occupation of Nejd, accompanied by looting, violence and a resurgence of tribal anarchy, was short-lived. Saved from the Egyptians dynasty of the Saudis Turki ibn Abdallah (1821–34) led the armament. Egyptian resistance. occupation. He was supported by the heads of the tribes and the Hanbali ulema. Leaving the destroyed Ed-Diriya, the new emir made Riyadh his capital, successively expanded the scope of his possessions in the center of Najd, creating the second state of the Saudis. In 1830 he restored the Saudi. power in Al-Has, forced to recognize the Saudi. suzerainty of the ruler of Bahrain and resumed expansion into Oman.

Drought con. 1820s and repeated outbreaks of cholera worsened the Saudi situation. emirate. In 1834 Turki ibn Abdallah was killed by a relative who established himself in Riyadh. The coming to power in the same year of Turka's son Faisal did not put an end to the internal. strife and strife in the emirate. The situation was also seriously destabilized by Muhammad Ali's new attempts to assert his power over the Arabian Peninsula. In 1837 the Egyptian troops entered the capital of the emirate, again occupied Najd and captured Emir Faisal ibn Turki, who was sent to Cairo in 1838. Power in Riyadh passed to Khalid ibn Saud, who was replaced in 1841 by Abdallah ibn Sunayan.

In 1840 the Egyptian the army was evacuated under British pressure. In 1843, Faisal ibn Turki returned to his homeland and restored his power in Riyadh. Saud. expansion towards Al-Hasa and Qasem territory resumed. In the beginning. 1860s Saudi power is fully restored in the west of Najd. The death of Faisal ibn Turki in 1865 again destabilized the emirate. His son Abdallah ibn Faisal [Emir in Dec. 1865 - Jan. 1873 (with a break), March 1876–1889] tried to subdue Oman and Bahrain, but ran into opposition from the British. The other son of Faisal, Saud ibn Faisal (Emir in January 1873 - January 1875), who challenged Abdallah's right to power, established himself in Al-Khas. In the spring of 1871 he made a trip to Riyadh and sacked the city. Later, the other sons of Faisal, who sought help from local rulers and external forces, joined the struggle for power - Abd ar-Rahman ibn Faisal (emir in January 1875 - January 1876) and Mohammed ibn Faisal. Employed int. By struggle, the Saudis missed the rise in the west of Nejd of the emirate of Jebel Shammar with the capital Hail, led by the Rashidid dynasty, who became allies of the Ottoman Empire. As a result, to ser. 1870s Saudi power only extended to Riyadh. In 1887, the Riyadh Emirate ceased to exist and became part of Jebel Shammar. The Saudi family, including Prince Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd ar-Rahman (Ibn Saud), who was born in 1880, was forced into exile.

The emergence and development of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the 1st half of the 20th century

In Jan. 1902, having made a campaign from Kuwait (the last place of exile of the Saudi family), Ibn Saud captured Riyadh. After taking the city, he renewed the agreement with the Hanbali jurists. Having strengthened Riyadh, Ibn Saud set about expanding the boundaries of his territory. Great Britain, interested in weakening the Ottoman influence in the Arabian Peninsula, supported Ibn Saud, which allowed him to establish control over part of Jebel Shammar. In 1911, Ibn Saud secured the consent of Great Britain to include Al-Hasa, which at that time was under the rule of the Turks, into his possessions. In 1913, this territory came under the Saudis. jurisdiction.

Ibn Saud attached great importance to strengthening his influence in Najd. For this, he used the movement of the Ikhwans, which had unfolded in this region and was inspired by the Hanbali teachers of the law. The goal of the latter was to transfer part of the Bedouins to settled life in specially created settlements - hijras, where members of the movement devoted themselves to agriculture and the study of religion in its Wahhabi version. Those who migrated to Hijras assumed the obligation to be devoted to other brothers in the movement, to obey the emir-imam, and not to maintain contacts with the “polytheists” - Europeans and residents of their subordinate countries. The first hijra - El-Artavia arose in the 1st half. 1913, by 1929, there were already 120 Hijras in the entire territory of Najd. The Ikhwans formed the striking force of Ibn Saud's troops.

World War I changed the balance of power in the Arabian Peninsula. The most important event in this region was the British-inspired anti-Turkish uprising (the so-called Great Arab Revolution in the Hijaz under the leadership of the sheriff of Mecca Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi), which began in June 1916 and led to the emergence of the sovereign Kingdom of Hijaz, which was recognized League of Nations. Ibn Saud, despite Brit. pressure, did not take part in the uprising, nor did he follow the calls of the Brit. agents start military. actions against Jebel Shammar, who remained loyal to the Ottoman Empire. One of the results of the 1st World War was the transformation of the status of Asir. Mohammed al-Idrisi, the emir of this region, took the side of Great Britain during the war years, enlisted the support of the British. resident in Aden and expelled the Turks so. parts of his territory. Until 1923, Asir maintained a political independence under the the Idrisid dynasty.

In the 1920s Ibn Saud began the unification of the lands previously subject to the emirs of Ed-Diriya. The first to fall was Jebel Shammar, who lost his Brit. support and weakened by strife in the Rashidid family. In the autumn of 1921, detachments of the Ikhwans occupied its capital Hail. Thus, the entire center was under the rule of Ibn Saud. part of the Arabian Peninsula, Nejd became the leading state of the region, and its ruler became a sultan. The absence of a fixed border between Nejd and Iraq, Nejd and Transjordan (brit. mandated territories), as well as Nejd and Kuwait (British protectorate), which allowed Ibn Saud's detachments to penetrate their territory under the pretext of fighting the "polytheists", prompted the UK to raise the issue of demarcating the borders. Nov. 1921 Anglo-Nejdian protocols were signed that established the borders of Nejd with Iraq (finally determined in Oct. 1925) and Kuwait; 1925 - agreement on the Nejdi-Transjordan border.

In Jan. 1923 under the authority of Ibn Saud passed the sowing. part of Asir from the city of Abha, which became Saudi. protectorate. In Sept. In 1924, the Ikhwans captured and plundered Et-Taif, in October of the same year - Mecca, where they began to destroy the domes over the graves of the companions of the Prophet. The attempt of the Hijaz nobility to pacify Ibn Saud by removing Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi from power and enthroning his son Ali was not successful. Nov. 1925 Ibn Saud surrendered to Medina, in December of the same year - Jeddah. The UK actually recognized the results of the Saudi. aggression. In 1926, at the World Muslim held in Mecca. Congress, Ibn Saud achieved recognition of his authority over the Hijaz, which allowed him to acquire the titles of King and Servant of the Two Noble Holy Mosques, and his state became known as the Sultanate of Nejd, the Kingdom of Hijaz and the annexed territories. Feb. In 1926, it was officially recognized by the USSR, which became the first power to establish diplomatic relations with Ibn Saud. relationship. The process of unification of the state was completed in 1932-34, when it received the modern. name - Kingdom of Saud. Arabia, Asir was finally included in its composition and, as a result of the Saudi-Yemeni war, sowing entered. part of formerly Yemeni Najran.

Maintenance of territorial integrity and refers. internal The stability of the new state was carried out by the power of the Ikhwans, as well as through the spread of the Wahhabi interpretation of the Hanbali madhhab. The Hanbali ulema, who developed the principle of devotion to the supporter of the "true faith", substantiated power based on violence. In the beginning. 1925 in Riyadh, the League for the Promotion of Virtue and the Condemnation of Sin (LPDOG), funded by Ibn Saud, arose. In Sept. In 1926, its branch was created in Mecca, thereby spreading the practice of unconditional obedience to Divine law in its Hanbali interpretation to the Hijaz (and then to the whole country). This practice was based on the non-Jidian tradition, which required the theologian to control the implementation of Sharia norms in the sphere of religions. rituals and customs, as well as to eradicate political. dissent.

Hijaz played a leading role in SA, and Ibn Saud's son, Prince Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz, was appointed viceroy. The first Saudis arose in the Hijaz. governments. institutions (the management experience of the Ottoman and Hashemite times was used). Until con. 1950s actual the capital of the state was Mecca (Riyadh remained the seat of the non-Jidian nobility and religious dignitaries). In Aug. 1926 were adopted Osn. the provisions of the Kingdom of Hejaz, which determined the status of viceroy, state. bodies, the Council of Ministers, as well as the Advisory Council - a kind of parliamentary assembly. The need for modern army, equipped with the latest military. technology, dictated the need to solve the personnel issue. Personnel for the army were trained both abroad and in the technical departments created in SA. schools.

The “conservative modernization” of S.A. became the reason for the first speech of the opposition, represented by the former allies of Ibn Saud, the Ikhwans, who appealed to the “purity” of Wahhabi Hanbalism. In the list of accusations against the ruler, compiled by them in 1926, the “unacceptable” contacts of his sons with diplomatic officials were mentioned. agents of Great Britain, the refusal to evict Shiites from the oases of the coast of the Persian Gulf, the operation of secular laws in the Hijaz. The rebellion of the Ikhwans, who declared jihad to the ruler, was suppressed only in 1929.

Until con. 1930s main Hajj and transfers from other Muslims remained sources of income for the SA budget. countries funds from the use of waqf. The decrease in the number of pilgrims (especially during the years of the world economic crisis of 1929–33), as well as the irregularity in the receipt of waqf contributions, complicated the financial situation of SA. This prompted Ibn Saud to meet the requests of the Amer. oil monopolies, including Standard Oil Co. of California” (“Socal”), on granting them the right to explore oil fields in the territory of Al-Hasa (in 1932, oil was discovered in neighboring Bahrain). Ibn Saud hoped that this would not only replenish the budget, but also weaken the Brit. influence on the Arabian Peninsula. In 1933 an agreement was signed granting Socal a concession for oil exploration in SA. 1933 Concession transferred to Socal subsidiary California-Arabian Standard Oil Co. (in Jan. 1944 renamed the "Arabian American Oil Company" - "Aramco"). The concession agreement provided for the provision by S.A. of loans, annual payments, rent and certain payments for each ton of oil produced after the discovery of its commercial. reserves (all payments were to be made in gold), the construction of an oil refinery and the free provision of SA with gasoline and kerosene. Saudi responded. the government exempted the company and its enterprises from taxes and customs duties. First Saudi. oil in commercial quantities were discovered in 1938, the concession zone was expanded, and the concession itself was extended for up to 60 years.

At the initial stage of the 2nd World War, SA pursued a policy of neutrality, maintaining relations both with Great Britain and with Germany and Italy, which were considered by Ibn Saud as a counterbalance to the British. politics. However, in the future, under the influence primarily of the United States, which expanded oil production in SA and provided it with significant assistance, including military assistance, Saudi Arabia. the government changed its position. In 1940 it broke the diplomatic relations with Italy, in Sept. 1941 - with Germany. On February 14, 1945, at a meeting between Ibn Saud and US President F. D. Roosevelt on board the Quincy cruiser in the Suez Canal, an agreement was reached on the free use of Saud. ports by US and UK courts, as well as the creation of an Amer. Air Force on a leased for a period of 5 years Saudi Arabia. territories in exchange for guarantees of non-admission of the occupation of SA by the troops of the countries anti-Hitler coalition and Saudi recognition. independence. In March 1945, S.A. declared war on Germany and Italy, which allowed her to become one of the founding members United Nations. Having taken an initially cautious position regarding the process of creating Arab League, SA in March 1945 joined this organization.

Saudi Arabia in the 1950s–90s

Ibn Saud died on November 9, 1953. His heir was Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz, who appointed the prev. Council of Ministers and Crown Prince Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz. This led to the emergence of dual power in the country. The situation was aggravated by what was happening in S.A. and in general in the Arab. world social and political. changes. Transformation of the previously patriarchal Saud. society also affected Shiite circles, but was not accompanied by an increase in their role in the life of the state. Shiite entrepreneurship was limited to the lower levels of business, there were no Shiite teachers, Shiite religions in schools and universities. rituals remained prohibited, Shiite youth could not enter the army and police. All this, as well as the persecution of the Saudis. workers' organizations and the harsh suppression of strikes pushed the Shiite youth to join underground organizations. In 1953, oil workers' strikes, inspired by illegal trade unions and strike committees set up by Shiites, broke out in Al-Has. On their wave in the same year, the National Front arose. reforms (FNR; since April 1958, the National Liberation Front, TNF), which demanded “to liberate the country from imperialist. domination, introduce a constitution, grant social rights to women, improve the conditions of peasants and workers, and abolish slavery.

The spread of the ideas of pan-Arabism and the ever more acutely felt need for change in the social-political. and economic The life of the country led to an aggravation of contradictions in the Saudi family, which resulted in an open confrontation between the king and the crown prince (initially supported by the FPR), who sought to take the throne. In May 1958, Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz was forced to issue a decree giving the SM full power. power. Nevertheless, the contradictions in the ruling family continued to deepen. A group of young princes (the so-called free princes), led by Talal ibn Abd al-Aziz, established relations with G. A. Nasser and demanded that a constitution be held in the country. reform, hoping thereby to gain access to power. In 1962 the "free princes" emigrated to Egypt. Happened on Sept. 1962 anti-monarchist. the revolution in Yemen (S.A. supported the royalists, Egypt supported the republicans) contributed to a certain consolidation of the Saudis. At the end of Oct. 1962 Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz promulgated a new government program. It declared the intention to proclaim the "basic law of government" based on the Koran and the Sunnah, "raise the social level of the nation", introduce free education and medical care. service, strengthen state. regulate the economy, abolish slavery. Although the program was never implemented, it reflected the desire to meet the demands that the "free princes" put forward.

At the beginning of Nov. 1964 Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz is finally removed from power. Theologians issued a special fatwa legitimizing what happened. This contributed to an even greater strengthening of the influence of the ulema. The staff of the LPRCA and its funding have been increased. The ulema were included in the composition of the courts of cassation. The adoption of the Labor Law in 1968 became possible only after the Supreme Mufti recognized it as conforming to Sharia.

The primary task of Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz, who came to power, was to resolve the situation in Yemen and reach an understanding with G. A. Nasser. However, direct Saudi-Egypt. initiated by the new king. negotiations on Yemen until 1967 did not bring results. The defeat of Egypt by Israel in the June war of 1967 (see. Arab-Israeli Wars) changed the balance of power in the region. At the meeting held in Aug.-Sept. 1967 in the Khartoum summit of the Arab League, Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz and Nasser signed an agreement on a peaceful settlement in Yemen, which involved the withdrawal of Egypt from this country. troops. The decisions of the Khartoum summit testified to the growing influence of SA, which was turning into the leading Arab power. peace. At SA's insistence, a common LAS position on Israel was worked out, which provided for the rejection of peace negotiations with it until the complete withdrawal of Israeli troops from the occupied Arabs. territories. SA has become the largest financial donor to Egypt, Syria and Jordan.

Adopted by the UK in Jan. The 1968 decision to withdraw troops from the territories "east of Suez," which assumed independence for the emirates of Trucial Oman, Bahrain, and Qatar, strengthened SA's position in the Persian Gulf zone. This region was acquired for the Saudi. foreign policy priority and became a place of confrontation SA Iran. Strengthening the international The influence of S.A. allowed the Saudis to put forward the slogan of "Islamic solidarity" as an alternative to secular pan-Arabism. In Sept. 1969 in Rabat at the initiative of S.A. and Morocco, a meeting of heads of state and government of 25 Muslims. countries, the creation of the Organization of the Islamic Conference was announced (since 2011 Organization of Islamic Cooperation). Coming to power in Egypt in 1970 after the death of Nasser, who was the main. a conductor of the ideas of pan-Arabism, A. Sadat expanded the scope of Saudi-Egypt. political and economic interactions.

3/25/1975, while taking min. oil industry of Kuwait, Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz was killed by his cousin Faisal ibn Musaid. On the same day to Saudi Arabia. Crown Prince Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz succeeded to the throne. 11/20/1979 group of religions. opponents of the authorities from among the young employees of the LPDOG, headed by Dzhuheyman al-Uteibi, who appealed to the "purity" of the Wahhabi dogma, seized Ch. mosque of Mecca. 12/4/1979 Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz with the approval of higher religions. dignitaries gave the order to Saudi. security service to take Ch. mosque by storm. The action in Mecca coincided with the beginning of new unrest of the Shiites in Al-Khas. Their spiritual leaders, led by Sheikh Hassan al-Saffar, initiated public speeches under slogans of support Islamic revolution in Iran 1979, stopping the supply of Saudi. oil in the USA and the creation of the so-called. Islamic Republic of Al Hasa.

These events prompted the Saudi government to take steps to strengthen the positions of the existing regime. One of the measures was the creation among young people under the guidance of theologians of circles and groups for the study of the Wahhabi dogma (the participants in these circles became Mujahideen in Afghanistan, as well as in Kashmir, Tajikistan, in the North. Caucasus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo). In the field of foreign policy, a course was taken towards the unification of the Arabs. monarchies in the face of the threats that Iran hid for the states of the region. revolution and Iran–Iraq War 1980–88. This found its expression in the creation of May 25, 1981 Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf. In an effort to counteract the Palestinian radicals, SA at the Arab League summit in Fez in 1982 put forward a plan for a Middle East peace settlement (the so-called Fahd plan), in which for the first time the possibility of a pan-Arab recognition of Israel was indicated.

In June 1982, Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz died in Saudi Arabia. The throne was erected by Crown Prince Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz. The years of his reign became an important milestone in the history of the country - a time to overcome internal. and external challenges and the beginning of economic. and political modernization. In 1988, Aramco became the property of S.A. (it became known as Saudi Aramco), which significantly expanded the financial capabilities of the state. The country began the creation of modern. infrastructure: construction of a petrochemical complex. enterprises in Al Jubail and Yanbu el-Bahra, networks of modern. sea ports, highways and airports. There has been a turn towards the "saudization" of socio-economic. spheres - in the industry, p. x-ve, the health care and education system has become increasingly used nat. labor force. To Saudi. a new educated class appeared in society, which began to play an important role in politics. After 1985 Saudi the authorities began to pursue a course of "cautious openness" in relation to the Shiite population of the East. province (Al-Hasa). The place of the former administrators (natives of Nejd) was taken by Shiites - graduates of universities in the region. Shiites were included in the leadership of the industrial buildings under construction. complexes. Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz granted amnesty to the participants in the 1979 unrest and announced the rejection of the practice of discrimination against Shiites, including the removal of anti-Shia texts from school textbooks.

Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz continued the course of his predecessor to increase the role of SA in the settlement of regional conflicts, primarily in the Middle East. Saud. government contributed to the cessation of civil wars in Lebanon. 10/23/1989 at Taif, the Lebanese side. conflict signed a peace agreement. At the same time, in Afghanistan, S.A. actively supported the forces that fought against the Soviets. troops, including the Taliban movement (SA presented the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan in 1988 as a victory for the “Islamic solidarity” it propagated). During the period Kuwait Crisis 1990–91 S.A., fearing possible aggression from the regime of S. Hussein and the loss of dominance in the GCC, turned to the United States for help, provided its territory for the deployment of forces of the anti-Iraqi coalition, and allocated funds for military operations. operations against Iraq. Saud. troops, as well as units of the GCC countries, took part in the liberation of Kuwait (see. "Desert Storm" 1991). After the elimination of the Kuwait crisis, SA actively joined the Madrid peace process, one of the results of which was the adoption of the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles and the creation in the Gaza Strip and in part of the West. banks of the river Jordan Palestinian National Authority. Perestroika in the USSR and busy owls. leadership position during the Kuwait crisis created the prerequisites for the resumption in 1991 diplomatic. relations between the two countries (were frozen in 1938).

The Kuwait crisis has pushed the Saudis. government for political reforms. In 1992, 4 constitutions were put into effect. Act: Main. the law of government, the Law on the Consultative Council, the Law on the Administration of the Provinces and the Law on the Council of Ministers, which created the prerequisites for the transition to a "parliamentary monarchy", the principle of separation of powers and the development of the foundations of regional self-government.

Saudi Arabia in the 21st century

After the terrorist attack in New York on September 11, 2001, S.A. broke off the diplomatic mission. relationship with Afg. by the Taliban government, deprived the Saudis. citizenship of W. bin Laden and joined the international. anti-terrorist coalition sent troops to Afghanistan. In 2003, S.A. criticized the intention of the United States to inflict military. strike on Iraq, considering it possible to resolve differences with the political regime of S. Hussein. methods. Later, however, SA joined the anti-Iraqi coalition, and after the overthrow of the government of Iraq, took part in the occupation and reconstruction of that country.

In connection with the death of Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz to Saudi. the throne was taken (1.8.2005) by Crown Prince Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz. Under him, on October 19, 2006, the Law on K-those on taking an oath was adopted. He finally settled the procedure for appointing the heir to the throne and prescribed the obligations. approval of his candidacy by representatives of all factions of the Saudi family and swearing allegiance to him. Oct. In 2011 and June 2012, this law was put into practice when Nayef ibn Abd al-Aziz (d. Summer 2012) and Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz were appointed heirs to the throne, respectively. In an effort to give greater stability to the regime, on March 27, 2014, Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz appointed Muqrin ibn Abd al-Aziz to the newly created post of heir to the throne. This decision was prompted by the state of health of Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz and aimed at maintaining the continuity of the succession of Ibn Saud's sons at the top of the political. power.

During the reign of Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz in 2005, the composition of the Constitutional Court was expanded. The number of its appointed members increased from 60 to 150 people. They began to represent all regions and confessional groups of the country. In 2010, the Constitutional Court was given the right to legislate. initiatives. Feb. In 2013, a "women's faction" appeared in it (30 women were introduced to the Constitutional Court while maintaining its previous number). In accordance with the decree of the king, starting from 2016, women will be able to take part in municipal elections. The entry of women into the CC was preceded by initiatives aimed at increasing their participation in society. life and their legal emancipation. Saud. women began to receive identity cards, to be accepted into the service of ministries and departments, to hold the posts of rectors of "women's high boots", to be elected to the governing bodies of trade and industry. chambers, societies associations, work in the "women's departments" of large stores. The country is actively discussing the issue of further expanding the rights of women, including the abolition of the ban on their driving cars.

An important place in the interior The policy of Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz was given to weakening the influence of the ulema on the Saudi. society and state. The sphere of women's education, transferred to the Ministry of Education, was withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the corps of teachers of the law, the Court of Cassation (2007) passed under the auspices of the monarch, as a result of which the state gained full control over Sharia legal proceedings, and the codification of Hanbali law began to be carried out. Feb. 2009 Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz reformed the Council of Senior Ulema (appointment to it is fully controlled by the authorities), introducing into its composition theologians representing non-Hanbali Sunni legal schools. Thus, they received an official. recognition in S.A. In the summer of 2014, a representative of the Ismaili community was introduced to the Council of Ministers, who took the post of Minister for Constitutional Affairs.

S.A. did not experience the upheavals of the period of the so-called. Arab. spring, although under the influence of events in neighboring countries in SA intensified domestic politics. life, a petition movement was developed, the participants of which demanded a deepening of the constitution. reforms and the introduction of a "parliamentary monarchy" in the country, and an attempt was made to create the Islamic Party of the Nation. S. A. led the GCC initiative aimed at achieving political. changes in Yemen peacefully, thereby preventing the armed. confrontation between power and opposition. In the future, condemning the state carried out in this country by the Al-Hushi Movement. coup, S.A. contributed to the development of a unified position of the GCC, which qualified the al-Houthi Movement as “terrorist. org-tion "and demanded the restoration of the constitution. order in Yemen. S.A. supported the actions of the Libyan opposition to overthrow the regime of M. Gaddafi in 2011, while adhering to the policy of non-interference in the internal Libyan conflict that began in 2014. In March 2011, the Saudi leadership, based on the request of the Bahraini monarch and declaring the need to “confront Iran. expansion”, introduced its troops (supported by the armed forces of some GCC countries) into the territory of Bahrain. Saud. leadership reacted negatively to the overthrow of Egypt. President M. H. Mubarak, refused to support the movement Muslim Brotherhood, approved the removal of M. Morsi from power and established close relations with the new head of Egypt, A.F. al-Sisi. Continuing the course of counteracting the "hegemonism" of Iran in the Islamic world and in the zone of the Persian Gulf, SA welcomed the resignation of the government of Nuri al-Maliki in Iraq and now considers it possible to open a Saudi. embassies in Baghdad, declaring, nevertheless, the presence of local Sunnis in power structures is insufficient. Saud. The government condemns Israel for its punitive actions in the Gaza Strip, but refuses to contact the Hamas movement and provides support to the Palestinian National. administration headed by M. Abbas. Counteracting radical sentiments in the Arab. world, S.A. considers the “Arab. peace initiative" as aimed at achieving the end. political settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict.

In connection with the death of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz on 23.1.2015 in Saudi Arabia. Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz ascended the throne. On April 29, 2015, he announced his nephew, Mohammed ibn Nayef, as crown prince, and his son, Mohammed ibn Salman, as his successor.

On most global and regional problems (conflict situations in the Middle East, primarily around Iraq, Afghanistan, Yemen, Sudan, the Arab-Israeli conflict), as well as on the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, the fight against extremism and terrorism, transnational organized crime, drug trafficking and piracy, on the subject of the G20, the positions of the Russian Federation and S.A. coincide or are close. Bilateral contacts are maintained at the highest and high levels. In Sept. 2003 visited Moscow with the official. the visit of the future king S. A. Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz, during which he held negotiations with Russian President V. V. Putin. Feb. 2007 took place official. V. V. Putin's visit to S. A. A set of bilateral agreements, memorandums and protocols was signed, including the General Agreement of 11/20/1994. Since 2002 the Joint Intergovernmental Organizations have been functioning. Russian-Saudi commission on trade and economic and scientific and technical. Cooperation and Ros.-Saudi. business council (within the Russian-Arabic business council). In SA, large-scale projects are being implemented. JSC LUKOIL Overseas, including within the framework of the joint venture with Saudi Aramco LUKOIL Saudi Arabia Energy (LUKSAR), Stroytransgaz JSC, Globalstroy-Engineering CJSC, etc.

Russian-Saudi sphere relations in the historical in retrospect, is not free today, however, from the problems that complicate mutual understanding between the two countries. Saud. public and private funds under the slogan of "Islamic solidarity" actively acted on growing. Sev. Caucasus, providing financial support to the Chech. separatists. Only on Sept. In 2003, while in Moscow, Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz stated that Chech. the question is "int. business ”of Russia, and contributed to the further design of the growing. membership in the OIC as an observer country (since the end of June 2005). SA is wary of Iran. nuclear program, believing that the ongoing negotiations around it do not sufficiently take into account its interests and the interests of the GCC countries. Most means. an irritant in the region of Russian-Saudi. relations is the situation in Syria, in respect of which S.A. insists on the resignation of B. Assad and the transfer of power to the Nat. coalition forces ser. opposition and revolution.

economy

SA is a high-income developing country. The volume of GDP is 1616.0 billion dollars (2014, in purchasing power parity; 14th place in the world, 1st among Arab countries); in terms of GDP per capita, 52.5 thousand dollars (high per capita income is determined by a relatively small population and significant income from oil exports). Human Development Index 0.836 (2013; 34th out of 187 countries).

The basis of the economy is oil production and export (43% of GDP, 2014; St. 80% of the state budget revenue) and petrochemical. prom. Dynamics of GDP in mean. largely driven by oil prices. Wed real GDP growth rate in 2000–08 was 5.1%, in 2009 – 1.8%, in 2010 – 7.4%, in 2011 – 8.6%, in 2012 – 5.8%, in 2013 – 3 ,eight%.

Since the 1990s much attention is paid to the diversification of the structure of the economy and the liberalization of the economy with an increase in the role of private entrepreneurship. The development of the economy is carried out on the basis of 5-year plans. Great progress has been made in the development of petrochemicals. prom-sti, infrastructure, energy, desalination sea. water, some industries in the field of light and food industry, as well as in health care. The development of new branches of industry is facilitated by tax concessions, benefits for natural gas, electricity, etc. One of Ch. obstacles to further diversification of the economy – unpreparedness b. part of the economically active population to work in non-prestigious specialties (the main part of those employed in the industry are foreign workers).

The volume of accumulated direct foreign investment approx. 240.6 billion dollars (2013; in market prices), the total amount of external debt is estimated at 149.4 billion dollars. Inflation rate ca. 3.7% (2013). S. A. has large foreign. assets (approx. 737.6 billion dollars, 2014), which are managed by sovereign national. investment funds. As part of the attraction of foreign investment in 2005, the country joined the WTO, the government began to create several "economic. cities" in various regions of the country.

In connection with the decline in oil prices in 2013-14, the surplus of state. budget in 2013 decreased to 54.9 billion dollars (103 billion dollars in 2012), the budget in 2014 was reduced to a deficit of 14.4 billion dollars.

In the structure of GDP, the share of industry is 59.7%, services - 38.3%, with. farming and fisheries - 2.0% (2014).

Industry

Modern manufacturing industries are in their infancy (in 2009–12, the total number of enterprises increased from 4,887 to 6,519). Main role in prom. production is played by mining (main arr. oil and natural gas production) and petrochemical. prom. The electric power industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, the production of building materials, and light and food industries also stand out. In the beginning. 21st century the automotive, electrical, pharmaceutical, and pulp and paper industries are developing. According to the number of employees, petrochemical companies are distinguished. (142.6 thousand people, 2012) and food (114.4) industry.

Prom. enterprises are built in complexes (the so-called industrial or economic cities; 14 in 2007, 28 in 2012; the largest - in Yanbu al-Bahra, Medina district; Al-Jubail and Ras al-Khair, both - r -n East) with pre-prepared productions. and social infrastructure and are located Ch. arr. by sea perimeter of the country.

Fuel industry

The basis of the fuel industry is the extraction and processing of oil. The industry is managed by the Supreme Petroleum Council [includes state. Saudi Arabian Oil Co. ("Saudi Aramco"; the world's largest in terms of oil reserves and production) and "Saudi Basic Industries Corporation" (SABIC)]. S.A. is a key member. Organizations of the Petroleum Exporting Countries(approx. 1/3 of the total production of the countries included in the organization).

Oil production 542.3 million tons (2012; 1st place in the world); main the region is the Al-Khasa lowland and the adjacent shelf zone of the Persian Gulf. (in terms of production volumes, deposits are distinguished in the Vostochny region: Gavar, Saffania-Khafji, Khurais, Manifa, Sheiba, Katif, Khursania, Zuluf, Abqaiq, etc.); south of Riyadh, several are being developed. new deposits of ultra-light oil. Oil export 378.6 million tons (2013; 1st place in the world). Approx. 101.4 million tons of crude oil (2012; production of fuel oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, jet fuel, lubricating oils, etc.).

The world's largest complex for primary oil refining is in Abqayk (Buqayk, Vostochny district; Saudi Aramco company; capacity is 348.5 million tons per year; about 70% of produced oil is processed; incl. in light and ultralight oils). The largest refineries in the cities: Ras Tannura (Vostochny district; capacity of approx. 26 million tons of crude oil per year), Rabig (Mecca district), Yanbu el-Bahr (both - approx. 19 million tons ), Al Jubail (about 15 million tons).

Natural gas production 111 billion m 3 (2012; according to other data, 93 billion m 3 ; approx. 70% - associated gas from the Gavar, Saffaniya-Khafji and Zuluf fields; it is planned to increase production through the development of the Karan, Wasit and other fields .). There are plants for processing and liquefying natural gas (total capacity of over 61 million tons in 2013) in Abqaiq, Yanbu el-Bahr, Harad, Hawiya (the last two are in the Vostochny region), etc.

Power industry

Electricity production approx. 292.2 billion kWh (2013; more than doubled compared to 2000); 100% is generated at thermal power plants, the largest: Riyadh (in Riyadh; capacity 5336 MW), Gazlan (in Ras Tannur; 4128 MW), Kuraya (in Abqaiq, 3927 MW). The increase in demand for electricity is due to the development of industry, population growth and high energy consumption for air cooling in the summer months (approx. 2 / 3 of the consumption in the residential sector). Solar energy is developing. The industry is controlled by the Saudi Electricity Company and regional power generation companies, and there are also several operating companies. independent generating companies.

At thermal power plants, desalination plants operate. installation. S.A. is one of the world's leading producers of desalinated water (the development of the industry is of great importance due to the acute shortage of natural fresh water resources); desalinate. installations provide up to 60% of nat. needs (2013; the leading company is the state-owned Saline Water Conversion Corporation).

Ferrous metallurgy

Ferrous metallurgy is represented by the extraction of iron ores (760 thousand tons in terms of metal, 2012), the direct reduction of iron (5.7 million tons), steel smelting (5.2 million tons) and the production of ferroalloys (196 thousand tons). t). S.A. imports means. part of iron ores and rolled metal products. The following plants operate: rolling [with a capacity of 5.5 million tons of rolled steel per year in Al Jubail, as part of the leading national. Saudi Iron and Steel Company ("Hadeed"); power approx. 800 thousand tons in Dammam, etc.], pipe rolling (jointly owned by ArcelorMittal and Bin Jarallah Group; seamless pipes, including large diameter pipes, for the oil and gas industry; approx. 500 thousand . t; in Al Jubail), ferroalloys (Gulf Ferro Alloys Company; in Al Jubail), for the production of steel reinforcement [in Jeddah (1.1 million tons per year) and Al Kharjah, district Riyadh (755.5 thousand tons), both - as part of one of the leading national. Rajhi Steel Industries Co.], billets (950 thousand tons), coils (250 thousand tons; both are part of Rajhi Steel Industries Co., Jeddah), slabs, etc.

Non-ferrous metallurgy

Non-ferrous metal ores are being mined (thousand tons, 2012): bauxite (760; deposits of Ez-Zabir, Khail district, and El-Bayta, El-Qasim district), zinc (15, in terms of metal; deposits El-Masan, Najran district; El-Amar, Riyadh district; Mahd al-Dahab, Medina district), etc.; as well as (t, 2012) silver (7.9), gold (4.3); Medina). Metallurgical the complex in Ras al-Khair is one of the largest in the world [jointly owned by the national "Saudi Arabian Mining Company" ("Ma'aden") and Amer. Alcoa; power approx. 1.8 million tons of alumina and approx. 740 thousand tons of primary aluminum]. Plants for the enrichment of gold ore in Bulgakh and Suhaybarat (Medina district). Smelting (t, 2013): zinc 28.0, copper approx. 10.0, lead St. 0.5, etc. (main sample from imported raw materials). Production of aluminum foil and containers, copper wire, etc.

mechanical engineering

The automotive industry is actively developing. There are car assembly plants in Dammam (Isuzu trucks) and Jeddah (Mercedes-Benz trucks); production of automotive parts and components. Issue diff. equipment (energy; for the oil and gas industry - production and technology center of the American company "General Electric" in Dammam), cable products, assembly of household appliances, etc. Shipbuilding, ship repair and aircraft repair enterprises, mechanical. workshops.

Chemical industry

The organization and management of the industry is carried out by Ch. arr. nat. SABIC holding; b. h. petrochemical. plants are located in the cities of Al-Jubail (as part of Al-Jubail Petrochemical Company, a joint venture between SABIC and the American Exxon Mobil, Saudi Japanese Acrylonitrile Company, a joint venture between SABIC and Japanese corporations Asahi Kasei Chemicals and Mitsubishi, etc.) and Yanbu el-Bahre (including the complex of the Saudi Kayan Petrochemical Company with a capacity of up to 5.6 million tons of products per year) (operating in cooperation with refineries).

Main organic products. synthesis (production capacity, million tons per year, 2014): ethylene 19.5 (3rd place in the world; approx. 11% of world production), polyethylene approx. 18.4 (including high pressure approx. 3.5), methanol approx. 8.9, ammonia approx. 7.9, propylene St. 6.5, polypropylene approx. 5.6, urea 5.5, ethylene glycol 4.3, ethylene oxide 3.3, styrene 2.5, etc.

An important place is occupied by the release of the miner. fertilizers: phosphate fertilizers (based on phosphorites of the El-Jalamid deposit, El-Khudud-el-Shamaliyya district; it includes an enrichment plant with a capacity of 5 million tons of concentrate per year), nitrogen, etc.; main centers - Al Jubail and Ras al-Khair.

Production of sulfuric acid in Ras al-Khair and Yanbu el-Bahr, phosphoric acid and nitrogen - in Ras al-Khair, chlorine, caustic. soda and hydrochloric acid - near Dammam, titanium dioxide - in Yanbu el-Bahr and Jizan, magnesia - near Medina. Production of polymer films (including polyethylene and polypropylene) and materials, plastic products (including a plant for the production of plastic pipes in Riyadh), thermoplastic. resin, dec. coatings, prom. adhesives, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and sanitary and hygienic. products.

Building materials industry

The building materials industry is based on its own. raw materials. Mining (million tons, 2012): limestone (over 49), build. sand and gravel (ca. 27), brick and refractory clay (ca. 6), gypsum (St. 2); as well as (thousand tons, 2012) feldspar (168), kaolin (58, Ez-Zabira deposit), marble (25), etc. Cement production 50 million tons (2012); main plants (capacity, million tons, 2012) - in Al-Khufuf (8.6), Riyadh (6.3), Rabiq (4.8), Yanbu el-Bahra (4.0) and Jal- el-Watah (near Burayda, 4.0).

Woodworking, pulp and paper, light and food industry

The country is rapidly developing woodworking and pulp and paper [including the production of furniture, cardboard (the factory of the leading regional manufacturer - the MEPCO company in Jeddah), paper (Dammam)], light (especially the production of clothing; a large the role is played by handicraft enterprises - textile, weaving, carpet weaving, leather and footwear, jewelry, pottery, etc.; , bakery and tobacco products, processing of agricultural raw materials, including dates, fish, etc.) industry. Polygraphic enterprises.

Agriculture

Since the 1960s the state plays a leading role in the development of the industry: the introduction of modern. technologies and techniques; state programs to provide peasants with land allotments, issuance of interest-free loans and compensation for the purchase of equipment, seeds and fertilizers; supporting purchase prices for cereals and dates; providing benefits and subsidies to livestock breeders (increasing the breeding stock at the expense of the state, importing feed and livestock from abroad), encouraging private initiative.

The production is dominated by large companies. Possibilities of conducting with. xva limited natural and climatic. conditions (rainfed agriculture is possible on lands in the southwestern part of the country).

In structure of page - x. of land (million ha, 2011) out of 173.4, 170.0 fall on pastures, 3.2 on arable land, and 0.2 on perennial plantations. S.A. is self-sufficient in some types of food, but cannot achieve full self-sufficiency (up to 80% of food is imported, 2012).

Leading industry with x-va - crop production. It develops in large oases (El-Khasa in the Eastern region, Ed-Dawasir in the Riyadh region, etc.) and on irrigated lands (in the regions of Asir, Riyadh, El-Qasim, Eastern, etc.) and also in greenhouses. Ch. s.-x. culture - date palm. Collection of dates 1065 thousand tons (2013; 3rd place in the world); they also grow wheat, vegetables, fruits, etc.

In animal husbandry, there are large modern. feed farms. Dairy and beef cattle breeding is concentrated around Riyadh, in the El Qasim and East regions. Traditional camel breeding, sheep breeding and horse breeding (spread in the interior of the country and in mountainous regions). Poultry farming. Beekeeping. Livestock (million heads of livestock, 2013): sheep 11.5, goats 3.4, cattle 0.5, camels 0.3. Production (thousand tons, 2013): milk 2338.0, meat 802.8, hides and skins 51.5, wool 11.5. Fishing; fishing for pearls and sponges in the Persian Gulf, mining for black coral and amber.

Services sector

Allocated (billion dollars, 2012) state. services (90.2), wholesale and retail trade, restaurant and hotel business (58.4), financial and business services (55.6), transport and logistics. services and communications (about 31.0), social and personal services (about 12.0). The country's financial system is regulated by the SA Monetary Agency (Central Bank, 1957; in Riyadh); the largest commercial banks - state National commercial bank (1953; Jeddah), state. Al Rajhi, Riyad (both in Riyadh) and others. Saud. stock exchange (Tadawul; the only one in the country; in Riyadh). In 2014, 16.7 million people visited the country. (St. 55% - from Arab countries), revenues amounted to 9.2 billion dollars. Main. types of inbound tourism - religious (36.7% in 2012; mainly from Jordan and Pakistan; main centers - Mecca and Medina), business (18.6%), visiting relatives and friends (17.7%).

Transport

Main mode of transport is automobile. The total length of roads is 221.4 thousand km, including 47.5 thousand km with a hard surface (2006). Ch. highways pass through settlements, and also connect S.A. with Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. A dam bridge (length approx. 25 km) connects SA with Bahrain. The total length of railways is 1378 km (2008). Several international airports (the largest are in Jeddah and Riyadh). Aviation passenger turnover transport 68 million people (2013). Mor. transport serves Ch. arr. foreign trade transportation. Mor. the fleet consists of 72 vessels (2010; including 45 tankers). Ch. sea ports (cargo turnover, million tons in 2012): Jeddah 62.7, Al Jubail 52.8, Yanbu el-Bahr 40.0, Dammam 27.4, Ras al-Khair 2.3, Jizan 1.5 , Duba (Diba) 1.1 (Medina district). An extensive network of pipelines has been created. The total length of oil pipelines is 5117 km [including the Trans-Arabian Abqaiq - Yanbu el-Bahr (“Petroline”, or East-West) with a length of approx. 1200 km from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf. to oil refineries and ports of the Red metro station; underwater from the fields of S. A. to Bahrain], oil pipelines 1150 km (Dahran - Riyadh, length approx. 380 km; Riyadh - Qasim, length approx. 354 km, etc.), gas pipelines 2940 km (Abqaiq - Yanbu al-Bahr, etc.), for the transportation of liquefied natural gas - 1183 km (Abqaiq - Yanbu el-Bahr, etc.), condensate - 209 km (2013). Metro in Mecca and Riyadh (under construction, 2015).

International trade

The balance of foreign trade turnover is traditionally active. The volume of foreign trade turnover (million dollars, 2014) 521.6, including export 359.4, import 162.2. The commodity structure of exports is dominated (% of value, 2013) by the miner. resources 87.5 (main sample oil), chemical products. prom-sti 9.4. Ch. buyers (% value, 2013): China 13.9, USA 13.6, Japan 13.0, Republic of Korea 9.8, India 9.5. Imported (% value, 2013): machinery and transport equipment 43.3, chemical products. prom-sti and diff. metal products 22.9, foodstuffs and agricultural products. goods 14.3. Ch. suppliers (% value, 2013): USA 13.1, China 12.9, India 8.1, Germany 7.4, Republic of Korea 6.1.

Armed forces

The Armed Forces (AF) number 233.5 thousand people. (2014) and consist of 4 types - Ground Forces (SV), Air Force, Air Defense Forces, Navy and independent. kind - missile troops. In addition to the regular army, the armed forces also include nat. guards, border troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (10.5 thousand people), coast guard (4.5 thousand), industrial forces. security (9 thousand people), intended for action in crisis situations. In the threatened period and in the military. time, in the interests of the Armed Forces, a military officer can be involved. formations and divisions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Military annual budget $62 billion (2014 est.). Supreme Commander. The Armed Forces is the head of the state - the king, who exercises overall leadership through the Ministry of Defense, the General Staff and the Military. inspection. The king appoints min. defense, chief of the General Staff and commanders of the Armed Forces.

NE (75 thousand people) - main. aircraft type. The combat strength of the SV includes: brigades (4 armored, 5 mechanized, artillery, airborne), army aviation command (2 aviation brigades), and other units. In service are approx. 600 tanks, 300 armored personnel carriers, 1420 armored personnel carriers, 780 infantry fighting vehicles, 240 towed guns, 60 MLRS, 440 mortars, 2400 ATGM launchers, 900 short-range air defense systems, 1000 MANPADS. Army aviation has 12 combat and 55 multipurpose and transport helicopters.

The Air Force (20,000 people) was organized into commands (operational, supply, etc.) and aviation. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with approx. 300 combat aircraft, including 170 fighter-bombers (7 squadrons) and 110 fighters (6 squadrons). Military transport aviation has 45 aircraft. In addition, there are 16 tanker aircraft, St. 100 combat training and training aircraft. Helicopter aviation has approx. 80 units. The Air Force also includes the Royal Air Wing - 16 aircraft. There are 15 military units in the country. airfields, including 5 Ch. air force bases (Dahran, Al-Taif, Khamis-Mushayt, Tabuk, Riyadh).

Air defense troops (16 thousand people) consist of anti-aircraft missile troops, anti-aircraft artillery and radio engineering units. troops. Organizationally, the air defense forces are consolidated into 6 districts. In the operational subordination of the air defense are fighter-interceptors from the Air Force. The air defense forces are armed with 144 Patriot launchers, 128 Improved Hawk launchers, 141 Shakhin launchers, 40 Krotal self-propelled launchers, 270 anti-aircraft guns and installations, etc.

As part of the Navy (13.5 thousand people) - 2 fleets, in each of them several. groups of ships and boats. In service are 7 URO frigates, 4 corvettes, 9 missile boats, 17 large and 39 small patrol boats, 7 mine-sweeping ships, 8 landing craft, 2 supply vehicles, 13 tugboats; into the sea aviation - 34 helicopters (including 21 combat). Mor. infantry (3 thousand people) is represented by a regiment (2 battalions), armed with 140 armored personnel carriers. Coastal defense troops have 4 batteries of Otomat mobile coastal missile systems. Main naval bases and bases - Jeddah, Al-Jubail, Yanbu-el-Bahr, etc.

The Coast Guard (4.5 thousand people) has 50 patrol boats, 350 motor boats, and a training ship.

National the guard (100 thousand people) includes regular formations (75 thousand people) and detachments of tribes. Her main purpose - the protection of the monarchy. regime, protection of governments. institutions, oil fields and other facilities. Submits directly to the king, is formed in the main. according to the tribal principle, coordinates its actions with the Defense Ministry, the General Staff, security forces and the police. Organizationally it consists of brigades (3 mechanized, 5 infantry) and cavalry. squadron (for ceremonial purposes). Armed with approx. 2000 armored personnel carrier, 514 armored personnel carrier, 70 art. guns, 110 mortars of caliber 81 and 120 mm, St. 120 PU ATGMs.

Manning regular aircraft on a voluntary basis. Men aged 18-35 are accepted for service. Mobilization resources 5.9 million people, including those fit for the military. service 3.4 million people. Armament and military equipment is almost entirely imported (from the US and UK).

The training of privates and sergeants is carried out in training centers and schools, officers - in the academies of the Armed Forces and abroad. Regular aircraft have a large number of foreign aircraft. military specialists.

healthcare

Per 100 thousand inhabitants. there are 94 doctors; 22 hospital beds - per 10 thousand inhabitants. (2011). There are 244 hospitals and 2037 health centers (2009). Adult mortality rate. 3.32 per 1000 inhabitants (2014). Main causes of death are cardiovascular and oncological. disease, diabetes. Total health spending is 3.7% of GDP (2011) (budget funding - 65.8%, private - 34.2%; 2012). Legal regulation of health care is carried out on the basis of Osn. nizam on power (1992), laws on cooperative health insurance (1999), on private honey. laboratories (2002), about labor (2005). The Ministry of Health provides preventive, curative and rehabilitation services. honey. aid and funding. For citizens of S.A. honey. help is free. In the healthcare system, primary, secondary and tertiary levels of honey are distinguished. service. There is also Islamic Cooperative Health Insurance (Takaful). Main recreation areas - Al-Khobar, Dammam, Jeddah, etc.

Sport

The Olympic Committee of S. A. was founded and recognized by the IOC in 1964. Since 1972, athletes of S. A. have been participating in the Olympic Games (with the exception of the games in Moscow, 1980); 3 medals won - silver in the 400 m hurdles (Hadi al-Somaili in Sydney, 2000) and 2 bronze (Khaled al-Eid, individual show jumping championship in 2000 and team show jumping championship in London, 2012). The most popular sport is football. The SA Football Federation was founded in 1956. The SA football team is a 3-time winner (1984, 1988, 1996) and a 3-time finalist (1992, 2002, 2007) of the Asian Cup; in 1994 played in 1 / 8 of the world championship. The capital club "Al-Hilal" (1957) - one of the strongest in Asia, 13-time champion of the country (1977-2011), accepts opponents at the stadium. King Fahd (about 62 thousand seats).

Athletes from SA since 1978 (with the exception of 1998) have been participating in the Asian Games; in 1978–2014, 24 gold, 11 silver and 20 bronze medals were won.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

The education system in S.A. took shape by the end. 20th century Regulatory documents - Document on education. politics (1969) and Strategic. plan of the Ministry of Education (2004–14). Preparation of prof. personnel is administered by the Corporation for prof.-tech. education, higher education - Ministry of Higher Education. Education is free at all levels. The education system includes: preschool education (poorly developed), 6-year primary education, 5-year (3-year incomplete and 2-year full) education. 3-year prof.-tech. education is provided in junior colleges. Preschool education covered (2013) 13.2% of children, primary education - 93.4%, secondary education - 90.1%. The literacy rate of the population aged 15 years and over is 96% (data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). Higher education is provided by high fur boots, higher technical. in-you, colleges of technology, pedagogical. colleges, colleges for girls. The country has St. 20 universities: Islamic Univ. imam Mohammed ibn Saud (1950, current status since 1974), Univ. King Saud (1957) - both in Riyadh, Univ. of oil and miner. resources to them. King Fahd in Dhahran (1963, current status since 1975), Univ. King Faisal (has branches in Dammam and El-Hofuf) (1975), University of Science and Technology. King Abdullah (2009; 80 km from Jeddah), as well as the universities of Dammam, Jeddah, Medina, Mecca and others. The largest libraries: National (1968) and public them. King Abd al-Aziz (1999) - both in Riyadh, King Abd al-Aziz in Medina (1983) and others. museum in Riyadh (1999).

Among the scientific institutions: Research Center. King Abd al-Aziz (1972) and the Center for Research and Study of Islam. King Faisal (1983) - both in Riyadh; Center for Research in Islamic Education in Mecca (1980), Institute for Islamic Studies in Jeddah (1982).

Mass media

Arabic daily newspapers are published. lang.: "Al-Jazeera" ("Peninsula"; since 1960; circulation approx. 123 thousand copies, Riyadh), "Al-Bilad" ("Country"; since 1934; approx. 30 thousand copies). copies, Jeddah), Al-Madina (Medina; since 1937; approx. . copies, Jeddah), "An-Nadwa" ("Club"; since 1958; approx. 30 thousand copies., Mecca), "Al-Yaum" ("Day"; since 1965; approx. 135 thousand copies, Dammam). In English. lang. daily newspapers are published: Arab News (since 1975; approx. 51 thousand copies), Saudi Gazette (since 1976; approx. 50 thousand copies, both in Jeddah). Broadcasting since 1948, television since 1964. Television and radio broadcasts are carried out by the Broadcasting Service of S. A. (Riyadh), the Government Television Service of S. A. (Riyadh), Aramco Radio (Dahran), Dahran TV ( Dhahran). National information Saudi Press Agency (founded in 1970, Riyadh).

Literature

The literature of the peoples of SA is created in Arabic. language. Before gaining statehood, S.A. developed in line with the Arab Muslim culture; in the beginning. 20th century presented in the main poetry in classical Arab. lang., as well as prose. works of religious, historical and didactic character. In con. 1920s - early. 1930s signs of renewal are noticeable: in poetry, which reflected the influence of the literature of Egypt, romanticism was born. An important role in the development of prose was played by the writer, published in Medina since 1937. "al-Manhal", which published translations of stories from the West. and east. languages; its publishers Abd al-Quddus al-Ansari and Ahmed Rida Khuhu pioneered the genre of the story, which initially had an exclusively didactic-sentimental character. The novels of Abd al-Quddus al-Ansari (The Twins, 1930), Mohammed Maghribi (The Resurrection, 1942), Ahmed Rida Khuhu (The Girl from Mecca, 1947) and Ahmed al-Sibai (The Thought, 1948), who propagandized education. and cultural reforms.

From the beginning 1950s realism began to take hold; received graduation. decoration of modern prosaic genres, literature acquired pronounced nat. features determined by the characteristics of culture, life, socio-political. life. Striving. changes in lifestyle were reflected in the novels Hamid Damanhuri's The Price of Sacrifice (1959; in Russian translation 1966 Love and Duty) and Ibrahim al-Humeidan's A Hole in the Night (1959), which identified the main themes of realism. prose - the conflict of "fathers" and "children", the modernization of societies. mores. Among the most prominent realist prose writers are Abd ar-Rahman ash-Shair, Sibai Usman, Najat Khayyat. A characteristic feature of realism. prose - autobiography: the novels of Fuad Ankawi, Isam Khaukir, Abd al-Aziz Mishri, as well as Turki al-Hamad's trilogy Ghosts in Deserted Alleys (1995–98).

From the 2nd floor. 1970s modernist aesthetics is established. Interest in the subconscious, the construction of a subjective, often irrational image of the world turned out to be a convenient way to overcome censorship obstacles. The expression of unconscious desires, manias and obsessive states of an “alienated” person who has lost faith in the rationality of the surrounding world is at the center of the stories of Mohammed Alvan, Hussein Ali Hussein, Jarallah al-Hamid, Sad al-Dawsari, Abdallah Bakhashwein, Nura al-Ghamedi, Badria al-Bishr, Layla al-Uhaidib. The connection of modern Narrative forms with folklore techniques are distinguished by the work of Miriam al-Gamedi, Hassan al-Nimi, Sultana al-Sideiri.

A wide variety of styles is inherent in lit-re con. 20 - early. 21st century: Ahmed al-Duweikhi's novel "Reyhan" (1991) appears as a mosaic of scenes snatched from different points in space and time; a mixture of modernity with Arabic. Wed-century. heritage and the novels "The Fortress" by Abd al-Aziz Mishri (1992) and "The Silk Road" by Raja Alem (1995) are marked by legends. The novel The Return (2006) by Warda Abd al-Malik uses the technique stream of consciousness. Great popularity in Arabic. The novels "She Throws Sparks" by Abdo Hal (2008) and "Necklace of Doves" by Raja Alem (2010) have won worldwide.

Architecture and fine arts

Artistic Since ancient times, SA culture has developed in oases connected by caravan routes. The oldest artifacts date back to the early Lower Paleolithic (stone tools). In the Neolithic era, ceramics, objects made of obsidian, petroglyphs with scenes of hunting and rituals, figures of people and animals (the Jubba oasis near the city of Khail) appeared. From the 6th millennium BC. e. there is an increase in cultural ties with the South. Mesopotamia, as evidenced by the finds of Ubeid painted pottery in the northeast. parts of the country. From con. 4th millennium BC e. Bronze tools, stone vessels with carved decor, and painted ceramics with zoomorphic and geometrical decoration are becoming widespread. ornament, carved seals of the Mesopotamian type; monumental buildings appear (sanctuaries, tower tombs), stone sculpture (tombstone anthropomorphic steles from the vicinity of the city of Hail and the oasis of El-Ula, late 4th - 3rd millennium BC). Monuments of the 1st floor. 1st millennium BC e. (for example, the ruins of religious buildings and the palace of the Babylonian king Nabonidus in the Tayma oasis, mid-6th century BC) testify to increased contacts with Assyria and Babylonia. In the north of the country there are monuments of the kingdom of Lihyan (oasis of El-Ula - ancient Dedan, 5-2 centuries BC) and Nabataean kingdom(Hegra city, modern Madain Saleh, 2nd century BC - 1st century AD; included in the list world heritage): rectangular in terms of the sanctuary, rock tombs with jagged facades (2nd century BC - 1st century AD), fragments of stone statues with generalized rough facial features and reliefs with images of animals. At the turn of the 1st millennium BC. e. - 1st millennium AD e. in the department regions of SA in wall painting, bronze sculpture, and jewelry, the influence of Greco-Roman is manifested. culture (finds from the excavations of Karyat el-Fau, etc.). The largest Hellenistic an ensemble on the territory of S.A. - the remains of the city and the royal necropolis of Saj near the city of Al-Jubail. From 4th–6th centuries ruins have been preserved. Christian buildings (church near Al Jubail). From Wed.-Century. Islamic architecture of SA few monuments survived in the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, also in the places of pilgrimages. Gor. building ser. 18 - beg. 20th century bears the features of the Ottoman and Egyptian. influences. Traditional residential architecture is represented by buildings made of mud brick (in the hinterland) or coral limestone and wood (in the Hijaz and on the coast of the Red Sea), lined with plaster, on a stone base, from trees. beam covering. Jeddah and Medina are characterized by tower houses with flat roofs, wood. lattices (mashrabiya) on the balconies, for Abhi - houses with cornices (from rain).

After the formation of an independent state of SA in Riyadh, Jeddah and other cities, along with traditional. building, with ser. 20th century multi-storey buildings appear. type, with the use of concrete. Since the 1970s construction is underway with the involvement of foreign architects and urban planners (master plans for 10 cities in the northern and central parts of the country, the firm of K. A. Doxiadis), on the site of the historical. buildings are being built modern. neighborhoods with buildings international style but with elements of tradition. Islamic architecture (mosques in Jeddah, architect Abdel Wahid al-Wakil). New types of societies are emerging. buildings (al-Khairiya complex, 1982, architect Tange Kenzo; construction of the international airports named after King Khalid in Riyadh, 1983, and in Jeddah, 1981, architect bureau Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, International Stadium named after . King Fahd in Riyadh, 1987, etc.). From con. 20th century in connection with the reconstruction of the Sacred Mosque in Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina and the creation of numerous pilgrimage complexes, mountains. ensembles are intensively developed modern. builds. technology and sunscreen designs, decorative materials. Among the newest buildings are the Faisalia Tower (2000, architect N. Foster and others), the Royal Center Tower (2003, both in Riyadh).

Modern painting and sculpture SA are developing from the 2nd floor. 20th century (A. Radvi, M. Mossa al-Salim, F. Samra and others). Nar. the claim is presented by tradition. jewelry, amulets, leather and wool products.

culture

Culture is strongly associated with Islam, public theaters, cinemas, secular music concerts are prohibited. Since 1985, an annual nat has been held near Riyadh. festival "Genadria" (folk music and dances, in which only men participate; poetry, painting, etc.).

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, whose population dates back to the second millennium BC (it was then that the indigenous Arab tribes occupied the entire Arabian Peninsula), is today the main member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. The state ranks second in the world in the extraction and export of oil and oil products. In addition, referring to Mecca and Medina - the main holy cities of Islam - Saudi Arabia is called the Land of the Two Holy Mosques. It is the rich deposits of black gold and the penetration of religion into many areas of life that distinguish the kingdom.

General information about Saudi Arabia

The state from which Islam spread occupies about 80% of the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Most of the country is occupied by desert areas, foothills and mountains of medium height, so that less than 1% of the land is suitable for cultivation. The Arabian Peninsula is one of the few places on Earth where the air temperature constantly exceeds 50 degrees in summer.

The capital of Saudi Arabia is Riyadh. Other major cities are Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, Em Dammam, Al Hofuf. There are 27 settlements with a population of more than 100 thousand people, and four cities with a population of one million. The capital of Saudi Arabia is traditionally not only the administrative, but also the political, scientific, educational and business center of the country. Religious and cultural centers, shrines of the state - Mecca and Medina.

The official symbols are the flag of Saudi Arabia, the coat of arms and the anthem. The flag is a green cloth with a sword, symbolizing the victories of the founder of the state, and an inscription - the Muslim creed (shahada). Interestingly, the flag of Saudi Arabia is never flown at half mast for mourning. Also, the image cannot be applied to clothes and souvenirs, since the shahada is considered sacred to Muslims.

The king of Saudi Arabia, who today rules the state, is a direct descendant of the first king, Abdulaziz. The power of Salman ibn Abdul-Aziz Al Saud of the Saudi dynasty is actually limited only by Sharia law. Important government decisions are made by the king in consultation with a group of religious leaders and other respected members of Saudi society.

Current demographic situation

The population of Saudi Arabia as of 2014 was 27.3 million people. About 30% of them are visitors, while the indigenous population are Saudi Arabs. After a brief stabilization of demographic indicators in 2000 at around 20 million people, the population of Saudi Arabia began to grow again. In general, there are no sharp jumps in population in the dynamics of the population of the kingdom.

Other relevant demographics for Saudi Arabia are as follows:

• birth rate - 18.8 per 1000 people;
• mortality - 3.3 per 1000 people;
• total fertility rate - 2.2 children per woman;
• natural population growth - 15.1;
• migration growth of the population - 5.1 per 1000 people.

Density of inhabitants and nature of settlement

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers an area of ​​2,149,610 square kilometers. By territory, the state is the 12th in the world and the first among the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. These data, as well as a rough estimate of the population for 2015, allow us to calculate the population density. The figure is 12 people per square kilometer.

Most of the people of Saudi Arabia are concentrated in cities. Firstly, the relief and climate of the Arabian Peninsula make it possible to comfortably exist only within the oases around which the largest cities of the state were once formed. Secondly, a significant proportion of the urban population is due to the structure of the economy, where agriculture takes a very small part, due to the meager percentage of land suitable for growing plants and livestock.

The urbanization rate in the kingdom is 82.3% and the corresponding rate is 2.4% per annum. More than five million people live in the capital of Saudi Arabia. The total population of the remaining three million-plus cities is another six million Saudis. Thus, in the four largest cities of the kingdom, eleven million people out of 31.5 (estimated for 2015), which is approximately 35% of the country's inhabitants, live.

Religious affiliation of the population

Saudi Arabia, whose population is highly religious, is officially an Islamic state. Islam as the state religion is enshrined in the first article of the Basic Law of the State. Muslims are 92.8% of the population of Saudi Arabia. By the way, non-Islamic tourists are banned from entering Mecca and Medina.

Christianity is the second most followed religion in the kingdom. The number of Christians is about 1.2 million, the majority of whom are foreigners. Quite often, cases of harassment of adherents of other religions (non-Muslims) are recorded in the country - Saudi Arabia is in sixth place among the states where the rights of Christians are most often harassed.

Atheism in the kingdom is considered a grave sin and is equated with terrorism, so it is impossible to estimate the exact number of non-believers in the country. The American Institute of Public Opinion, based on polls, cites the following data: 5% of Saudis are convinced atheists, about 19% call themselves unbelievers. Profile publications publish smaller numbers, indicating only 0.7% in the column "atheists and non-believers".

Sex and age structure of the population

Saudi Arabia, whose population is mostly of working age, is characterized by a progressive (or growing) type of sex and age pyramid. This is better seen in a simplified scheme, where only three categories of citizens are distinguished: children and adolescents (up to the full age of 14), the working-age population (from 15 to 65 years old) and the elderly (over 65 years old).

The working-age population is about 22 million people, which is 67.6% of the total number of Saudis. There are 9.6 million or 29.4% of children and adolescents in the state, only 3% fall to the share of elderly people, this group is 0.9 million people. In general, the dependent part of the citizens (children and pensioners who are supported by the adult population) has 32.4% of Saudis. Such indicators form a not particularly significant social burden on society.

Saudi Arabia, whose population traditionally oppresses the fair sex, is distinguished by an almost equal gender structure of the population. The country has 55% men and 45% women.

Women's rights in Saudi Arabia

Women's rights are severely restricted in a country like Saudi Arabia. The population is deeply religious, so it follows all religious norms. For example, women are prohibited from driving a car, voting, using public transport without being accompanied by a husband or male relative, or communicating with men (with the exception of relatives and a husband). The fair sex is required to wear long dark robes, and in some regions only the eyes are allowed to be left open.

The quality of education for women in Saudi Arabia is worse than for men. In addition, female students receive smaller scholarships than their male counterparts. And in general, the fair sex does not have the right to study, work or travel outside the country, unless their husband or close male relative has allowed them to do so. Even for rape in Saudi Arabia, a woman can be punished, not a criminal. In this case, the victim is charged with “provocation to rape” or violation of the dress code.

Saudi Arabia, whose population gives the main prerogative to men, adheres to the principles of sexual segregation. So, for example, houses have separate entrances for women and men, restaurants are divided into several zones (women's, men's and family), celebrations are held with separation, and studies for students of different sexes are held at different times so that boys and girls do not intersect .

The King of Saudi Arabia has repeatedly announced the imminent empowerment of women with certain rights. For example, he said that he would allow the fair sex to drive as soon as the Saudi society was ready for this step. Of course, it will take a long time to wait for equal rights for women and men in Saudi society (and this simply contradicts the norms of Islam), but there are already some indulgences for the fair sex.

The literacy rate of the inhabitants of the kingdom

Saudi Arabia, whose population is fairly literate (94.4% of citizens over the age of 15 can read and write), has different literacy rates for women and men. Thus, 97% of men and 91% of women can read and write, which is associated with the traditional oppression of the rights of the fair sex. However, among young people (from 15 to 24 years old), literacy rates are approximately equal: in Saudi Arabia, 99.4% and 99.3% of literate young people and girls, respectively.

Culture in Saudi Arabia

The culture of the kingdom is closely connected with the state religion. Muslims are forbidden to consume pork and alcohol, so mass festivities are practically excluded. In addition, cinemas and theaters are banned in the country, but such establishments exist in areas populated mainly by foreigners. Home video viewing is very common in Saudi Arabia, and Western films are largely uncensored.

The structure of the state economy

The country has 25% of the world's oil reserves, which determines the basis of the economy of a state like Saudi Arabia. Oil provides almost all export earnings (90%). In the last thirty years, industry, transport, and trade have also developed, while the share of agriculture in the economy is very small.

The currency of Saudi Arabia is the Saudi rial. The exchange rate of the monetary unit is pegged to the US dollar at a ratio of 3.75 to 1. In conclusion, information for tourists on how the currency of Saudi Arabia is converted in terms of the currencies of other countries: 100 rials is 1,500 rubles, 25 euros, 26.6 dollars United States of America.

In this review, we will talk about Saudi Arabia, its history and geography, using Saudi primary sources and other materials.

This site review is made up of three parts:

Page 1. Reference section "Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: character traits and terms" prepared by the editors of our resource on Saudi and Western sources.

Page 2. Excerpts from the publication in Russian of the Saudi Ministry of Information "Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: History, Civilization and Development: 60 Years of Achievement".

Page 3. Several fragments from the "History of Saudi Arabia" by Russian researcher Alexei Vasiliev.

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: characteristics and terms

The emblem of the Saudi Ministry of Information, combining a palm tree and archaic sabers of the Saudi coat of arms with the ultra-modern television tower of Riyadh - the architectural symbol of the Saudi capital.

The emblem adorned one of the first publications in Russian of the Ministry, published after the resumption of diplomatic relations in the 1990s - a book in a small album format, but quite detailed "The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: History, Civilization and Development: 60 Years of Achievement", on which we will focus more details in the second part of this review.

desert

Ranked 13th in the world in terms of area (2,218,000 km²), this large country is mostly arid desert areas.

Despite the urban culture that has always been present in the history of Saudi Arabia and dominates today, the country declares its Bedouin culture as its basis. Bedouin from the Arabic word "badavi" - "desert dweller, nomad."

The most famous desert of Saudi Arabia Al-Rub Al-Khali - "Empty Quarter".

The Great Nefud (or, otherwise, Nafud) desert lies in the north of the Arabian Peninsula, it is called the younger sister of the Rub al-Khali desert. It is located on the other side of Nej, which on the other side borders on the Rub al-Khali.

Another term from Saudi geography is Wadi (otherwise, Vadis) - a valley or channel (bed) of a river flowing through arid areas, which is filled with water only during the rainy season.

Historical regions of Saudi Arabia, the circumstances of their accession and the current administrative division of the country

Map of Saudi Arabia.

The two most famous deserts of the country are signed in brown here - Al-Rub Al-Khali (RUB AL KHALI) and Nafud (AN NAFUD).

And between them is the natural-historical region of Nej (NAJAD), from where the state of the Saudis began.

We also see on the map the region of Hijaz (AL HIJAZ) with the cities of Mecca and Medina.

After the unification of Nej with Hijaz, Saudi Arabia arises.

Nej and Hijaz are now not reflected in any way on the modern administrative map of Saudi Arabia. Therefore, they are also marked in brown on the map as natural and historical areas.

But the province of Hail was more fortunate. It survived as an administrative entity headed by the provincial center that retained the same name. But Hail was, along with Hijaz, the worst enemy of the ruling house of the Saudis. The city of Hail can be found at the top of this map.

Starting from their family nest - the Nej region, the ruling dynasty of the Saudis gradually annexed all the surrounding state formations of the Arabian Peninsula.

Nedge

Nedge(from the Arabic "highlands") - the central region of Saudi Arabia, the birthplace of the ruling Saudi dynasty. Here is located the capital of the country is Riyadh (ar-Riyāḍ., the name comes from the Arabic word for "gardens".

In the suburbs of Riyadh, there are historical buildings and ruins of the old capital of the Saudis Diriyah (Deriyah). As for the term Nej, it is not currently referred to in Saudi Arabia as a political or administrative unit, but only as a geographical area.

Hijaz - the abolished state of the Sharifs of Mecca

Hijaz (from Arabic “barrier”) is a historical coastal region on the Red Sea, including the desert territory of the same name and the mountains of Hijaz and Asir (from Arabic “difficult”), separating this coast from the central region of Saudi Arabia - Neja.

The Hijaz is home to the two holy Islamic cities of Mecca and Medina..

Saudi publications in Russian

In the 1990s, when diplomatic relations between Saudi Arabia were restored with the USSR and then with Russia, the Saudi Ministry of Information published several illustrated books in Russian. The handbook The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the pamphlet The Two Holy Mosques, and the book The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: History, Civilization and Development: 60 Years of Achievement were published.

We will focus on the latter in more detail in this review.. It opens with a greeting from the then Saudi minister of information, Ali ibn Hasan al-Shaer: "This book is like a garden full of various flowers, or like a traveler who has just arrived in an unfamiliar city and has only an hour of free time"...

The book "The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: History, Civilization and Development: 60 Years of Achievement" is probably the very first Saudi publication about the Kingdom in Russian after the resumption of diplomatic relations. It was published on excellent paper well illustrated.

But it is clear that the Saudi printing house did not even have a Russian font at that time, so just a scanned typewritten set was used. In our illustration (see above, the very first illustration of this review, as well as) from the book with the emblem of the Saudi Ministry of Information, you can see this typewritten set.

There is still a vacuum of information about Saudi Arabia in Russia: the Saudis still do not have official Internet sites in Russian (with the exception of the empty site of the Saudi Arabian embassy).

Radio broadcasting in Russian, unlike some of its Arab neighbors, the country also never conducted (But it is significant that at the same time daily radio programs are conducted from Riyadh via satellite and short waves in Turkmen, Uzbek and Tajik - to the Muslim republics of Central Asia).

So, in order to understand how Saudi Arabia wants to present itself to an audience in Russia, we will limit ourselves to the consideration of the above-mentioned Russian-language Saudi publications. However, we have provided these materials with notes on relevant English-language sources and some other fascinating materials.

Before moving on to the texts from the books of the Saudi Ministry of Information, for a better understanding of the context, we offer a small reference material on the country, prepared by the editors of the site. The topics raised in this background paper are developed in other sections of this review.

From 1519, the Hijaz was part of the Ottoman Empire, while the desert interior of Saudi Arabia continued to be ruled by local Arab tribal leaders.

In 1916, with the help of Britain, an independent state was proclaimed in Hijaz under the leadership of the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali.

The term "sharif" comes from the Arabic meaning "noble". (In English, the spelling is "Sharif of Mecca" - "Sharif of Mecca", but in Russian the name is also sometimes translated as "Sheriff of Mecca"). The Sharifs of Mecca have always been the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad. This position of the manager, or headman of Mecca, appeared during the period of the unified Arab caliphate at the end of the era of the Abbasids, who ruled from Baghdad. The position was retained under the Ottomans. Over the course of history, the Sharifs gradually extended their authority to Medina as well.

The aforementioned Hussein ibn Ali from the Hashemite clan of the descendants of Hashim ibn Abd al-Dar, the grandfather of the Prophet Muhammad, became the last sharif of Mecca, accepting in 1916 the new title of king of all Arabs - “malik bilad - al-arab”. Also in 1924, after the founding of the Republic of Turkey, Hussein ibn Ali proclaimed himself the caliph (from the Arabic word for "viceroy") - the spiritual and secular ruler of all Muslims, taking the title assigned to the Ottoman dynasty of Turkish sultans for many centuries.

During the First World War, being part of the Ottoman Empire, Hijaz sided with the Entente countries, which included Britain, while the Ottoman state was on the opposite side of the front (together with Germany). Britain supported the Arab movement for independence from the Ottomans. The adoption of the title of caliph by Hussein was facilitated by the actions of the republican authorities of the new Turkey, which deprived the Ottoman dynasty of the ruling status, first abolishing the sultanate, and after some time the caliphate in Turkey.

Despite the initial successes of the Sharif's house, he was unable to hold on to power in the Arabian Peninsula and would secure enough British support against the Saudis. As a result, in 1925, the British ally, the ruler of Nej and the future Saudi king, Abdul Aziz ibn Saud, conquered the Hejaz, taking care of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina from the sheriff family.

Hussein ibn Ali was forced to flee to the British colony of Cyprus. He died in 1931. After Hussein, the title of Caliph is again vacant. (Later, Great Britain promoted the proclamation of the sons of Hussein Abdullah and Faisal as kings of the newly formed Turkish provinces of the Arab kingdoms of Syria and Iraq and artificially created between Iraq and Palestine of Jordan. Today, the descendants of the former sheriffs of Mecca are the rulers of only the Kingdom of Jordan. Iraq and Syria are republics).

In turn, the accession of the Hejaz allowed Abdulaziz ibn Saud to proclaim the new kingdom of Nej, Hejaz and the annexed provinces, which in 1932 was renamed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in honor of the ruling dynasty.

Currently, the term Hejaz is not mentioned in Saudi Arabia as a political or administrative unit, but only as a historical region and the name of mountains.

Modern administrative division of Saudi Arabia.

hail

hail, another name for Jabal Shammar is a previously independent state in the northeast of the Arabian Peninsula, ruled by the Rashidite dynasty.

Was the main opponent of the Saudites during their struggle for Riyadh and the hinterland of the peninsula. Conquered by the future king of Saudi Arabia, Abdel-Aziom ibn Saud in 1921.

Now the province of Saudi Arabia Hail in the north-east of the country with the provincial center of the same name.

Al Hasa

Al-Hasa is a previously independent principality, and before that, a territory dependent on the Ottoman authorities. Conquered by Abdul-Aziom ibn Saud around 1921. Now part of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.

Saudi Arabia is now divided into the following provinces: Al-Baha, Al-Hudud al-Shamaliyya, Al-Jawf, Al-Madina, Al-Qasim, Riyadh, Al-Sharqiya (i.e. Eastern Province), Asir, Hail , Jizan, Mecca, Najran, Tabuk. Each province is led by an emir from the Saudi royal family. The modern territorial division is only indirectly connected with the historical division of the country.

Homeland of Islam and the ancestral home of the Arabs

Pictured from the British Daily Mail newspaper: Saudi King Abdullah (right) with Pope Benedict XVI in the Vatican, during the visit of the Saudi monarch to the Papal States in 2007.

At the same time, we note that the king visits the center of the Christian world - the Vatican, despite the fact that the only official opportunity for a non-believer, for example, a Christian, to get into the holy cities of Saudi Arabia, Mecca and Medina, is to announce that he is going there to convert to Islam.

From the Arabian Peninsula, most of which is now occupied by Saudi Arabia, Islam spread throughout the world, and the Arabs began a progressive movement, capturing vast territories of the Near and Middle East and North Africa, as well as the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal).

Two sacred mosques

In Saudi Arabia, there are two sacred Islamic cities of Mecca and Medina, and the Saudi kings in their title consider the following part of it to be the most honorable: “Keeper (trustee) of the two sacred mosques”. (Note that public display of religious feelings of adherents of any religions other than Islam is prohibited in Saudi Arabia.

Also P Under the threat of the death penalty, the conversion from Islam to another faith is prohibited for all Saudi citizens. So all non-Muslims in Saudi Arabia are foreign nationals. . Saudi visas issued to foreign nationals always indicate religion, and according to these data, security posts around these cities filter out non-believers, turning back. The only official way for a non-believer to get into the holy cities is to announce that he is going there to convert to Islam. With all this, in 2007, there was a friendly meeting between the current Saudi king Abdullah and Pope Benedict XVI in the Vatican, where the king arrived on a visit at the invitation of the Pope).

leader of the arab world

Due to its oil revenues, as well as its reputation as the birthplace of Islam and belonging to the mainstream Sunni Islamic movement, the country is increasingly becoming the informal leader of the Arab and Islamic world. (This role is increasingly being ceded to Saudi Arabia by Egypt, previously considered such a leader, but in post-Nasser times, focused on solving its own economic problems and trying to avoid involvement in costly conflicts).

Country of oil. High quality of life

The Saudis may not have been lucky with the fertility of the land, but they were lucky with the minerals of these lands - the country is one of the world's leaders in oil production (it has 25% of the world's oil reserves), which made it possible to provide the country's not very large population (population 28,686,633 people, density −12 people/km²) a very high standard of living (US$25,338 per capita (2007).

Initially, the version about the presence of oil fields in Saudi Arabia was put forward in 1932 by an independent geologist K. Twichel, who visited the country and conducted research on the geological structure.

Officially, oil reserves were confirmed in 1938 by geologists from the American companies Standard Oil of California (SOKAL) and Texas Company (future Texaco). These companies still had to persuade the Saudi king that oil was good for the future of his country. But in the end, these companies got the right to work in Saudi Arabia. One of the reasons for the victory of American companies over the British in the right to obtain a concession for oil exploration and production is believed to be that the United States did not have an imperial past in the Middle East, and King Abdulaziz ibn Saud was less afraid for the independence of his country, collaborating with Americans.

The Saudi publication cited above, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: History, Civilization and Development: 60 Years of Achievement, writes about a significant oil date in the history of their country:

"Black gold" - oil was discovered in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia in 1357 Hijri (in 1938 according to the Greek calendar). The first ten thousand barrels of crude oil were exported on 11 Rabi al-Awwal, 1358 Hijri (05/01/1938 GR.). Due to the Second World War, oil production was suspended and was resumed after it ended ...

The discovery of oil in Saudi Arabia was a good omen for the young state, which suffered in the past from a lack of natural resources. Income from oil production has become a powerful basis for the development of the country ... "

Oil made it possible to create from scratch all the material elements for the life of modern society, and at the highest level: hospitals, schools, roads, entire cities.

The country is also trying to develop non-oil industries at the expense of oil money. A number of large industrial zones with enterprises of the metallurgical, petrochemical, and pharmaceutical industries have been built.

Already in the early 1990s, Saudi Arabia ranked first in the world in the field of seawater desalination.. Then the level of production reached 500 million gallons of drinking water per day with the help of 27 desalination plants located along the western and eastern coasts of the country. At the same time, these installations produced more than 3,500 megawatts of electricity.

With the help of projects for the use of groundwater and desalination of sea water, agriculture is being developed. For example, already in the 1990s, the country ranked first in the world in the production of dates. 500 thousand tons were produced per year. The number of palm trees was about 13 million. At the same time, the country took the 6th place in the world among producers and exporters of wheat. The country is fully self-sufficient in dairy products, eggs and poultry.

Middle Ages today

Despite the fact that the Saudis are known as actively moving around the world and technologically advanced people, and the country pursues a generally pro-Western foreign policy, at the same time, in the sphere of morals, Saudi Arabia represents a real reserve of the past.

Slavery was abolished in 1962. By its decree of November 7, issued that year, the government announced the ransom of all remaining slaves from their owners at a price of $700 per slave and $1,000 per slave. Most of the owners were indignant at such a half-price of the market value, as the American magazine Newsweek wrote at the time, and simply set the slaves free without asking for compensation from the government, because. in any case, after July 7, 1963, all slaves automatically became free.

Despite the fact that slavery in the country is already in the past, the Saudi state and society still has many features that seem to be a thing of the past.

Until now, on one of the squares of the capital of the country, Riyadh, public executions are carried out by cutting off the head. Also practiced in the country, for example, lashing and stoning (such punishment is provided for in particular for women for treason), according to Sharia law. Marriages of Saudi citizens with foreigners are prohibited without special permission, who, as noted above, are not allowed into the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Recall that Saudi nationals are prohibited from preaching any other faith, except Islam.

For years, the Saudi government has fought the country's radical theologians about allowing women to be broadcasters on television. As a result, female presenters are present in the programs of both the first Arabic-language and the second international English-language channels of Saudi television. These channels, as well as Saudi radio in many languages, are now also available on satellite and on the Internet. But as before, the presenters of the programs, both men and women, are required to be dressed in medieval, or, as they would say in Saudi Arabia, traditional Arab robes (for men, this is a long shirt to the heels and a keffiyeh scarf on the head, and for women it is closed dress and scarf-abaya). The same attire is obligatory for all citizens while in public places.

Status of women

Saudi Arabia ratified the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which entered into force in 1981 on August 28, 2000, but with the proviso that if any of the provisions of the Convention conflict with Islamic law, the kingdom will not be obliged to comply with these provisions .

It was only in 2004 that the ban that prevented women from obtaining business licenses was lifted. Previously, women could only open a business on behalf of a male relative.

According to Human Rights Watch, local women do not have the right to travel with their children without the written permission of their husband, enroll their children in school and apply to government agencies where there are no special departments for serving women. (For an overview of news on the status of women in Saudi Arabia and the Islamic world, see our website).

The low status of Saudi women also affected their educational level. UN experts in their reports pointed to a high level of illiteracy among Saudi women. And the official Saudi publication “The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: History, Civilization and Development: 60 Years of Achievement” reflected the backlog of female education in the country with its statistics for the last 25 years of the country’s development:

“The number of school students has grown from 537 thousand (of which 400 thousand are boys) to 2 million 800 thousand (of which 1 million 500 thousand are boys). The number of university students has increased from 6,942 to 122,100 people ... (At the same time) the number of female students has increased from 434 to 53 thousand people.

Returning from the statistics characterizing the position of women to their rights, we note that Saudi Arabia is the only country in the world where women are not allowed to driveat. In June 2010, another human rights campaign failed to get the government to lift the driving ban.

The Russian Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation noted in April 2008:

“Saudi Arabia, living under strict Sharia law, is one of the most conservative countries in the world. The rules for the guardianship of a man over a woman are regulated here by the judiciary, which is under the control of the clergy.

The severity of Islamic norms in modern Saudi Arabia is exacerbated by the fact that the country officially follows the doctrine of the medieval Islamic theologian Sheikh Mohammed Ibn Abd Al Wahhab, who advocated the so-called. "purity of Islam", but, in other words, for following the Islamic tradition in its most radical interpretation. Al Wahhab rendered important services to the royal house of Saud long before the advent of Saudi Arabia. It is also necessary to remember that modern Saudi Arabia was created with the active participation of the Ikhwans - the movement for "pure Islam", whose military formations helped the first Saudi king Abdulaziz ibn Saud capture Mecca and Medina and create Saudi Arabia.

Features of the Saudi monarchy

The absolute monarchy in Saudi Arabia also seems to be a kind of relic form of government. In Saudi Arabia, power is not transferred from father to son, as is customary in monarchies, but according to the internal agreement of the Saudi royal house - brothers, who are all sons of the first king of Saudi Arabia Abdulaziz ibn Saud (also spelled as Abd Al- Aziz Ibn Abd Ar-Rahman Al-Faisal Al Saud, who died in 1953. This founding king had 22 wives (from different tribal families of the country, thus strengthening the unity of the Saudi nation), 37 sons from different wives and several dozen daughters. And in our time (2010), the country is ruled by the son of the first king from the eighth wife, the elderly Abdullah ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud (born in 1924). And the heir to the throne - the son of the first king from another wife - Sultan ibn Abdulaziz Al as Saud (born in 1928).

Foreign policy

Despite the archaic state structure and radical Islamic doctrine, the country pursues a generally pro-Western foreign policy.

Over the past two decades, Saudi Arabia has twice supported Western countries on key issues: in 1991, during the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait, which was liberated with the active cooperation of Saudis and Western countries, and in the current campaign against Islamic extremists, despite the fact that Saudi Arabia itself adheres to a rather radical version of Islam.

Diplomatic relations of the USSR, and then Russia and Saudi Arabia. For the first time, Moscow's relations with the then newborn Kingdom of Hejaz, Najd and the annexed territories (renamed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1931) were established on February 16, 1926, when the founder of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the ruler of Nej, Abdelaziz ibn Saud, annexed Hijaz by military means ( the territory of the region of Mecca and Medina, where a Russian political agency already existed, along with other European missions).

In the 1920s, it was believed in the USSR that by its appearance a new united Arabian kingdom expressed the aspirations of the oppressed peoples for self-determination. Accordingly, a Soviet note of recognition was drawn up:

“... The government of the USSR, based on the principle of self-determination of peoples and deeply respecting the will of the Hedjaz people, expressed in the election of you as their king, recognizes you as the king of Hedjaz and the Sultan of Nejd and the annexed regions,” said the note handed to Ibn Saud. "Because of this, the Soviet Government considers itself in a state of normal diplomatic relations with Your Majesty's Government."

In a reply note, the king wrote: “To His Excellency the Agent and Consul General of the USSR. We had the honor to receive your note dated 3 Shaaban 1344 (February 16, 1926) No. 22, announcing the recognition by the Government of the USSR of a new position in Hejaz, which consists in the oath of the population of Hejaz to us as the King of Hejaz, the Sultan of Nejd and annexed regions, for which my Government expresses its gratitude to the Government of the USSR, as well as full readiness for relations with the Government of the USSR and its subjects, which are inherent in friendly powers ... The King of Gejaz and the Sultan of Nejd and the annexed regions Abdul-Aziz ibn Saud . Compiled in Mecca on the 6th of Sha'ban 1344 (February 19, 1926)."

Later it turned out that the Saudi regime was too pro-Western and traditionalist for relations with the Stalinist Soviet Union, so in 1938 the Soviet embassy was withdrawn from the country, although diplomatic relations were not formally interrupted. The sides exchanged embassies again in 1991 .

Famous Saudis

Now, apart from the founding king of Saudi Arabia, Abdulaziz ibn Saud, who gave the country the name of his dynasty, the most famous Saudi is the notorious Osama bin Laden, who comes from a wealthy Saudi trading family.

Maxim Istomin for the site (All data at the time of writing the review: 30/07/2010);

On the excerpts from the Saudi publication "The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: History, Civilization and Development: 60 Years of Achievement", published by the Kingdom in Russian after the restoration of diplomatic relations.

The largest state on the Arabian Peninsula, occupying more than 80% of the territory, is the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In the north, this country borders on Jordan. The eastern neighbors of the giant country are Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. Yemen and Oman neighbor Saudi Arabia on the south side. This state is washed by the sea from two sides: the Red Sea in the west, the Persian Gulf - from the northeast.

Along the western coast of the Arabian Peninsula stretches a chain of magnificent Al-Hijaz mountains. Their height reaches 3000 m. Their foot attracts numerous tourists with a mild warm climate and a unique variety of greenery. The eastern and southern parts of the country are occupied mainly by deserts, and are inhabited by nomadic Bedouins.

Saudi Arabia is a country of numerous Muslim mosques. It was here that one of the most numerous religions in the world, Islam, was founded.

Capital	Riyadh
Population	26 534 504 people
	2,149,000 km²
Population density	12 people/km²
	Arab
Religion	Sunni Islam, Wahhabism
Form of government	absolute theocratic monarchy
	Saudi rial
Timezone
International dialing code
Internet domain zone

Saudi Arabia opened to tourists only recently, no more than three years ago. She is pleased to offer her guests the unique flavor of the Arabian deserts, as well as numerous shrines of the Muslim world. The ancient traditions of the East and the modern environment make this country attractive for lovers of non-traditional recreation. Diving has become a feature of the country's tourism business, which allows you to explore the whole variety of unique underwater world Red Sea. Camel beauty pageants are unique in the world. And participation in the famous falconry will give you new experiences.

Climate and weather

The climate in Saudi Arabia is unusually arid and dry. Arabian Peninsula is one of the few places where the temperature never drops below +50 °C in summer.

The north of the country belongs to the subtropical climatic zone, and the south - to the tropical. Snow here can only be seen in the mountains, and even then not every year. In January, the air temperature does not exceed +20 ° C in cities and deserts, and on the coast red sea the air warms up to +30 °C.

Summer in Saudi Arabia gets unusually hot. In the shade, the air temperature ranges from +35 °C to +45 °C. But in deserts, due to the ability of sand to give off heat very quickly, one can also encounter low temperatures, sometimes reaching 0 ° C. For this area, sharp changes in day and night temperatures are quite common.

Rainfall in Saudi Arabia is uneven. At the same time, in the east and in the center of the country, the rainy season lasts from February to April, and in the west - exclusively in winter (from late November to early February). In winter, thick fogs are often observed in the mountains of the Arabian Peninsula.

Tourists to visit Saudi Arabia prefer to choose periods from the first days of September to mid-October, as well as at the end of spring. Throughout May, the temperature is not too high here, and the sea wind brings some moisture to the rather dry air.

Nature

The nature of Saudi Arabia is truly unique. On the territory of this state you can find huge hot deserts, high cool mountains, and wonderful warm sandy beaches.

Beautiful and mighty mountains rise along the coast of the Red Sea. Hijaz. The height of some of them reaches three kilometers. In the same area is one of the most attractive resorts in the Middle East - Asir. It attracts tourists from all over the world with its rather mild pleasant climate and unique vegetation. This resort is preferred by lovers of ecotourism.

The eastern part of the Kingdom is completely covered with deserts. The largest of them is Rub al Khali, which occupies almost the entire south and part of the southeast of the country. It is the invisible border of Saudi Arabia with Oman and Yemen. The total area of ​​deserts in this country reaches almost 1 million km 2. Most often, these deserts are inhabited by nomadic Bedouin tribes.

Attractions

Saudi Arabia, as a strictly Muslim country, is notable for tourists for its religious relics and shrines. The most attractive to visit are the famous Arab cities, such as the capital Riyadh, Mecca, Medina and Jeddah.

The most visited city in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is its capital Riyadh. The most popular attraction of this city is the citadel of old Riyadh, which houses Museum dedicated to King Abdulaziz. Also widely known royal center, owned by the Prince of Saudi Arabia, it is the tallest building in the entire Kingdom. This huge complex includes a large number of residential apartments, offices, excellent restaurants and chic shopping centers.

Of course, not a single stay in Saudi Arabia is complete without a visit to the Muslim shrine - the city Mecca. The founder of the most numerous religion in the world, Prophet Mohammed, was once born in this area. In Mecca there is a well-known since 1570 Holy Haram Mosque. Its area is more than 300,000 km2. This majestic building of Arabic architecture is completely lined with beautiful lilac marble and includes nine minarets, each of which reaches a height of almost 95 meters. The famous Haram can simultaneously accommodate up to 700 thousand people.

There is a shrine in the center of the Haram. Kaaba. Its corners are oriented to the cardinal points. The eastern corner of the Kaaba is distinguished from others by the presence of the Black Stone. Some scientists believe that this is a meteorite. But Muslims hold a different opinion that it was this stone that God gave to Adam, who was expelled from paradise, after his repentance. The legend says about the white color of the stone, which, after the touch of the sinners, he changed to black.

Mecca is known throughout the world for its many shrines of Islam. During the Hajj, this city is visited by more than two million people from all over the world. People who profess other religions cannot enter this holy place.

Another major attraction of Saudi Arabia is the national Asir park located near the city of Jeddah. Its unique vegetation and unique wildlife attract many ecotourists.

Food

The national cuisine of Saudi Arabia includes the culinary traditions of all countries of the Middle East. The staple foods of the local Arabs are lamb, poultry, lamb, eggs, and fish. The traditional side dish for these dishes is rice with raisins. The traditional dishes of Arabic cuisine include all kinds of soups (rice, pea, bean) and stew, which is seasoned with onions and lentils.

Not a single feast in Saudi Arabia is complete without a national dish " burgul". This original name has porridge made from corn or wheat groats with the obligatory addition of sour milk. Also a popular dish, especially among the southern peoples of Saudi Arabia, is flour porridge with olive oil and pepper.

Local restaurants are happy to provide their customers with the famous national dish " geese» - it includes baked lamb meat, generously seasoned with special spices, rice and nuts.

As in other Arab countries, in Saudi Arabia, when preparing meat dishes, it is customary to use only heat treatment without adding fat. As a side dish, meat dishes are usually served with rice, which is traditionally seasoned with tomato paste and onions. Some restaurants may serve meat with french fries.

A large share in the diet of the inhabitants of Saudi Arabia is occupied by all kinds of fruits and vegetables. Dates and figs are especially popular here. Local residents pay great attention to the use of healthy nuts.

The most popular drink in Saudi Arabia is coffee. In this country there is a special ceremony of preparing and drinking this wonderful drink. In Saudi Arabia, people are accustomed to flavoring coffee with all sorts of spices, especially cloves and cardamom, while Arabs do not add sugar to coffee at all. Arabs are very fond of various spices.

Dishes made from fermented milk products are especially popular in this country.

Accommodation

The development of the tourism business in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is only at an early stage. Strict Muslim customs create certain restrictions for attracting foreign tourists to this country, so not all hotels in the Kingdom have the required number of stars. Mostly those hotels that are part of large hotel chains have passed the international classification. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that all hotels and hotels are happy to offer visitors a service and comfort of a quite decent level, which meets all European standards.

Most of the best hotels are located in the capital of Saudi Arabia Riyadh. They offer their customers not only spacious and comfortable rooms, but also additional services of excellent restaurants, fitness centers, spas, swimming pools.

The hotel " Lyauzan which was built exclusively for women. Here they, despite the rules of conduct prescribed in a Muslim country, can independently book and check into rooms.

The cost of renting an individual apartment in Saudi Arabia is about $800 per month in the capital of the state, and no more than $400 in other cities.

Entertainment and recreation

Most foreign tourists choose the capital of the state to see local attractions. Riyadh. While there, you should definitely visit the National Museum of Saudi Arabia, where a huge exposition is presented, introducing visitors to the history and culture of this unique Muslim country. It is worth paying attention to the tallest building in the country - Royal Center owned by the prince. This building is usually associated with an oasis of modern life in Saudi Arabia.

None of the tourists who decide to come to this wonderful country will leave it without visiting Mecca. The "Mother of Cities" is called by the locals. This city is the most sacred place for all Muslims in the world and is a kind of center of the spiritual culture of the Kingdom. It is worth noting that only adherents of the Muslim religion can visit this place, dissidents are not allowed into Mecca. If, nevertheless, you managed to get into the territory of this ancient city, then you should definitely visit the famous Haram Mosque, look into the main sanctuary of all Muslims - Kaab.

Near the famous city of Medina is the most famous uninhabited city Madain Salih. This is the largest and most exciting archaeological area in Saudi Arabia. Be sure to visit this unique place, and it will not leave you indifferent.

Saudi Arabia has one of the most beautiful coral reefs on the planet. Therefore, this country is simply a must-visit for all lovers. diving.

The real entertainment of men here is Falcon hunting. Many centuries ago, such an occupation was a kind of means of survival. To date, this is one of the most popular sports, however, the price for this type of recreation is not at all cheap. The cost of one hunting falcon reaches $80,000.

Another great entertainment in Saudi Arabia is magnificent and unforgettable yacht cruises along the offshore islands. Such a short trip, helping to get acquainted with the local beauties, will leave an indelible impression. The yachts used for such cruises have everything you need on board: air-conditioned rooms, separate cozy bedrooms, and spacious rooms with video systems.

For lovers of a relaxing holiday, Saudi Arabia is pleased to offer a great opportunity to catch local fish in deep waters in Persian Gulf. If the captain stops the yacht in a fishing spot, then you will remember such an amazing bite for a lifetime.

It should be noted that fans of nightlife in Saudi Arabia will not find their usual activities, since such activities are prohibited by strict Sharia law.

Purchases

The fame of the country was brought not only by Muslim shrines, but also by a huge number of various outlets. These include traditional Arab markets, large department stores and major shopping malls. And here you can find both expensive boutiques and quite cheap shops.

Shopping is a favorite pastime of the locals, since other entertainment is prohibited by the Koran - in this country there is not a single night bar, club or casino.

Shops usually work without a fixed schedule. As a rule, the working hours of most outlets are from 9 to 13 hours, as well as from 17 to 20 hours. During the month of Ramadan, shops are open from 8:00 pm to 1:00 am. Friday is a public holiday in Saudi Arabia. On this day, it is customary to attend traditional sermons and prayers in mosques.

As in all Eastern countries, the locals are madly in love with haggling. It is common for this country to be able to bring down the quoted price by more than 40%. You can bargain with sellers in almost all outlets, except for large supermarkets.

Transport

There are several modes of transport in Saudi Arabia. Rail connection(several hundred kilometers of roads) connects the capital Riyadh with major ports in the Persian Gulf. In addition, the construction of a separate railway line connecting Mecca and Medina has begun.

Public transport is represented mainly city ​​buses and taxis. The quality of the roads of the Kingdom leaves much to be desired. At the same time, roads in Riyadh are among the best in the country. The road surface in large cities has a special composition, which can significantly reduce the amount of reflected heat, which greatly saves local residents from the sweltering heat.

All buses in this country are very cozy and comfortable. The cost of one trip around the city ranges from 1 to 2 $.

There are 208 in Saudi Arabia airports, and three of them have international status. The average price of one flight across the country ranges from $120 to $150.

With access to the sea, Saudi Arabia contains a large amount seaports. Some of them are quite large, for example, Jeddah, Duba, Jizan, Jubail. They are the main link between Saudi Arabia and nearby countries.

Connection

In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the Ministry of Post, Telegraph and Telephone provides a fairly high level of communication. The mobile communication system in this country is excellently developed. In most cities, telephone companies prefer to dismantle old public telephones due to the fact that they are hardly used anymore. Almost all the inhabitants of this state, with the exception of some Bedouin tribes, are happy owners of mobile phones or radio stations.

The cellular network has a large coverage area: the area around Riyadh and other large oases. Only some areas of the desert are not served by cellular companies.

The World Wide Web is quite common in all major cities of Saudi Arabia. Most hotels, post offices and business centers provide their visitors with services to use the World Wide Web.

Telephone communication in this country is provided with the latest equipment, which allows to achieve high quality data transmission. Using simple street machines, you can make a phone call to anywhere in the world. The cost of such a call will be a little less than $ 2. The operation of such machines is carried out both from coins and from plastic card prepayment.

Safety

Saudi Arabia is closed to solo travelers. All movements around the country must be carried out exclusively in groups and accompanied by a local tour operator, whose duties include accompanying tourists everywhere and monitoring their timely departure.

There are practically no restrictions on movement around the country. The exception is the ancient Muslim cities Medina and Mecca which are closed to visitors of other religions. It is worth noting that local legislation even prohibits the import into this Muslim country of items that are related to other religions.

Saudi Arabia can be called a relatively safe country. Almost all tourist trips take place without criminal incidents. In large cities, including the capital, street crime is completely absent. This is due to the special mentality of the Arabs, as well as methods of combating the organization of crimes. Local authorities prefer to deal with hooligans by fines.

If we talk about the features of road transport, it is worth mentioning that the traffic in Saudi Arabia is one-way, and the speed in cities and towns is reduced to 40 km / h. Such an innovation is quite unusual for Europeans.

Business climate

Huge oil reserves in Saudi Arabia have made this country a major producer and exporter oil products in the world (the closest rival of the Kingdom in this area is the Russian Federation). Such a colossal concentration of natural resources makes the country attractive for doing business. Moreover, recently the Prince of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Salman bin Abdulaziz, introduced some innovations into the legislation of his country that make it easier to do business. This is especially true for the tourism industry.

With the increasing interest of Muslim tourists in the beauties of famous religious shrines and due to the implementation of policies that soften the rules of the Koran, some foreign businessmen prefer to invest in the economy of this particular country, which is currently the most promising in the development of the country. religious tourism.

It is worth noting that recently Saudi Arabia is known for holding major summits and conferences related to oil production and export.

Real estate

Most scholars believe that the real estate market in Saudi Arabia is practically the most stable in the world. It is not affected by the global economic crisis. Thanks to the deliberate strengthening of the country's economy and a good demographic situation, the real estate market of the Kingdom is growing steadily.

This state has the largest real estate market among the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf. Due to the high level of urbanization, large cities of the country began to develop quite quickly, which required the construction of new residential buildings.

Most recently, Saudi Arabia passed a law allowing the sale of real estate and land for construction to foreign nationals. But there are some limitations here. Firstly, a potential buyer must permanently reside in the state and acquire real estate only for their own use. It is also allowed to sell premises to foreign investors for doing business in the state.

Secondly, when buying a land plot in Saudi Arabia for a positive decision of the General Investment Management, the cost of the construction project must exceed $ 8 million. In addition, the entire amount of investment must be made in the country within five years. Otherwise, the purchase will be refused.

It should be noted that the sale of real estate to foreigners in Mecca and Medina is strictly prohibited.

If you want to visit this unique Kingdom, you should pay attention to some strict rules of behavior in Muslim society.

• When entering the state, women must wear a veil or a long dress that covers their legs and arms. A prerequisite for a woman to go out into the street is to cover her head with a scarf. If you violate these rules, you may be expelled from the country without explanation.
• Any immodest clothing that exposes arms above the elbow and legs, as well as a woman’s head not covered with a scarf, can cause sharp condemnation from the religious police.
• In Saudi Arabia, women of any nationality are prohibited from driving.
• Although the ban on taking photos and videos in public places has recently been lifted in Saudi Arabia, special permission is required for photographing military installations and people, private and public property.
• For the use of alcoholic beverages, narcotic drugs, for committing theft or premeditated murder, according to local laws, a very serious punishment threatens: from chopping off hands to decapitation.

Visa Information

When visiting Saudi Arabia, make sure you have the required visa. It is strictly forbidden to enter this country for people who have an Israeli passport or an Israeli visa, as well as people who have a mark in their passport about the Jewish religion.

The Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Moscow is located at the address: 119121, Moscow, 3rd Neopalimovsky lane, 3.

The content of the article

SAUDI ARABIA, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (arab. Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya as-Saudiya), a state on the Arabian Peninsula in Southwest Asia. In the north it borders on Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait; in the east it is washed by the Persian Gulf and borders on Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, in the southeast it borders on Oman, in the south on Yemen, in the west it is washed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The total length of the borders is 4431 km. Area - 2149.7 thousand square meters. km (data are approximate, since the boundaries in the south and southeast are not clearly established). In 1975 and 1981, agreements were signed between Saudi Arabia and Iraq on the division of a small neutral zone on the border of the two states, which was carried out in 1987. Another agreement was signed with Qatar on demarcation of the border until 1998. In 1996, the neutral zone was divided into border with Kuwait (5570 sq. km), but both countries continue to share oil and other natural resources in the area. Border issues with Yemen have not yet been resolved; nomadic groups in the border regions with Yemen are resisting the demarcation of the border. Negotiations are ongoing between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia on the issue of a maritime border with Iran. The status of the border with the United Arab Emirates has not been finally established (details of the 1974 and 1977 agreements have not been made public). Population - 24,293 thousand people, incl. 5576 thousand foreigners (2003). The capital is Riyadh (3627 thousand). Administratively, it is divided into 13 provinces (103 districts).

NATURE

Terrain relief.

Saudi Arabia occupies almost 80% of the territory of the Arabian Peninsula and several coastal islands in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. According to the structure of the surface, most of the country is a vast desert plateau (height from 300–600 m in the east to 1520 m in the west), slightly dissected by dry riverbeds (wadis). In the west, parallel to the coast of the Red Sea, the Hijaz mountains stretch ( Arab."barrier") and Asir ( Arab."difficult") with a height of 2500-3000 m (with the highest point of the city of An-Nabi-Shuaib, 3353 m), passing into the coastal lowland of Tihama (width from 5 to 70 km). In the mountains of Asir, the relief varies from mountain peaks to large valleys. There are few passes through the Hijaz mountains; communication between the hinterland of Saudi Arabia and the shores of the Red Sea is limited. In the north, along the borders of Jordan, the rocky desert of El Hamad stretches. The largest sandy deserts are located in the northern and central part of the country: Big Nefud and Small Nefud (Dehna), known for their red sands; in the south and southeast - Rub al-Khali ( Arab.“empty quarter”) with dunes and ridges in the northern part up to 200 m. Undefined borders with Yemen, Oman and the United Arab Emirates run through the deserts. The total area of ​​deserts reaches approximately 1 million square meters. km, incl. Rub al-Khali - 777 thousand square meters. km . Along the coast of the Persian Gulf stretches in places swampy or saline lowland El-Khasa (up to 150 km wide). Seashores are predominantly low, sandy, and slightly indented.

Climate.

In the north - subtropical, in the south - tropical, sharply continental, dry. Summer is very hot, winter is warm. The average July temperature in Riyadh ranges from 26°C to 42°C, in January - from 8°C to 21°C, the absolute maximum is 48°C, in the south of the country up to 54°C. and snow. The average annual rainfall is about 70–100 mm (in the central regions, maximum in spring, in the north - in winter, in the south - in summer); in the mountains up to 400 mm in year. In the desert of Rub al-Khali and some other areas, in some years it does not rain at all. Deserts are characterized by seasonal winds. Hot and dry southerly winds Samum and Khamsin in spring and early summer often cause sandstorms, while the northern winter wind Shemal brings cooling.

Water resources.

Almost all of Saudi Arabia does not have permanent rivers or water sources, temporary streams are formed only after intense rains. They are especially abundant in the east, in El-Khas, where there are many springs that irrigate oases. Groundwater is often located close to the surface and under the wadis. The problem of water supply is carried out through the development of enterprises for the desalination of sea water, the creation of deep wells and artesian wells.

Soils.

Primitive desert soils predominate; in the north of the country, subtropical gray soils are developed, in the low-lying eastern regions of Al-Khasa - solonchaks and meadow solonchak soils. Although the government is implementing a greening program, forests and woodlands cover less than 1% of the country's area. Arable land (2%) is mainly located in fertile oases north of Rub al-Khali. A significant area (56%) is occupied by land suitable for pasture animal husbandry (as of 1993).

Natural resources.

The country has huge reserves of oil and natural gas. Proved reserves of crude oil reach 261.7 billion barrels, or 35.6 billion tons (26% of all world reserves), natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cube m. In total there are about 77 oil and gas fields. The main oil-bearing region is located in the east of the country, in Al-Has. The reserves of the world's largest oil field Ghawar are estimated at 70 billion barrels of oil. Other large fields are Safaniya (proved reserves - 19 billion barrels of oil), Abqaiq, Qatif. There are also reserves of iron ores, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, and gold.

Vegetable world.

predominantly desert and semi-desert. White saxaul, camel thorn grow in places on the sands, lichens grow on hamads, wormwood, astragalus grow on lava fields, solitary poplars, acacias grow along the wadi channels, and tamarisk in more saline places; along the coasts and solonchaks - halophytic shrubs. A significant part of the sandy and rocky deserts are almost completely devoid of vegetation. In spring and in wet years, the role of ephemera in the composition of vegetation increases. In the Asir Mountains there are savannah areas where acacias, wild olives, and almonds grow. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, cereals and horticultural crops.

Animal world

quite diverse: antelope, gazelle, hyrax, wolf, jackal, hyena, fennec fox, caracal, wild donkey, onager, hare. There are many rodents (gerbils, ground squirrels, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles). Among the birds - eagles, kites, vultures, peregrine falcons, bustards, larks, sandgrouse, quail, doves. Coastal lowlands serve as breeding grounds for locusts. There are more than 2,000 species of corals in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf (black coral is especially valued). About 3% of the country's area is occupied by 10 protected areas. In the mid-1980s, the government established the Asir National Park, which preserves nearly extinct wildlife species such as the oryx (oryx) and the Nubian ibex.

POPULATION

Demography.

In 2003, 24,293 thousand people lived in Saudi Arabia, incl. 5576 thousand foreigners. Since the first census, conducted in 1974, the population has tripled. In 1990-1996, the average annual population growth was 3.4%, in 2000-2003 - 3.27%. In 2003, the birth rate was 37.2 per 1,000 people, and the death rate was 5.79. Life expectancy - 68 years. In terms of age, more than half of the country's population is under 20 years old. Women make up 45% of the population. According to UN forecasts, by 2025 the population should increase to 39,965 thousand people.

The composition of the population.

The vast majority of the population of Saudi Arabia are Arabs (Saudi Arabs - 74.2%, Bedouins - 3.9%, Arabs of the Persian Gulf - 3%), most of whom have retained the tribal organization. The largest tribal associations are Anaza and Shammar, tribes are Avazim, Avamir, Ajman, Ataiba, Bali, Beit Yamani, Beni Atiya, Beni Murra, Beni Sakhr, Beni Yas, Wahiba, Dawasir, Dakhm, Janaba, Dzhuhaina, Qahtan, Manasir, manahil, muahib, mutair, subey, suleiba, shararat, harb, huveita, khuteim, etc. The suleiba tribe inhabiting the northern regions is considered to be of non-Arab origin and consists, according to some sources, of the descendants of the crusaders who were captured and enslaved. In total, there are more than 100 tribal associations and tribes in the country.

In addition to ethnic Arabs, Saudi Arabs of mixed ethnic origin live in the country, having Turkish, Iranian, Indonesian, Indian, African roots. As a rule, these are the descendants of pilgrims who settled in the Hijaz region, or Africans who were brought into Arabia as slaves (before the abolition of slavery in 1962, there were up to 750,000 slaves in the country). The latter live mainly in the coastal regions of Tihame and Al-Hasa, as well as in oases.

Foreign workers make up approx. 22% of the population and consist of non-Saudi Arabs, people from African and Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines), as well as a small number of Europeans and Americans. Arabs of foreign origin live in the cities, in the oil fields and in the areas bordering Yemen. Representatives of all other peoples are concentrated in large cities and in the oil fields, where they form, as a rule, more than half of the total population.

Work force.

The economically active population is 7 million people, of which 12% are employed in agriculture, 25% in industry, and 63% in the service sector. The number of people employed in industry and the service sector has been steadily increasing in recent years. 35% of those employed in the economy are foreign workers (1999); Initially, they were dominated by Arabs from neighboring countries, over time they were replaced by immigrants from South and Southeast Asia. There is no official information on the state of unemployment. However, according to unofficial data, almost 1/3 of the economically active male population (women are practically not employed in the economy) is unemployed (2002). In this regard, Saudi Arabia, since 1996, has been implementing a policy to limit the hiring of foreign labor. Riyadh has developed a 5-year economic development plan designed to stimulate the employment of Saudi Arabian citizens. Companies (under the threat of penalties) are required to increase the hiring of Saudi workers by at least 5% per year. Simultaneously with 1996, the government declared 24 professions closed to foreigners. Today, the most successful replacement of foreigners with Saudi nationals is taking place mainly in the public sector, where the state has hired more than 700,000 Saudis in recent years. In 2003, the Saudi Interior Ministry unveiled a new 10-year plan to reduce the number of foreign workers. Under this plan, the number of foreigners, including working immigrants and their families, by 2013 should be reduced to 20% of the number of native Saudis. Thus, according to experts' forecasts, taking into account the growth of the country's population, a foreign colony should be reduced by about half in a decade.

Urbanization.

Until the early 1960s, the majority of the population were nomads and semi-nomads. Due to rapid economic growth, the share of the urban population has increased from 23.6% (1970) to 80% (2003). In the late 1990s, ca. 95% of the population switched to a sedentary lifestyle. Most of the population is concentrated in oases and cities. Average density 12.4 people/sq. km (some cities and oases have a density of more than 1,000 people / sq. km). The most densely populated areas are off the coast of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, as well as around Riyadh and to the north-east of it, where the main oil-producing areas are located. The population of the capital, Riyadh (since 1984, diplomatic missions have been located here), is 3627 thousand (all data for 2003), or 14% of the country's population (annual population growth in the city between 1974 and 1992 reached 8.2%), mainly these are Saudis, as well as citizens of other Arab, Asian and Western countries. The population of Jeddah, the main port of the Hijaz and the most important business center of Saudi Arabia, is 2674 thousand people. Until 1984, diplomatic missions of foreign states were located here. In Hijaz there are also two holy cities of Muslims - Mecca (1541 thousand) and Medina (818 thousand), - accessible only to Muslim pilgrims. In 1998, these cities were visited by approx. 1.13 million pilgrims, including approx. 1 million - from various Muslim countries, as well as North and South America, Europe and Asia. Other large cities: Damman (675 thousand), At-Taif (633 thousand), Tabuk (382 thousand). Their population consists of representatives of various Arab countries, including the Gulf countries, Indians, as well as people from North America and Europe. Bedouins, who maintain a nomadic lifestyle, inhabit mainly the northern and eastern regions of the country. More than 60% of the entire territory (the deserts of Rub al-Khali, Nefud, Dahna) does not have a permanent settled population, even nomads do not penetrate into some areas.

Language.

The official language of Saudi Arabia is Standard Arabic, which belongs to the West Semitic group of the Afroasian family. One of its dialects is Classical Arabic, which, due to its archaic sound, is currently used mainly in a religious context. In everyday life, the Arabian dialect of Arabic (ammiya) is used, which is closest to the literary Arabic language, which developed from the classical language (el-fusha). Within the Arabian dialect, dialects of Hijaz, Asir, Nejd and Al-Hasa, close to each other, are distinguished. Although the differences between the literary and spoken language are less marked here than in other Arab countries, the language of the city dwellers differs from the dialects of the nomads. English, Tagalog, Urdu, Hindi, Farsi, Somali, Indonesian, etc. are also common among people from other countries.

Religion.

Saudi Arabia is the center of the Islamic world. official religion- Islam. According to various estimates, between 85% and 93.3% of Saudis are Sunnis; from 3.3% to 15% are Shiites. In the central part of the country, almost the entire population is Hanbali-Wahhabis (they include more than half of all Sunnis in the country). In the west and southwest, the Shafi'i sense of Sunnism prevails. There are also Hanifis, Malikis, Hanbalis-Salafi and Khanbadis-Wahhabis. In a small number there are Ismaili Shiites and Zaidis. A significant group of Shiites (about a third of the population) lives in the east, in Al-Has. Christians make up about 3% of the population (according to the American Conference of Catholic Bishops, St. 500 thousand Catholics live in the country), all other confessions - 0.4% (in 1992, unofficially). There is no information on the number of atheists.

GOVERNMENT

The first legal documents fixing the general principles of the state structure and government of the country were adopted in March 1992. According to Fundamentals of the system of power, Saudi Arabia is an absolute theocratic monarchy ruled by the sons and grandsons of the founding king, Abdulaziz ibn Abdul Rahman al-Faisal Al Saud. The Holy Qur'an serves as the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Sharia).

The highest authorities include the head of state and the crown prince; Council of Ministers; Advisory Council; High Council of Justice. However, the real structure of monarchical power in Saudi Arabia is somewhat different from how it is presented in theory. To a large extent, the power of the king is based on the Al Saud family, which consists of more than 5 thousand people and forms the basis of the monarchical system in the country. The king rules, relying on the advice of leading representatives of the family, in particular his brothers. His relations with religious leaders are built on the same basis. Equally important to the stability of the kingdom is the support of noble families such as al-Sudairi and Ibn Jiluwi, as well as the religious family of Al ash-Sheikh, a side branch of the Saudi dynasty. These families have remained loyal to the Al Saud clan for almost two centuries.

Central executive power.

The head of state and the country's religious leader (imam) is the Minister of the Two Holy Mosques, King (malik) Fahd bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (since June 13, 1982), who is simultaneously prime minister, commander-in-chief of the armed forces and supreme judge. Since 1932, the country has been ruled by the Saudi dynasty. The head of state has full executive, legislative and judicial powers. Its powers are theoretically limited only by Sharia and Saudi traditions. The king is called upon to maintain the unity of the royal family, religious leaders (ulama) and other elements of Saudi society.

The mechanism of succession to the throne was officially fixed only in 1992. The heir to the throne is appointed during his lifetime by the king himself, with the subsequent approval of the ulema. In accordance with tribal traditions, there is no clear system of succession to the throne in Saudi Arabia. Power usually passes to the eldest in the family, the most suitable for the performance of the functions of the ruler. Since 1995, due to the illness of the monarch, the de facto head of state is the Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (half-brother of the monarch, heir to the throne from June 13, 1982, regent from January 1 to February 22, 1996). To ensure a conflict-free change of power in the country, in early June 2000, by the decision of King Fahd and Crown Prince Abdullah, the Royal Family Council was formed, which includes 18 of the most influential direct descendants of the founder of the Arabian monarchy, Ibn Saud.

According to the constitution, the king heads the government (it has existed in its current form since 1953) and determines the main directions of its activity. The Council of Ministers combines both executive and legislative functions. All its decisions, which must be compatible with Sharia law, are taken by majority vote and are subject to final approval by royal decree. The cabinet consists of the prime minister, the first and second vice prime ministers, 20 ministers (including the minister of defense, who is the second vice prime minister), as well as ministers of state and advisers appointed as members of the council of ministers by royal decree. The most important ministries are usually headed by representatives of the royal family. The ministers assist the king in exercising his powers in accordance with the constitution and other laws. The King has the right to dissolve or reorganize the Council of Ministers at any time. Since 1993, each minister has been limited to a four-year term. On August 2, 1995, King Fahd made the most significant personnel changes in the last decades in the cabinet of ministers, which left 16 of the 20 ministers of the current government.

Legislature.

There is no legislature - the king rules the country through decrees. Since December 1993, an Advisory Council (CC, Majlis al-Shura) has been operating under the monarch, consisting of scientists, writers, businessmen, prominent members of the royal family and representing the first public forum in the history of Saudi Arabia. The Constitutional Court is called upon to develop recommendations to the government on the socio-economic development of the country, to prepare opinions on various legal acts and international agreements. At least 10 members of the Council have the right of legislative initiative. They may propose a new draft law or additions and changes to existing legislation and submit them to the Chairman of the Council. All decisions, reports and recommendations of the Council must be submitted directly to the King and the President of the Council of Ministers for consideration. If the points of view of the two councils agree, the decision is made with the consent of the king; if the points of view do not agree, the king has the right to decide which option will be accepted.

According to the decree of 1993, the Advisory Council consisted of 60 members and a chairman appointed by the king for a term of 4 years. In July 1997, the number of CC increased to 90 members, and in May 2001 - up to 120. Chairman of the Council - Mohammed bin Jubair (in 1997 retained his post for a second term). With the expansion, the composition of the Council also changed, in 1997 for the first time three representatives from the Shiite minority were included; in 1999, women were allowed to attend meetings of the Constitutional Court. Recently, the importance of the Advisory Council has gradually increased. There are calls from the moderate liberal opposition to hold general elections to the Constitutional Court.

Judicial system.

Sharia provisions are the basis of the civil and judicial codes. Thus, all marriage, divorce, property, inheritance, criminal and other matters are regulated by Islamic regulations. Several secular laws were also passed in 1993. The country's judicial system consists of disciplinary and general courts that deal with simple criminal and civil cases; Sharia or Cassation Court; and the Supreme Court, which examines and reviews all the most serious cases, and also supervises the activities of other courts. All courts are governed by Islamic law. Religious judges, qadis, preside over the courts. The members of the religious courts are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the High Council of Justice, which consists of 12 senior lawyers. The King is the highest court of appeal and has the right to issue pardons.

Local authorities.

In 1993, Saudi Arabia was divided into 13 provinces (emirates) by royal decree. By decree of 1994, the provinces were, in turn, divided into 103 districts. Power in the provinces belongs to governors (emirs) appointed by the king. The most important cities, such as Riyadh, Mecca and Medina, are headed by governors belonging to the royal family. Local affairs are administered by the Provincial Councils, whose members are appointed by the king from representatives of the most distinguished families.

In 1975, the authorities of the kingdom issued a law on municipal elections, but elected municipalities were never formed. In 2003, the intention to hold the first municipal elections in the history of the kingdom was announced. Half of the seats in 14 regional councils will be elected, the other half will be appointed by the Saudi government. Elections to the regional councils are seen as a step towards the reforms announced in May 2003 by King Fahd.

Human rights.

Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that refused to recognize some articles of the International Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN in 1948. According to the human rights organization Freedom House, Saudi Arabia is one of the nine countries with the worst regime in the field of political and civil rights. The most obvious human rights violations in Saudi Arabia include: mistreatment of prisoners; prohibitions and restrictions in the field of freedom of speech, press, meetings and organizations, religion; systematic discrimination against women, ethnic and religious minorities, as well as the suppression of workers' rights. The country retains the death penalty; Since the Gulf War in 1991, Saudi Arabia has seen a steady increase in the number of executions. In addition to public executions, arrests and imprisonment of dissidents are widely practiced in the kingdom.

Political parties and movements.

Despite the ban on the activities of political parties and trade unions, there are a number of political, public and religious organizations of various orientations that oppose the regime in the country.

The leftist opposition includes a few groups of nationalist and communist orientation, based mainly on foreign workers and national minorities, among them: the Voice of the Vanguard, the Communist Party of Saudi Arabia, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party, the Green Party, the Socialist Labor Party, the Socialist Front of Saudi Arabia, Union of the Peoples of the Arabian Peninsula, Front for the Liberation of the Occupied Zones of the Persian Gulf. In recent years, their activity has noticeably decreased, many groups have broken up.

The liberal opposition is not institutionalized. It is represented mainly by businessmen, intellectuals, technocrats and advocates for the expansion of the participation of various representatives of society in government, the accelerated modernization of the country, political and judicial reforms, the introduction of Western democratic institutions, the reduction of the role of conservative religious circles and the improvement of the status of women. The number of supporters of the liberal opposition is small, but in recent years the royal regime, striving to maintain good relations with the West, has been forced to listen more and more to its opinion.

The most radical opposition force is the conservative and religious-fundamentalist Islamic circles of the Sunni and Shiite persuasion. The Islamist movement arose as early as the 1950s as a conglomerate of informal groups, but finally took shape only by the early 1990s. Among the Sunni opposition, three currents stand out: the moderate wing of traditionalist Wahhabism, the militant neo-Wahhabism, and the liberally oriented movement of supporters of Islamic reforms.

Traditionalists include many ulema, elderly theologians, and once-powerful tribal sheikhs. In the 1990s, traditionalists were represented by such organizations as the Ancestral Piety Imitation Group, the Quran Preservation Group, the Monotheists, the Callers, and others.

Neo-Wahhabis, according to many experts, rely on unemployed youth, teachers and students of theology, as well as former Mujahideen who fought in Afghanistan, Algeria, Bosnia and Chechnya. They sharply criticize the government for its actions during the Gulf War, the foreign military presence in the country, Western-style modernization of society, and defend Islamic values. Intelligence agencies suggest that the most militant circles of neo-Wahhabism are linked to international terrorist organizations (al-Qaeda, the Muslim Brotherhood) and may be behind a number of attacks against foreigners in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Moderate Islamists are represented by the "Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights" (formed in May 1993) and the "Movement for Islamic Reform in Arabia" (arose in March 1996 as a result of a split in the Committee). Both groups operate mainly in the UK and in their statements combine radical Islamist rhetoric with demands for reforms in the political, social and economic spheres, expansion of freedom of speech and assembly, contacts with Western countries, and respect for human rights.

Shia Islamists represent a religious minority in the Eastern Province and advocate the abolition of all restrictions on Shiites and the freedom to practice their religious rites. The most radical Shiite groups are considered to be Saudi Hezbollah (also known as Hezbollah Hijaz, up to 1,000 people) and Islamic Jihad Hijaz. More moderate is the "Shia Reform Movement", which arose in the early 1990s on the basis of the "Organization of the Islamic Revolution". Since 1991 it has published Al-Jazeera al-Arabiya in London and Arabian Monitor in Washington.

Foreign policy.

Saudi Arabia has been a member of the UN and the League of Arab States (LAS) since 1945, since 1957 - a member of the IMF and IBRD, since 1960 - a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Since 1948 it has been at war with Israel. It plays a significant and constructive role in the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, in the Arab and Islamic institutions for financial assistance and development. One of the largest donors in the world, it provides assistance to a number of Arab, African and Asian countries. Since 1970, the headquarters of the secretariat of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and its subsidiary organization, the Islamic Development Bank, established in 1969, has been located in Jeddah.

Membership in OPEC and the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries makes it easier to coordinate Saudi oil policy with other oil-exporting governments. As a leading oil exporter, Saudi Arabia has a particular interest in maintaining a sustainable and long-term market for its oil resources. All its actions are aimed at stabilizing the world oil market and reducing sharp price fluctuations.

One of the main principles of Saudi Arabia's foreign policy is Islamic solidarity. The Saudi government often helps resolve regional crises and supports Israeli-Palestinian peace talks. As a member of the Arab League, Saudi Arabia supports the withdrawal of Israeli troops from the territories occupied in June 1967; supports a peaceful solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, but at the same time condemns the Camp David Accords, which, in their opinion, are not capable of guaranteeing the right of the Palestinians to establish their own state and determine the status of Jerusalem. The latest Middle East peace plan was proposed by Crown Prince Abdullah in March 2002 at the annual Arab League summit. In accordance with it, Israel was asked to withdraw all its forces from the territories occupied after 1967, return the Palestinian refugees and recognize an independent Palestinian state with its capital in East Jerusalem. In exchange, Israel was guaranteed recognition by all Arab countries and the restoration of "normal relations." However, as a result of the position taken by a number of Arab countries and Israel, the plan failed.

During the Gulf War (1990–1991), Saudi Arabia played a critical role in building a broad international coalition. The Saudi Arabian government provided coalition forces with water, food and fuel. In total, the cost of the country during the war amounted to 55 billion dollars.

At the same time, the war in the Persian Gulf caused a deterioration in diplomatic relations with a number of Arab states. Only after the war were relations restored to their previous level with Tunisia, Algeria and Libya, which refused to condemn the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Saudi Arabia's relations with the countries that expressed support for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait - Yemen, Jordan and Sudan - remained extremely tense during the war and immediately after its end. One of the manifestations of this policy was the expulsion from Saudi Arabia of over a million Yemeni workers, which further exacerbated the existing border conflict. The pro-Iraqi position of the leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) also led to a deterioration in its relations with Saudi Arabia and other countries of the Persian Gulf. Relations between Saudi Arabia and Jordan and the Palestinian Authority were normalized only in the late 1990s, at the same time the assistance of the Saudi government to the Palestinian authorities was resumed. In July 2002, the Saudi kingdom transferred $46.2 million to the accounts of the Palestinian Authority. Another $15.4 million was allocated by the government of Saudi Arabia as gratuitous aid to the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) in October 2002. This payment was made as part of the decisions Arab League summit in Beirut (March 27–28, 2002).

Saudi Arabia became one of three countries that established diplomatic relations with the Afghan Taliban in 1997, interrupted in 2001. Since the beginning of the 21st century, especially after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, there have been signs of a cooling in the country's relations with a number of Western countries, caused by accusations in promoting international Islamic terrorism.

The country has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation. First installed from the USSR in 1926. The Soviet mission was withdrawn in 1938; in September 1990, an agreement was reached on the complete normalization of diplomatic relations between the USSR and Saudi Arabia; The embassy in Riyadh has been functioning since May 1991.

Territorial conflicts.

In 1987, the demarcation of the border with Iraq in the former no man's land was completed. In 1996, the division of the neutral zone on the border with Kuwait was carried out. In early July 2000, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait agreed to demarcate the maritime boundary; the Kuwaiti possessions of Karukh and the island of Umm al-Maradim remain the object of the dispute. On June 12, 2000, a border agreement was concluded with Yemen, which established part of the border between the two countries. However, most of the border with Yemen is still undefined. Saudi Arabia's border with Qatar was finally established by agreements signed in June 1999 and March 2001. The position and status of the border with the United Arab Emirates has not been specified; the current border de facto reflects the agreement of 1974. Similarly, the border with Oman remains undemarcated.

Armed forces.

Since the 1970s, Saudi Arabia has spent huge amounts of money to expand and modernize its armed forces. After the Gulf War in 1991, the country's armed forces were further enlarged and equipped with the latest weapons, most of which came from the United States. According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, Saudi Arabia's military budget in 2002 was $18.7 billion, or 11% of GDP. The armed forces consist of ground forces, air and naval forces, air defense forces, the National Guard, and the Ministry of Internal Forces. The Supreme Commander-in-Chief is the King, the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff are directly in charge of the armed forces. All command positions are held by members of the ruling family. The total number of regular armed forces is about 126.5 thousand people. (2001). The ground forces (75 thousand people) have 9 armored, 5 mechanized, 1 airborne brigades, 1 regiment of the Royal Guard, 8 artillery battalions. In service with 1055 tanks, 3105 armored personnel carriers, St. 1000 pieces of artillery and rocket launchers. Air Force (20 thousand people) are armed with St. 430 combat aircraft and approx. 100 helicopters. Air defense forces (16 thousand people) include 33 missile divisions. The Navy (15.5 thousand people) consists of two flotillas, they are armed with approx. 100 combat and auxiliary ships. The main naval bases are Jeddah and Al Jubail. In the mid-1950s, the National Guard was also created from tribal militias loyal to the royal family (about 77 thousand, including 20 thousand tribal militias), which, according to Western experts, significantly exceeds regular forces in terms of level of training and weapons. Its task is to ensure the security of the ruling dynasty, the protection of oil fields, airfields, ports, as well as the suppression of anti-government protests. In addition to the regular armed forces, there is also a Border Guard Corps (10.5 thousand) and coast guard troops (4.5 thousand). The recruitment of the armed forces is carried out on the principle of voluntary recruitment.

ECONOMY

Currently, the Saudi economy is based on free private enterprise. Meanwhile, the government exercises control over the main areas of economic activity. Saudi Arabia has the largest oil reserves in the world, is considered the largest oil exporter and plays a leading role in OPEC. Proved reserves of crude oil amount to 261.7 billion barrels, or 35 billion tons (26% of all reserves), and natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cube m. (as of January 2002). Oil brings the country up to 90% of export earnings, 75% of government revenues and 35–45% of GDP. Approximately 25% of GDP comes from the private sector. In 1992, Saudi Arabia's GDP was equivalent to $112.98 billion, or $6,042 per capita. In 1997, the GDP was $146.25 billion, or $7,792 per capita; in 1999 it increased to $191 billion, or $9,000 per person; in 2001 - up to 241 billion dollars, or 8460 dollars per person. However, real economic growth lags behind the increase in the number of inhabitants, leading to unemployment and a reduction in per capita income. The share of economic sectors not related to the extraction and processing of oil in GDP increased from 46% in 1970 to 67% in 1992 (in 1996 it fell to 65%).

In 1999, the government announced plans to begin privatization of electrical companies, following the privatization of telecommunications companies. To reduce the kingdom's dependence on oil and increase employment for the rapidly growing Saudi population, the private sector has been booming in recent years. The main priorities of the Saudi government in the near future is to allocate additional funds for the development of water infrastructure and education, since water shortages and rapid population growth do not allow the country to fully provide itself with agricultural products.

The oil industry and its role.

The largest holder of oil concessions and the main oil producer is the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO). Since the early 1970s, it has been under the control of the Saudi Arabian government, and before that it was wholly owned by a consortium of American companies. The company received a concession in 1933 and began exporting oil in 1938. World War II interrupted the development of the oil industry, which resumed in 1943 with the construction of an oil refinery at the oil port of Ras Tanura. Oil production gradually increased from 2.7 thousand tons / day before 1944 to 33.5 thousand tons / day in 1947 and 68.1 thousand tons / day in 1949. By 1977, the daily oil production in Saudi Arabia had increased to 1, 25 million tons and remained high during the 1980s, until it began to decline as a result of a decrease in demand for oil in the world market. In 1992, approx. 1.15 million tons / day, with 97% of production accounted for by ARAMCO. Oil production is also carried out by other, smaller companies, such as the Japanese Arabian Oil Company, which operates in coastal waters near the border with Kuwait, and the Getty Oil Company, which produces onshore near the border with Kuwait. In 1996 Saudi Arabia's OPEC quota was approx. 1.17 million tons per day. In 2001, the average production was 8.6 billion barrels/day (460 billion tons/year). In addition, it uses reserves located in the so-called "neutral zone" on the border with Kuwait, which give it an additional 600,000 barrels of oil per day. The largest oil fields are located in the eastern part of the country, on the coast of the Persian Gulf or on the shelf.

Main refineries: Aramco - Ras Tanura (capacity 300 thousand barrels / day), Rabig (325 thousand barrels / day), Yanbu (190 thousand barrels / day), Riyadh (140 thousand barrels / day), Jeddah ( 42 thousand barrels / day), Aramco-Mobil - Yanbu (332 thousand barrels / day), Petromin / Shell - al-Jubeil (292 thousand barrels / day), Arabian Oil Company - Ras al-Khafji (30 thousand . barrels/day).

The most important factor in the development of the oil industry is the close and mutually beneficial relationship that has developed between ARAMCO and Saudi Arabia. ARAMCO's activities contributed to the influx of qualified personnel into the country and the creation of new jobs for the Saudis.

Significant changes in relations between the oil companies and the government of Saudi Arabia began in 1972. In accordance with the agreement signed by the parties, the government received 25% of ARAMCO's property. It was determined that the share of Saudi Arabia would gradually increase to 51% by 1982. However, in 1974 the government accelerated this process and acquired a 60% stake in ARAMCO. In 1976, the oil companies pledged to transfer all of ARAMCO's property to Saudi Arabia. In 1980, the entire ownership of ARAMCO passed to the government of Saudi Arabia. In 1984, for the first time, a citizen of Saudi Arabia became the president of the company. Since 1980, the government of Saudi Arabia began to determine the price of oil and the volume of its production, and oil companies received the rights to develop oil fields as government subcontractors.

The growth in oil production was accompanied by a significant increase in revenues from its sale, especially after a four-fold jump in oil prices in 1973-1974, which led to a huge increase in government revenues, which increased from $ 334 million in 1960 to $ 2.7 billion in 1972, $30 billion in 1974, $33.5 billion in 1976 and $102 billion in 1981. Subsequently, the demand for oil on the world market began to decline, and by 1989 Saudi Arabia's oil revenues had fallen to $24 billion. The crisis that began after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990 raised world oil prices again; accordingly, Saudi Arabia's revenues from oil exports increased in 1991 to almost $43.5 billion. In 1998, as a result of a sharp drop in world oil prices at the beginning of the year, Saudi Arabia's oil revenues amounted to $43.7 billion.

Industry.

The share of industry in the country's GDP is 47% (1998). The growth of industrial production in 1997 was 1%. In the past, Saudi Arabian industry was underdeveloped, especially non-oil industries. In 1962, the government's General Organization of Petroleum and Mineral Resources (PETROMIN) was established, whose task is to develop the oil and mining industry and also to create new oil, mining, and metallurgical enterprises. In 1975, the Ministry of Industry and Energy was formed, which took over responsibility for PETROMIN's enterprises not related to oil production and refining. PETROMIN's largest projects were the steel plant in Jeddah, built in 1968, and the oil refineries in Jeddah and Riyadh, built in the late 1960s and early 1970s. PETROMIN also provided 51% of the funds for the construction of a nitrogen fertilizer plant in Dammam, completed in 1970.

In 1976, the Saudi Arabian Government Heavy Industry Corporation (SABIC) was established - a holding company with an initial capital of $ 2.66 billion. By 1994, SABIC owned 15 large enterprises in Al Jubail, Yanbu and Jeddah, which produced chemicals, plastics, industrial gas , steel and other metals. In Saudi Arabia, the food and glass industries, handicrafts and the building materials industry, in particular cement, are well developed. In 1996, the volume of industrial production amounted to approx. 55% of GDP.

Back in the 1st millennium BC. the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula mined gold, silver and copper in deposits located approximately 290 km northeast of Jeddah. Currently, these deposits are being re-developed, and in 1992 approx. 5 tons of gold.

Electricity generation in Saudi Arabia has increased from 344 kW in 1970 to 17049 MW in 1992. To date, approx. 6,000 cities and rural settlements throughout the country. In 1998, electricity generation was 19,753 MW, with a 4.5% annual increase in electricity demand expected over the next two decades. To meet them, it will be necessary to increase electricity production to approximately 59,000 MW.

Agriculture.

The share of agriculture in the country's GDP increased from 1.3% in 1970 to more than 6.4% in 1993 and 6% in 1998. During this period, the production of basic foodstuffs increased from 1.79 million tons to 7 million tons. Saudi Arabia is completely devoid of permanent watercourses. The lands suitable for cultivation occupy 7 million hectares, or less than 2% of its territory. Although the average annual rainfall is only 100 mm, Saudi Arabia's agriculture, which uses modern technology and machinery, is a dynamic industry. The area of ​​cultivated land increased from 161.8 thousand hectares in 1976 to 3 million hectares in 1993, and Saudi Arabia turned from a country that imported most of the food into an exporter of food products. In 1992, agricultural production amounted to $5.06 billion in monetary terms, while the export of wheat, dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, vegetables and flowers brought in income of $533 million. The share of the agricultural sector in GDP with 1985 to 1995 increased by 6.0% per year. Barley, corn, millet, coffee, alfalfa and rice are also grown in the country. An important industry is animal husbandry, represented by the breeding of camels, sheep, goats, donkeys and horses.

Long-term hydrological studies, begun in 1965, made it possible to discover significant water resources suitable for agricultural use. Apart from deep wells throughout the country, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources of Saudi Arabia uses more than 200 reservoirs with a total volume of 450 million cubic meters. m. The country is the world's largest producer of desalinated water. In the mid-1990s, 33 desalination plants desalinated 2.2 billion liters of seawater daily, thus meeting 70% of the population's drinking water needs.

Only the agricultural project in Al-Khas, completed in 1977, made it possible to irrigate 12,000 hectares and provide employment for 50,000 people. to other major irrigation projects include the Wadi Jizan project on the Red Sea coast (8 thousand hectares) and the Abha project in the Asira mountains, in the southwest. In 1998, the government announced a new $294 million agricultural development project. The Ministry of Agriculture's budget increased from $395 million in 1997 to $443 million in 1998.

Transport.

Until the 1950s, transportation of goods within Saudi Arabia was carried out mainly by camel caravans. Built in 1908, the Hijaz railway (1300 km, including 740 km along the Hijaz) has not functioned since the First World War. For the transportation of pilgrims, an auto message was used along the route Najaf (in Iraq) - Hail - Medina.

The start of oil production completely changed the country's economy and ensured its rapid growth. The impetus for rapid development was the creation of a network of roads, ports and communications. In the 1970s-1990s, an extensive road network was created that connected the vast arid regions located in remote parts of the country. The largest highway crosses the Arabian Peninsula from Dammam on the Persian Gulf through Riyadh and Mecca to Jeddah on the Red Sea. In 1986, construction was completed on a 24-kilometer highway laid along a dam connecting Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. As a result of extensive construction, the length of paved roads increased from 1,600 km in 1960 to over 44,104 km of highways and 102,420 km of unpaved roads in 1997.

The railway network has expanded significantly. There is one railway linking Riyadh through the Hofuf oasis with the port of Dammam on the Persian Gulf (571 km); all R. In the 1980s, the railway was extended to the industrial center of Al Jubail, located north of Dammam; in 1972 a branch was built from the main highway to El-Kharj (35.5 km). The total length of railways is 1392 km (2002).

An extensive network of pipelines has been created in the country: the length of pipelines for crude oil is 6400 km, oil products - 150 km, gas pipelines - 2200 km (including liquid natural gas - 1600 km). A large trans-Arabian oil pipeline connects the oil fields of the Persian Gulf with ports in the Red Sea. The main ports in the Persian Gulf: Ras Tanura, Dammam, Al Khobar and Mina Saud; on the Red Sea: Jeddah (the bulk of imports and the main flow of pilgrims to Mecca and Medina go through it), Jizan and Yanbu.

Foreign trade transportation is carried out mainly by sea. The Saudi National Shipping Company has 21 vessels for the transportation of petroleum products. In total, the marine merchant fleet has 71 vessels with a carrying capacity of 1.53 million dwt (including a number of vessels flying foreign flags).

There are three international (in Riyadh, Jeddah and Dhahran) and 206 regional and local airports and aircraft sites, as well as five heliports (2002). Aviation fleet - 113 transport and passenger aircraft. Air lines of the airline "Saudi Arabian Airlines" connect Riyadh with the capitals of the Near and Middle East.

The state budget.

The budget of Saudi Arabia in 1993-1994 was 46.7 billion dollars, in 1992-1993 - 52.5 billion dollars, and in 1983-1984 - 69.3 billion dollars. Such fluctuations were the result of falling export earnings oil, providing 80% of all state revenues. However, in fiscal year 1994, $11.5 billion was allocated to construction and renovation programs and $7.56 billion to higher education, universities, industry, and other development projects such as improving saline soils and electrification. In 2003, the revenue side of the budget of Saudi Arabia was $46 billion, and the expenditure side was $56.5 billion, in 2000 the revenue side of the budget was $41.9 billion, the expenditure side was $49.4 billion, 1997 budget revenues - 43 billion dollars, and expenditures - 48 billion dollars, the budget deficit amounted to 5 billion dollars. Since the end of 1999, rapidly rising oil prices have allowed the country to run a budget surplus ($12 billion in 2000). The country's external debt decreased from $28 billion (1998) to $25.9 billion (2003).

Since 1970, five-year development plans have been adopted. The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1990-1995) was aimed at strengthening the private sector, developing education, health care and social security; it also provided for an increase in defense spending. The Sixth Five-Year Development Plan (1995-1999) provided for the continuation of the economic policy of the previous period. The main attention is paid to the development of economic activity in sectors of the economy not related to the oil industry, primarily in the private sector, with particular emphasis on industry and agriculture. The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1999–2003) focuses on economic diversification and strengthening the role of the private sector in the Saudi economy. During 2000-2004, the Saudi government aims to achieve an average annual GNP growth of 3.16%, with an estimated growth of 5.04% in the private sector and 4.01% in the non-oil sectors. The government has also set a goal of creating 817,300 new job openings for Saudi nationals.

Foreign economic relations

Saudi Arabia reflect its role as the world's leading oil exporter. Most of the profits from foreign trade were invested abroad and went to help foreign countries, in particular Egypt, Jordan and other Arab countries. Even after the fall in oil prices in the mid and late 1980s, the country maintained a positive foreign trade balance: if in 1991 imports totaled $29.6 billion and exports totaled $48.5 billion, then in 2001 these figures rose to 39.5 and 71 billion dollars, respectively. The trade surplus eventually rose from $18.9 billion (1991) to $31.5 billion (2001).

Saudi Arabia's main imports are industrial equipment, vehicles, armaments, foodstuffs, building materials, scientific equipment, chemical products, textiles and clothing. The main import flow comes from the USA (16.6%), Japan (10.4%), Great Britain (6.1%), Germany (7.4%), France (5%), Italy (4%) (on 2001). The government promised to make appropriate changes to trade, investment and tax laws in preparation for joining the World Trade Organization (WTO).

The main export item is oil and oil products (90%). In 2001, the main exporting countries were: Japan (15.8%), USA (18.5%), South Korea (10.3%), Singapore (5.4%), India (3.5%). Oil, which provides the main export earnings, is supplied to the United States, Japan and Western Europe. Due to the growth of industrial production, Saudi Arabia began to export petrochemical products, consumer goods and food products. In 1997, the country's foreign exchange reserves amounted to 7.57 billion dollars.

Saudi Arabia is one of the world's largest economic donors: in 1993 it provided $100 million for the reconstruction of Lebanon; Since 1993, the country has transferred $208 million in aid to the Palestinians.

Monetary system.

Since 1928: 1 sovereign = 10 riyals = 110 kershes, since 1952: 1 sovereign = 40 riyals = 440 kershes, since 1960: 1 Saudi riyal = 100 halalam. The functions of the central bank are carried out by the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Religion.

Religion has always played a dominant role in Saudi society and still determines the lifestyle of the majority of the population. Most of the inhabitants of Saudi Arabia, including the ruling house of the Saudis, belong to the followers of Wahhabism, one of the currents in Islam, which got its name from the name of the one who lived in the 18th century. reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. They call themselves muwahhids, "monotheists", or simply Muslims. Wahhabism is an ascetic, puritanical trend within the most strict Hanbalist religious and legal school (madhhab) in Sunni Islam, in which Special attention refers to the strict observance of the precepts of Islam. Wahhabis are the guardians of sacred places, under their control there is a pilgrimage to Mecca. In Saudi Arabia, there are also followers of other currents of Sunni Islam - in Asir, Hijaz and Eastern Arabia. In Al-Has, in the east of the country, there is a significant number of Shiites (15%). The Constitution of Saudi Arabia contains a categorical prescription for the citizens of the country to practice Islam. Non-Muslim religions are only allowed among foreign workers. Any public manifestations of belonging to a non-Muslim religion (body crosses, the Bible, etc.), the sale of goods with non-Islamic symbols, as well as public worship are strictly prohibited. Individuals found to be "illegal practicing" their religion may be subject to judicial punishment or expulsion from the country. The entire social and cultural life of the country is regulated by the Muslim lunar calendar (lunar Hijra), such events as the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj), the monthly fast (Ramadan), the feast of breaking the fast (Eid al-Fitr), the Feast of Sacrifice (id al-adha).

At the head of the religious community is the Ulema Council, which interprets Muslim laws. Every city has committees of public morals that monitor the implementation of the rules of conduct. At the beginning of the 20th century The Ulema Council opposed the introduction of a telephone, radio and car in Saudi Arabia on the grounds that such innovations are contrary to Sharia. However, changing conditions, notably rising wealth and the arrival of Western technology in Saudi Arabia, have led to a compromise between the demands of modern life and the limitations of Shariah. Over time, the problem was resolved. This was formalized by a decree of the Ulema Council (fatwa), declaring that Western innovations, from aircraft and television to commercial law, do not contradict Islam. However, most of the strict Wahhabi rules continue to apply, such as all women, Arab or European, being forbidden to associate with men in public places and to drive.

Lifestyle.

Arab nomads inhabiting the desert regions roam between pastures and oases in search of food and water. Their traditional dwellings are tents woven from black sheep and goat wool. Settled Arabs are characterized by dwellings made of bricks dried in the sun, whitewashed or painted with ocher. Slums, once quite common, are now rare thanks to government housing policies.

The staple foods of the Arabs are mutton, lamb, chicken and game seasoned with rice and raisins. Common dishes include soups and stews cooked with onions and lentils. Many fruits are eaten, especially dates and figs, as well as nuts and vegetables. Coffee is a popular drink. Used camel, sheep and goat milk. Sheep milk ghee (dahn) is commonly used for cooking.

The position of women.

Men play a dominant role in Saudi society. A woman cannot appear in a public place without a veil over her face and a cape that covers her body from head to toe. Even in her house, she may not cover her face only in front of the men from her family. The female (“forbidden”) half of the house, harim (hence the word “harem” comes from), is separated from the part where guests are received. Among the Bedouin women are usually more free; they may appear in society without a veil over their face and talk with strangers, nevertheless they occupy a separate tent or part of the family tent. Marriage is considered a civil contract and is accompanied by a financial agreement between the spouses, which must be registered in a religious court. And although romantic love is a perennial theme of Arabic, especially Bedouin, poetry, marriages, as a rule, are organized without the participation or consent of the bride and groom. The main duty of a wife is to care for her husband and meet his needs, as well as raising children. As a rule, marriages are monogamous, although a man is allowed to have up to four wives. Only the wealthiest citizens can afford to enjoy this privilege, but even so, preference is given to one rather than several wives. The husband may at any time apply to a judge (kadi) for a divorce, the only restrictions on him being the marriage contract and the relationship between the families concerned. A woman can apply to a qadi for a divorce only in cases where there are grounds for this, for example, mistreatment by her husband and poor maintenance, or sexual neglect.

Healthcare.

The country has a free healthcare system. Thanks to high spending on healthcare (over 8% of the budget), medical care in the kingdom has reached a very high level in recent decades. It extends to almost the entire population of the country - from residents of large cities to nomadic Bedouin tribes in the desert. In 2003, the birth rate was 37.2, the death rate was 5.79 per 1,000 people; infant mortality - 47 per 1 thousand newborns. The average life expectancy is 68 years. Immunization of infants and young children is mandatory. The creation of an epidemic control system in 1986 made it possible to eliminate diseases such as cholera, plague and yellow fever. The structure of healthcare is mixed. In 1990-1991, there were 163 hospitals (25,835 beds) operating in the country, which were subordinate to the Ministry of Health. About 1/3 of medical institutions belonged to other ministries and departments (3785 beds). In addition, there were 64 private hospitals (6479 beds). There were 12,959 doctors (544 patients per doctor) and 29,124 paramedical personnel.

Education.

Education is free and open to all citizens, although not compulsory. In 1926, a law was passed on compulsory elementary education and on the creation of secular public schools. In 1954, the Ministry of Education was created, which began to implement educational programs that focused on primary education and vocational training, as well as religious education. In the late 1950s, these programs covered secondary and higher education. In 1960 a law was passed on the compulsory education of girls, women's pedagogical schools were opened, and in 1964 a law was passed on the opening of higher educational institutions for girls.

Spending on education for many years ranked second in the budget, and in 1992 this item even moved to first place. In 1995, government spending on education was $12 billion, or 12% of total spending. In 1994, the education system included 7 universities, 83 institutes and 18 thousand schools, in 1996 - 21 thousand schools (290 thousand teachers). In the 1996/1997 academic year, approx. 3.8 million children. The age of entry to school is 6 years. Primary school 6-year, secondary school consists of two levels: incomplete secondary school (3 years) and complete secondary (3 years). Education for boys and girls is separate. In the early 1990s, girls accounted for 44% of the 3 million primary and secondary school students and 46% of university students. Education for girls is managed by a special supervisory board, which also oversees educational programs for adult women. Students are provided with textbooks and medical care. There is a special department dealing with schools for sick children. In accordance with the Fifth 5-year development plan, 1.6 billion dollars were allocated for the development of technical education and vocational training in such areas as medicine, agriculture, education, etc.

There are 16 universities, 7 universities in the country. Universities are administered by the Ministry of Higher Education. These include the University of Islamic Studies in Medina (founded in 1961), the University of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. King Fahd in Dhahran, University. King Abd al-Aziz in Jeddah (founded in 1967), University. King Faisal (having branches in Dammam and Al-Hofuf) (founded in 1975), Islamic University. Imam Mohammed ibn Saud in Riyadh (founded in 1950, university status since 1974), Umm el-Kura University in Mecca (founded in 1979) and the University. King Saud in Riyadh (founded in 1957). The number of university students in 1996 was 143,787 people, teaching staff - 9490 people. About 30 thousand students study abroad.

Thanks to state educational programs, the authorities managed to significantly reduce the level of illiteracy among the population. If in 1972 the number of illiterates reached 80% of the population, then by 2003 it was 21.2% (men - 15.3%, women - 29.2%).

major libraries.

National Library (founded in 1968), Saud Library, Riyadh University Library, Mahmudiya Library, Arif Hikmat Library and Medina University Library.

Culture.

Religion permeates the entire society: it shapes and defines the cultural and artistic life of the country. Historically, Saudi Arabia has not been subject to the foreign cultural influence that other Arab states have experienced. The country lacks a literary tradition comparable to that of the Arab countries of the Mediterranean. Perhaps the only famous Saudi writers are historians of the late 19th century, of whom Osman ibn Bishr can be considered the most famous. The absence of a literary tradition in Saudi Arabia is partly offset by a deeply rooted tradition in oral prose and poetry dating back to pre-Islamic times. Music is not a traditional art form in Saudi Arabia. Its development in recent decades as a means of artistic expression has been nullified by the prohibition imposed by the Ulema Council on its performance for entertainment purposes. There are few performers of folk music and songs, and they are all men. Among the most famous musical performers are the first pop star of Saudi Arabia Abdu Majid-e-Abdallah and the virtuoso of the Arabic lute (oud) Abadi al-Johar. Egyptian pop music is also popular in the country. The same strict ban was imposed on the depiction of human faces and figures in painting and sculpture, although this does not apply to photography. Artistic pursuits are limited to the creation of architectural ornaments such as friezes and mosaics, incorporating traditional forms of Islamic art.

Wahhabism disapproves of the erection of elaborately decorated mosques, so that modern religious architecture is inexpressive, in contrast to ancient, aesthetically more interesting ones (for example, the Kaaba sanctuary in Mecca). The most significant religious architectural work of recent years seems to be the restoration and decoration of the mosque at the burial site of the Prophet in Medina, as well as the significant expansion and renovation of the Great Mosque in Mecca. The austerity of religious architecture is offset by the flourishing of civil architecture. In cities, palaces, public buildings and private houses are being built on a large scale; most of them harmoniously combine modern ideas and traditional design.

There are no theaters and public cinemas in the country, spectacles and performances are prohibited.

Printing, broadcasting, television, internet.

The activities of the Saudi media is the most regulated in the entire Arab world. They are not allowed to criticize the government and the royal family, or to question religious institutions. Only since 2002–2003 have there been signs of liberalization of state media policy. The press and television began to cover topics that were previously considered taboo. Newspapers in Saudi Arabia can only be established by royal decree. Published 10 daily newspapers and dozens of magazines (2003). In Arabic: "Al-Bilyad", from 1934, circulation 30 thousand copies; Al Jazeera; "An-Nadva", since 1958, 35 thousand copies; "Al-Medina al-Munavvara", since 1937, 55 thousand copies; "Riyadh", since 1964, 140 thousand copies; Arab News. The government news agency is the Saudi Press Agency (SPA), founded in 1970.

Radio broadcasting has been conducted since 1948, there are 76 radio stations (1998), controlled by the state and broadcasting news reports, speeches, sermons, educational and religious programs. Since 2002, the opposition radio station Voice of Reforms, which belongs to the Movement for Islamic Reforms in Arabia, has also been broadcasting from Europe.

Television has existed since 1965, there are 3 television networks and 117 television stations (1997). All television and radio broadcasting is carried out by the State Broadcasting Service of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The Minister of Culture and Information is the chairman of the Radio and Television Supervision Authority.

The cellular telephone network has been in existence since 1981; Internet - since the late 1990s, there are 22 Internet Service Providers (2003), 1453 thousand registered users (2002). According to unofficial data, 2/3 of Internet users are women. Government censorship and protection systems are in place to block access to websites deemed offensive to Islamic morality. In total, access to several thousand websites is blocked.

STORY

The territory of the Arabian Peninsula from ancient times (2 thousand BC) was inhabited by nomadic Arab tribes who called themselves "al-Arab" (Arabs). In 1 thousand BC. in various parts of the peninsula, the ancient Arab states begin to take shape - the Minean (before 650 BC), Sabaean (c. 750–115 BC), Himyarite kingdoms (c. 25 BC - 577 AD .). In the 6th–2nd centuries BC. in the north of Arabia, slave-owning states arose (the Nabataean kingdom, which became a Roman province in 106 AD, and others). The development of caravan trade between South Arabia and the states of the Mediterranean coast contributed to the development of such centers as Makoraba (Mecca) and Yathrib (Medina). In the 2nd–5th centuries Judaism and Christianity are spreading on the peninsula. On the coast of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, as well as in the Hijaz, Najran and Yemen, religious communities of Christians and Jews arise. At the end of the 5th c. AD in Nejd, an alliance of Arab tribes was formed, led by the Kinda tribe. Subsequently, his influence extended to a number of neighboring areas, including Hadhramaut and the eastern regions of Arabia. After the collapse of the union (529 AD), Mecca became the most important political center of Arabia, where in 570 AD. Prophet Muhammad was born. During this period, the country became the object of struggle between the Ethiopian and Persian dynasties. All R. 6th c. The Arabs, led by the Quraysh tribe, managed to repel the attack of the Ethiopian rulers who were trying to capture Mecca. In the 7th century AD in the western part of the Arabian Peninsula, a new religion arose - Islam, and the first Muslim theocratic state was formed - the Arab Caliphate with its capital in Medina. Under the leadership of the caliphs at the end of the 7th century. wars of conquest are unfolding outside the Arabian Peninsula. The relocation of the capital of the caliphates from Medina, first to Damascus (661) and then to Baghdad (749), led to the fact that Arabia became the outskirts of a huge state. In the 7th–8th centuries most of the territory of modern Saudi Arabia was part of the Umayyad Caliphate, in the 8th–9th centuries. - Abbasids. With the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, many small independent state formations arose on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Hijaz, which retained the importance of the religious center of Islam, at the end of the 10th-12th centuries. remained in vassalage to the Fatimids, in the 12th–13th centuries. - Ayyubids, and then - Mamluks (since 1425). In 1517 Western Arabia, including Hijaz and Asir, were subject to the Ottoman Empire. All R. 16th century the power of the Turkish sultans extended to Al-Hasa, an area on the coast of the Persian Gulf. From that moment until the end of the First World War, Western and Eastern Arabia were (intermittently) part of the Ottoman Empire. Nejd, whose population was made up of Bedouins and farmers of the oases, enjoyed much greater independence. This whole area was a huge number of small feudal state formations with independent rulers in almost every village and city, constantly at war with each other.

The first Saudi state.

The roots of the state structure of modern Saudi Arabia lie in the religious reform movement of the mid-18th century, called Wahhabism. It was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) and supported by Muhammad ibn Saud (r. 1726/27-1765), the leader of the Anayza tribe who inhabited the Ad-Diriya region in central Najd. By the mid-1780s, the Saudis had established themselves throughout Najd. They managed to unite part of the tribes of central and eastern Arabia into a religious and political confederation, the purpose of which was to spread the Wahhabi teachings and the power of the Nejd emirs to the territory of the entire Arabian Peninsula. After the death of al-Wahhab (1792), Ibn Saud's son, Emir Abdulaziz I ibn Muhammad al-Saud (1765–1803), assumed the title of imam, which meant the unification of both secular and spiritual power in his hands. Relying on the alliance of the Wahhabi tribes, he raised the banner of the "holy war", demanding from the neighboring sheikhs and sultanates the recognition of the Wahhabi doctrine and joint action against the Ottoman Empire. Having formed a large army (up to 100 thousand people), Abdel Aziz in 1786 set about conquering neighboring lands. In 1793, the Wahhabis captured El-Khasa, stormed El-Katif, where they finally fortified by 1795. An attempt by the Ottoman Empire to restore its power over El-Khasa failed (1798). Simultaneously with the struggle for the Persian Gulf region, the Wahhabis launched an offensive on the Red Sea coast, raiding the outskirts of Hijaz and Yemen and capturing oases located along the borders. By 1803, almost the entire coast of the Persian Gulf and the islands adjacent to it (including Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and most of Oman and Muscat) were subjugated by the Wahhabis. In the south, Asir (1802) and Abu Arish (1803) were conquered. In 1801 Abdulaziz's armies invaded Iraq and ravaged the Shia holy city of Karbala. After killing over 4,000 citizens and taking the treasure, they retreated back into the desert. The expedition sent after them to Arabia was defeated. Attacks on the cities of Mesopotamia and Syria continued until 1812, but outside the Arabian Peninsula, the teachings of al-Wahhab did not find support among the local population. The destruction of the cities in Iraq restored the entire Shiite community against the Wahhabis. In 1803, as a sign of revenge for the desecration of the shrines of Karbala, Abdel Aziz was killed by a Shiite right in the Ad-Diriya mosque. But even under his heir, Emir Saud I ibn Abdul Aziz (1803-1814), Wahhabi expansion continued with renewed vigor. In April 1803, Mecca was taken by the Wahhabis, a year later - Medina, and by 1806 the entire Hijaz was subjugated.

From the end of the 18th century the frequent Wahhabi raids began to worry the rulers of the Ottoman Empire more and more. With the capture of the Hejaz by the Wahhabis, the power of the Saudis extended to the holy cities of Islam - Mecca and Medina. Almost the entire territory of the Arabian Peninsula was included in the Wahhabi state. Saud was given the title Khadim-al-Haramain (Servant of the Holy Cities), which gave him the opportunity to claim leadership in the Muslim world. The loss of the Hejaz was a serious blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire, whose clergy issued a fatwa, an official religious edict, outlawing the followers of al-Wahhab. The army of the Egyptian ruler (wali) Muhammad Ali was sent to suppress the Wahhabis. However, in December 1811 the Egyptian army was completely defeated. Despite the first defeat and the desperate resistance of the Wahhabis, the Egyptians took Medina in November 1812, and in January of the following year, Mecca, Taif and Jeddah. They restored the annual pilgrimage to the holy places, which had been banned by the Wahhabis, and returned control of the Hijaz to the Hashemites. After the death of Saud in May 1814, his son Abdullah ibn Saud ibn Abdel Aziz became the emir of Nejd. In early 1815, the Egyptians inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the Wahhabist forces. The Wahhabis were defeated in Hijaz, Asir and in strategically important areas between Hijaz and Najd. However, in May 1815, Muhammad Ali had to urgently leave Arabia. Peace was signed in the spring of 1815. Under the terms of the agreement, the Hijaz came under the control of the Egyptians, and the Wahhabis retained only the regions of Central and North-Eastern Arabia. Emir Abdullah promised to obey the Egyptian governor of Medina, and also recognized himself as a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. He also pledged to secure the Hajj and return the treasures stolen by the Wahhabis in Mecca. But the truce was short-lived, and in 1816 the war resumed. In 1817, as a result of a successful offensive, the Egyptians took the fortified settlements of Er-Rass, Buraida and Unayza. The commander of the Egyptian forces, Ibrahim Pasha, having enlisted the support of most of the tribes, in early 1818 invaded Nejd and in April 1818 laid siege to Ed-Diriya. After a five-month siege, the city fell (September 15, 1818). The last ruler of Ed-Diriya, Abdullah ibn Saud, surrendered to the mercy of the victors, was sent first to Cairo, then to Istanbul, and was publicly executed there. Other Saudis were taken to Egypt. Ed-Diriya was destroyed. Fortifications were demolished in all the cities of Najd and Egyptian garrisons were placed. In 1819, the entire territory that previously belonged to the Saudis was annexed to the possessions of the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali.

The second Saudi state.

However, the Egyptian occupation lasted only a few years. The dissatisfaction of the indigenous population with the Egyptians contributed to the revival of the Wahhabi movement. In 1820, an uprising broke out in Ad-Diriya, led by Misrahi ibn Saud, one of the relatives of the executed emir. Although it was suppressed, a year later, the Wahhabis again managed to recover from the defeat and, under the leadership of Imam Turki ibn Abdallah (1822–1834), the grandson of Muhammad ibn Saud and cousin of Abdullah, who returned from exile, restored the Saudi state. From the destroyed Ed-Diriya, their capital was moved to Riyadh (c. 1822). In an effort to maintain friendly relations with the Ottoman rulers of Iraq, Turki recognized the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. The Egyptian troops sent against the Wahhabis perished from hunger, thirst, epidemics and partisan raids. The Egyptian garrisons remained in Qasim and Shammar, but they were driven out from there in 1827. Having broken the resistance of the recalcitrant Bedouin tribes, the Wahhabis recaptured the coast of El-Khasa by 1830 and forced the sheikhs of Bahrain to pay tribute to them. Three years later, they subjugated the entire coast of the Persian Gulf south of El Qatif, including part of the territory of Oman and Muscat. Under the control of Egypt, only Hijaz remained, which was transformed into an Egyptian province headed by a governor. Despite the loss of central and eastern Arabia, the Egyptians continued to influence the political life of these areas. In 1831 they supported the claims to the Wahhabi throne of Mashari ibn Khalid, cousin Turks. A long period of struggle for power began in the country. In 1834, Mashari, with the help of the Egyptians, took control of Riyadh, killed the Turki, and sat in his place. However, a month later, Faisal ibn Turki, relying on the support of the army, dealt with Mashari and became the new ruler of Najd (1834-1838, 1843-1865). This turn of events did not suit Muhammad Ali. The reason for the new war was Faisal's refusal to pay tribute to Egypt. In 1836, the Egyptian expeditionary army invaded Najd and a year later captured Riyadh; Faisal was captured and sent to Cairo, where he stayed until 1843. Khalid I ibn Saud (1838–1842), son of Saud and brother of Abdullah, who had previously been in Egyptian captivity, was put in his place. In 1840, Egyptian troops were withdrawn from the Arabian Peninsula, which was used by the Wahhabis, who expressed dissatisfaction with Khalid's pro-Egyptian course. In 1841, Abdullah ibn Tunayan declared himself the ruler of Nejd; Riyadh was captured by his supporters, the garrison was destroyed, and Khalid, who at that moment was in Al-Has, fled by ship to Jeddah. Abdullah's reign also proved short-lived. In 1843, he was overthrown by Faisal ibn Turki, who returned from captivity. In a relatively short time, Faisal managed to restore the virtually collapsed emirate. Over the next three decades, the Wahhabi Najd again began to play a leading role in the political life of central and eastern Arabia. During this period, the Wahhabis twice (1851-1852, 1859) tried to establish their control over Bahrain, Qatar, the Treaty Coast and the hinterland of Oman. For a short moment, the Saudi dominion again extended over a large area from Jabal Shammar in the north to the borders of Yemen in the south. Their further advance on the coast of the Persian Gulf was stopped only by the intervention of Great Britain. At the same time, the central government of Riyadh remained weak, vassal tribes often fought among themselves and raised uprisings.

After the death of Faisal (1865), intertribal struggle was supplemented by dynastic strife. Between the heirs of Faisal, who divided Nejd between his three sons, a fierce internecine struggle broke out for the "senior table". In April 1871, Abdullah III ibn Faisal (1865–1871), who ruled in Riyadh, was defeated by his half-brother Saud II (1871–1875). In the next five years, the throne changed hands at least 7 times. Each side created its own groupings, as a result of which the unity of the Wahhabi community was violated; tribal associations no longer obeyed central government. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, the Ottomans occupied Al-Hasa in 1871, and a year later - Asir. After the death of Saud (1875) and a brief period of chaos, Abdullah III (1875–1889) returned to Riyadh. He had to fight not only with his brother Abdarakhman, but also with the sons of Saud II.

Against the backdrop of this struggle, the Saudis were pushed into the shadows by the rival Rashidid dynasty, which ruled from 1835 the emirate of Jabel Shammar. For a long time, the Rashidids were considered vassals of the Saudis, but gradually, having taken control of the trade caravan routes, they gained power and independence. Pursuing a policy of religious tolerance, Shammar emir Mohammed ibn Rashid (1869-1897), nicknamed the Great, managed to put an end to dynastic civil strife in the North of Arabia and unite Jabel Shammar and Qasim under his rule. In 1876, he recognized himself as a vassal of the Turks and, with their help, began to fight against the emirs from the House of Saud. In 1887, Abdullah III, once again overthrown by his nephew Muhammad II, turned to Ibn Rashid for help. In the same year, the Rashidids took Riyadh, placing their own governor in the city. Being in fact as hostages in Hail, the representatives of the Saudi dynasty recognized themselves as vassals of Ibn Rashid and pledged to regularly pay tribute to him. In 1889, Abdullah, appointed governor of the city, and his brother Abdarahman were allowed to return to Riyadh. Abdullah, however, died the same year; he was replaced by Abdarakhman, who soon tried to restore the independence of Nejd. In the Battle of El Mulaid (1891), the Wahhabis and their allies were defeated. Abdarakhman fled with his family to Al-Khasa, and then to Kuwait, where he found refuge with the local ruler. Rashidid governors and representatives were appointed to the captured areas of Riyadh and Qasim. With the fall of Riyadh, Jabal Shammar became the only major state on the Arabian Peninsula. The possessions of the Rashidid emirs extended from the borders of Damascus and Basra in the north to Asir and Oman in the south.

Ibn Saud and the formation of Saudi Arabia.

The power of the Saudi dynasty was restored by the emir Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud (full name Abd al-Aziz ibn Abdarahman ibn Faisal ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Saud, later known as Ibn Saud), who returned in 1901 from exile and started a war against Rashidid dynasty. In January 1902, Ibn Saud, with the support of the ruler of Kuwait, Mubarak, with a small detachment of his supporters, captured Riyadh, the former capital of the Saudis. This victory allowed him to gain a foothold in Nejd and receive support from both religious leaders (who proclaimed him the new emir and imam) and local tribes. By the spring of 1904, Ibn Saud had regained his control over much of southern and central Najd. To fight the Wahhabis, the Rashidids in 1904 turned to the Ottoman Empire for help. Ottoman troops sent to Arabia forced Ibn Saud to go on the defensive for a short while, but were soon defeated and left the country. In 1905, the military successes of the Wahhabis forced the governor (wali) of the Ottoman Empire in Iraq to recognize Ibn Saud as his vassal in Najd. The possessions of Ibn Saud nominally became the district of the Ottoman vilayet of Basra. Left alone, the Rashidids continued to fight for some time. But in April 1906 their emir Abdel Aziz ibn Mitab al-Rashid (1897–1906) died in battle. His successor Mitab hastened to make peace and recognized the rights of the Saudis to Nejd and Qasim. Through an exchange of letters, the Turkish Sultan Abdul-Hamid confirmed this agreement. Ottoman troops were withdrawn from Qasim, and Ibn Saud became the sole ruler of central Arabia.

Like his ancestors, Ibn Saud sought to unite Arabia into a unitary theocratic state. This goal was facilitated not only by his military and diplomatic successes, but also by dynastic marriages, the appointment of relatives to responsible posts and the involvement of ulema in solving state problems. Unstable elements hindering the unity of Arabia remained the Bedouin tribes, who retained the tribal organization and did not recognize the state system. In an effort to achieve the loyalty of the largest tribes, Ibn Saud, on the advice of Wahhabi religious teachers, began to transfer them to settled life. For this purpose, in 1912, a military-religious brotherhood was founded. Ikhwans (Arab."brothers"). All the Bedouin tribes and oases who refused to join the Ikhwan movement and recognize Ibn Saud as their emir and imam began to be seen as enemies of Nejd. Ikhvans were ordered to move to agricultural colonies (“hijras”), whose members were called to love their homeland, unquestioningly obey the imam-emir and not enter into any contacts with Europeans and residents of the countries they ruled (including Muslims). A mosque was erected in each Ikhwan community, which also served as a military garrison, and the Ikhwans themselves became not only farmers, but also warriors of the Saudi state. By 1915, more than 200 such settlements were organized throughout the country, including at least 60 thousand people who, at the first call of Ibn Saud, were ready to go to war with the "infidels."

With the help of the Ikhwans, Ibn Saud established complete control over Najd (1912), annexed Al-Khasa and the territories bordering Abu Dhabi and Muscat (1913). This allowed him to conclude in May 1914 a new agreement with the Ottoman Empire. In accordance with it, Ibn Saud became the governor (wali) of the newly formed province (vilayet) of Najd. Even earlier, Great Britain recognized Al-Khasa as the possessions of the Emir of Najd. Negotiations began between the two countries, which led to the fact that on December 26, 1915, an agreement was signed in Darin About friendship and union with the government of British India. Ibn Saud was recognized as the emir of Nejd, Qasim and Al-Khasa, independent of the Ottoman Empire, but pledged not to oppose England and coordinate his foreign policy with her, not to attack British possessions on the Arabian Peninsula, not to alienate his territory to third powers and not to enter into agreements with countries other than Great Britain, as well as again starting a war against the Rashidids, who were allies of the Ottoman Empire. For this concession, the Saudis received substantial military and financial assistance (in the amount of £60 per year). Despite the agreement, the Nejdi emirate did not take part in the First World War, limiting itself to spreading its influence in Arabia.

At the same time, as a result of a secret correspondence between the British High Commissioner in Egypt, McMahon, and the Grand Sheriff of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi, on October 24, 1915, an agreement was reached, according to which Hussein undertook to raise the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman Empire. In exchange, Great Britain recognized the independence of the future Arab state of the Hashemites within its "natural borders" (part of Syria, Palestine, Iraq and the entire Arabian Peninsula, with the exception of the British protectorates and territories of Western Syria, Lebanon and Cilicia, which were claimed by France). In accordance with the agreement in June 1916, detachments of the Hijaz tribes, led by Hussein's son Faisal and the British colonel T.E. Lawrence, revolted. Assuming the title of king, Hussein declared the independence of the Hejaz from the Ottoman Empire. Using diplomatic recognition, on October 19, 1916, he proclaimed the independence of all Arabs from the Ottoman Empire and 10 days later took the title of "king of all Arabs." However, Great Britain and France, which secretly violated their obligations in the spring of 1916 (the Sykes-Picot agreement), recognized him only as the king of the Hijaz. By July 1917, the Arabs cleared the Hejaz from the Turks and occupied the port of Aqaba. At the final stage of the war, detachments under the command of Faisal and T.E. Lawrence took Damascus (September 30, 1918). As a result of the Truce of Mudros, concluded on October 30, 1918, the rule of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab countries was eliminated. The process of separation of the Hejaz (and other Arab possessions) from Turkey was finally completed in 1921 at a conference in Cairo.

After the end of the First World War, the activity of the Ikhwan movement on the borders of Najd led to clashes between the Saudis and most of the neighboring states. In 1919, in a battle near the city of Turab, located on the border between Hijaz and Nejd, the Ikhwans completely destroyed the royal army of Hussein ibn Ali. The losses were so great that the sheriff of Mecca had no strength left to defend the Hijaz. In August 1920, Saudi troops led by Prince Faisal ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud occupied Upper Asir; the emirate was declared a protectorate of Nejd (finally annexed in 1923). In the same year, the city of Hail, the capital of Jabal Shammar, fell under the blows of the Ikhwans. With the defeat in the following year of the forces of Muhammad ibn Talal, the last Rashidid emir, Jabal Shammar was annexed to the dominions of the Saudis. August 22, 1921 Ibn Saud was proclaimed the Sultan of Najd and dependent territories. In the next two years, Ibn Saud annexed al-Jawf and Wadi al-Sirhan, extending his authority over all of northern Arabia.

Encouraged by their successes, the Ikhwans continued their advance north, invading the border regions of Iraq, Kuwait, and Transjordan. Not wanting to strengthen the Saudis, Great Britain supported the sons of Hussein - King Faisal of Iraq and Emir of Transjordan Abdullah. The Wahhabis were defeated by signing the so-called Uqair on May 5, 1922. the "Muhammar Agreement" to demarcate the borders with Iraq and Kuwait; neutral zones were established in the disputed areas. A conference convened the following year by the British government to settle disputed territorial issues with the participation of the rulers of Iraq, Transjordan, Nejd and Hijaz ended without results. With the conquest of small principalities in the north and south, Saudi possessions doubled.

The adoption by King Hussein of the title of caliph of all Muslims led in 1924 to a new conflict between Nejd and Hijaz. Accusing Hussein of apostasy from Islamic tradition, Ibn Saud in June 1924 appealed to Muslims not to recognize him as caliph and convened a conference of ulema, at which a decision was made to wage war against the Hijaz. In August of the same year, the Ikhwans invaded the Hijaz and captured Mecca in October. Hussein was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Ali and flee to Cyprus. The Wahhabi offensive was continued the following year. Territorial concessions to Transjordan, as well as the aggravation of relations between King Hussein and England on the issue of belonging to Palestine, made it possible for Ibn Saud to achieve victory over Hijaz relatively easily. In December 1925, Saudi troops took Jeddah and Medina, after which Ali also abdicated. This event marked the fall of the Hashemite dynasty in Arabia.

As a result of the war, Hijaz was annexed to Najd. On January 8, 1926, at the Grand Mosque of Mecca, Ibn Saud was proclaimed the King of Hijaz and the Sultan of Najd (the Saudi state was named "Kingdom of Hijaz, the Sultanate of Najd and the annexed areas"). On February 16, 1926, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize the new state and established diplomatic and trade relations with it. Hijaz, which was granted a constitution (1926), received autonomy within the united state; the son of Ibn Saud was appointed his viceroy (vice-king), under which a Consultative Assembly was created, appointed by him on the proposal of the "eminent citizens" of Mecca. The assembly considered bills and other issues that the governor put before him, but all his decisions were advisory in nature.

In October 1926, the Saudis established their protectorate over Lower Asir (the conquest of Asir was finally completed in November 1930). On January 29, 1927, Ibn Saud was proclaimed the king of Hijaz, Najd and the annexed regions (the state received the name "Kingdom of Hijaz and Najd and the annexed regions"). In May 1927 London was forced to recognize the independence of Hijaz-Najd; Ibn Saud, for his part, recognized the "special relations" of the sheikhs of Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Treaty Oman with Great Britain (G. Clayton's treaty).

With the conquest of the Hijaz and the introduction of a new tax on pilgrims, the Hajj became the main source of revenue for the treasury (in the rest of the kingdom, except for the Hijaz, taxes were levied "in kind"). In order to promote the development of the Hajj, Ibn Saud took steps to normalize relations with the Western powers and their allies in the Arab countries. However, along this path, Ibn Saud encountered internal opposition in the person of the Ikhwans. The modernization of the country according to the Western model (the spread of such “innovations” as telephones, cars, telegraph, sending the son of Saud Faisal to the “country of unbelievers” - Egypt) they regarded as a betrayal of the basic principles of Islam. The crisis in camel breeding, caused by the import of cars, further increased discontent among the Bedouins.

By 1926 the Ikhwan had become uncontrollable. Their raids on Iraq and Transjordan, announced as part of the fight against the "infidels", became a serious diplomatic problem for Najd and Hijaz. In response to the resumption of Ikhwan raids on the border areas of Iraq, Iraqi troops occupied the neutral zone, which led to a new war between the Hashemite and Saudi dynasties (1927). Only after the bombing of British aircraft on the troops of Ibn Saud, hostilities between the two states were stopped. Iraq withdrew its troops from the neutral zone (1928). On February 22, 1930, Ibn Saud made peace with King Faisal of Iraq (son of the former emir Hejaz Hussein), ending the Saudi-Hashimi dynastic feud in the Arabian Peninsula (1919–1930).

In 1928 the leaders of the Ikhwans, accusing Ibn Saud of betraying the cause for which they were fighting, openly challenged the authority of the monarch. However, the majority of the population rallied around the king, which gave him the opportunity to quickly put down the uprising. In October 1928, a peace agreement was concluded between the king and the rebel leaders. But the massacre of merchants in Nejd forced Ibn Saud to undertake a new military operation against the Ikhwans (1929). The actions of Ibn Saud were approved by the Ulema Council, which believed that only the king had the right to declare a "holy war" (jihad) and govern the state. After receiving a religious blessing from the ulema, Ibn Saud formed a small army from among the tribes and urban population loyal to him and inflicted a series of defeats on the Bedouin rebel factions. The civil war, however, continued until 1930, when the rebels were surrounded by the British in Kuwaiti territory, and their leaders were handed over to Ibn Saud. With the defeat of the Ikhwans, tribal associations lost their role as the main military support of Ibn Saud. During the civil war, the rebellious sheikhs and their squads were completely destroyed. This victory was the final stage on the way to the creation of a single centralized state.

Saudi Arabia in 1932-1953.

On September 22, 1932, Ibn Saud changed the name of his state to a new one - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This was supposed not only to strengthen the unity of the kingdom and put an end to Hijaz separatism, but also to emphasize the central role of the royal house in the creation of the Arabian centralized state. During the entire subsequent period of Ibn Saud's reign, internal problems did not present any particular difficulties for him. At the same time, the external relations of the kingdom developed ambiguously. The policy of religious intolerance led to the alienation of Saudi Arabia from the majority of Muslim governments, who considered the Saudi regime hostile and resented the complete control established by the Wahhabis over the holy cities and the Hajj.

Border problems persisted in many places, especially in the south of the country. In 1932, with the support of Yemen, Emir Asir Hassan Idrisi, who in 1930 renounced his own sovereignty in favor of Ibn Saud, raised a rebellion against Saudi Arabia. His speech was quickly suppressed. In early 1934, there was an armed clash between Yemen and Saudi Arabia over the disputed region of Najran. In just a month and a half, Yemen was defeated and almost completely occupied by Saudi troops. The final annexation of Yemen was prevented only by the intervention of Great Britain and Italy, who saw this as a threat to their colonial interests. Hostilities were terminated after the signing of the Taif Treaty (June 23, 1934), according to which Saudi Arabia achieved recognition by the government of Yemen of joining Asir, Jizan and part of Najran. The final demarcation of the border with Yemen was carried out in 1936.

Border problems also occurred in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula after Ibn Saud in 1933 granted an oil concession to Standard Oil of California (SOKAL). Negotiations with Great Britain over the demarcation of borders with neighboring British protectorates and possessions - Qatar, Trucial Oman, Muscat and Oman and the Eastern Protectorate of Aden ended in failure.

Despite the mutual hostility that existed between the Saudi and Hashemite dynasties, in 1933 an agreement was signed with Transjordan, which put an end to years of tense enmity between the Saudis and the Hashemites. In 1936, Saudi Arabia took steps towards normalizing relations with a number of neighboring states. A non-aggression pact was signed with Iraq. In the same year, diplomatic relations with Egypt, which had been severed in 1926, were restored.

In May 1933, due to the reduction in the number of pilgrims in Mecca and tax revenues from the Hajj, Ibn Saud was forced to grant a concession for oil exploration in Saudi Arabia to Standard Oil of California (SOKAL). In March 1938, the California Arabian Standard Oil Company (CASOC, a subsidiary of the Standard Oil of California) discovered oil in El Has. Under these conditions, KASOK achieved in May 1939 a concession for the exploration and production of oil in a large part of the country's territory (commercial production began in 1938).

The outbreak of World War II prevented the full-scale development of the Al-Hasa oil fields, however, part of the loss of Ibn Saud's income was offset by British and then American aid. During the war, Saudi Arabia severed diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany (1941) and Italy (1942), but remained neutral until almost the end of the war (officially declared war on Germany and Japan on February 28, 1945). At the end of the war and especially after it, American influence increased in Saudi Arabia. In 1943, the United States established diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia and extended the lend-lease law to it. In early February 1944, American oil companies began building a trans-Arabian oil pipeline from Dhahran to the Lebanese port of Saida. At the same time, the government of Saudi Arabia allowed the construction of a large American air base in Dhahran, which the United States needed for the war against Japan. In February 1945, US President Franklin Roosevelt and King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia signed an agreement on the US monopoly on the development of Saudi deposits.

Oil production, which increased significantly at the end of the war, contributed to the formation of the working class. In 1945, the first strike took place at the enterprises of the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO, until 1944 - CASOC). The board of the company was forced to satisfy the basic demands of the workers (increasing wages, reducing working hours and providing annual paid leave). As a result of new strikes in 1946–1947, the government adopted a labor law (1947), according to which a 6-day working week with an 8-hour working day was introduced at all enterprises in the country.

The development of the oil industry was the reason for the folding of the administrative management system. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the ministries of finance, internal affairs, defense, education, agriculture, communications, foreign affairs, etc. were created (1953).

In 1951, an agreement "on mutual defense and mutual assistance" was signed between the United States and Saudi Arabia. The United States received the right to further build an air force base in Dhahran (in Al-Khas), where the headquarters of ARAMCO was located. In the same 1951, a new concession agreement was signed with ARAMCO, according to which the company switched to the principle of "equal distribution of profits", deducting half of all its oil revenues to the kingdom.

Based on significantly increased resources, Ibn Saud again put forward territorial claims against the British protectorates of Qatar, Abu Dhabi and Muscat. In the disputed territories, ARAMCO search parties began to conduct survey work. After unsuccessful negotiations with Great Britain, the military forces of Saudi Arabia occupied the oasis of Al Buraimi, which belonged to Abu Dhabi (1952).

Saudi Arabia under Saud.

In full scale, the changes caused by huge revenues from oil exports manifested themselves already during the reign of Ibn Saud's successor, his second son Saud ibn Abdul Aziz, who ascended the throne in November 1953. In October 1953, the Council of Ministers headed by Saud was established. That same month, the government cracked down on a massive strike involving 20,000 ARAMCO oil workers. The new king issued laws that prohibited strikes and demonstrations and provided for the most severe punishments (up to the death penalty) for speaking out against the royal regime.

In 1954, an agreement was reached between Saud and Onassis to create an independent oil transport company However, ARAMCO, with the help of the US State Department, thwarted the deal.

Relations with neighboring states during this period remained uneven. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, relations between Saudi Arabia and a number of neighboring states improved somewhat, which was the result of the formation of the state of Israel and the hostile attitude towards it from the Arab countries. In foreign policy, Saud followed the precepts of his father and, together with Egyptian President Nasser, supported the slogan of Arab unity. Saudi Arabia opposed the creation of the "Middle East Cooperation Organization" (METO), formed by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Great Britain (1955). On October 27, 1955, Saudi Arabia concluded a defensive alliance agreement with Egypt and Syria. That same month, British forces from Abu Dhabi and Muscat regained control of the oasis of Al Buraimi, which had been captured by the Saudi Arabian police in 1952. An attempt by Saudi Arabia to seek UN support failed. In 1956, an additional agreement was signed in Jeddah with Egypt and Yemen on a military alliance for 5 years. During the Suez Crisis (1956), Saudi Arabia took the side of Egypt, providing a loan of 10 million dollars, and sent its troops to Jordan. November 6, 1956 Saud announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Britain and France and the introduction of an oil embargo.

In 1956, a strike of Arab workers at ARAMCO enterprises and student unrest in Najd were brutally suppressed. Saud issued a royal decree in June 1956 banning strikes under threat of dismissal.

A turn in Saudi foreign policy began in 1957 after Saud's visit to the United States. Taking a sharply negative stance towards pan-Arabism and Nasser's social reform program, Saud reached an agreement in March 1957 with the Hashemite rulers of Jordan and Iraq. Islamists who emigrated from Egypt under pressure from Nasser found refuge in the country. In February 1958, Saudi Arabia opposed the formation by Egypt and Syria of a new state - the United Arab Republic (UAR). A month later, official Damascus accused King Saud of being involved in a plot to overthrow the Syrian government and preparing an assassination attempt on the Egyptian president. In the same 1958, relations with Iraq were practically interrupted.

Saud's huge expenses for personal needs, maintenance of the court, bribery of tribal leaders significantly undermined the Saudi economy. Despite annual oil revenues, by 1958 the country's debt had grown to $300 million, and the Saudi riyal devalued by 80%. Inefficient financial management of the kingdom and inconsistent domestic and foreign policy, the systematic intervention of the Saud in the internal affairs of other Arab countries led in 1958 to a crisis in public administration. Under pressure from members of the royal family, Saud was forced in March 1958 to transfer full executive and legislative power to the prime minister, who was appointed by his younger brother Faisal. In May 1958, the reform of the state apparatus was launched. A permanent Council of Ministers was formed, the composition of which was appointed by the head of government. The cabinet was responsible to the prime minister, the king retained only the right to sign decrees and veto. In parallel, the financial control of the government over all the income of the kingdom was established, and the expenses of the royal court were also significantly cut. As a result of the measures taken, the government managed to balance the budget, stabilize the exchange rate of the national currency and reduce the state's domestic debt. However, the struggle within the ruling house continued.

Relying on the tribal aristocracy and a group of liberal-minded members of the royal family, headed by Prince Talal ibn Abdulaziz, Saud in December 1960 regained direct control over the government and again took over as prime minister. Along with the sons of Saud, Talal and his supporters were included in the new cabinet, who advocated political reforms, general parliamentary elections and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

During this period, political associations arise that advocate the democratization of public life, the creation of a responsible government, the development of national industry and the use of the country's wealth in the interests of the entire population: the Freedom Movement in Saudi Arabia, the Liberal Party, the Reform Party, the Front of National reforms." However, the government failed to take any real steps towards reforming the regime. In protest against the continuation of the conservative traditionalist policy, Prince Talal resigned and in May 1962, together with a group of his supporters, fled to Lebanon, and then to Egypt. In the same year, in Cairo, he formed the Saudi Arabia National Liberation Front, which advocated radical socialist reforms in the country and the establishment of a republic. The flight of Talal, as well as the overthrow of the monarchy in neighboring Yemen and the proclamation of the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) in September 1962, led to the rupture of diplomatic relations between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Republic (UAR).

For the next five years, Saudi Arabia was effectively at war with Egypt and the YAR, providing direct military assistance to the deposed Imam of Yemen. The war in Yemen reached its climax in 1963, when Saudi Arabia, in connection with the threat of an Egyptian attack, announced the start of a general mobilization. The deterioration of relations between Saudi Arabia and Syria belongs to the same period, after the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (Baath) came to power in this country in March 1963.

Saudi Arabia under Faisal.

In October 1962, due to the deteriorating economic situation in the country, the Cabinet of Ministers was again headed by Prince Faisal. He carried out a number of reforms in the economy, the social sphere and the field of education, which the liberals insisted on. The government abolished slavery and the slave trade (1962), nationalized the port of Jeddah, issued laws protecting the position of Saudi industrialists from foreign competition, provided them with loans, exempted them from taxes and duties on the import of industrial equipment. In 1962, the state company PETROMIN (General Administration of Oil and Mining Resources) was established to control the activities of foreign companies, the extraction, transportation and marketing of all minerals, as well as the development of the oil refining industry. It was supposed to carry out other large-scale reforms in the field of public administration: the adoption of a constitution, the creation of local authorities and the formation of an independent judiciary headed by the Supreme Judicial Council, which includes representatives of secular and religious circles. Attempts by the opposition to influence the situation in the country were severely suppressed. In 1963–1964, anti-government demonstrations were suppressed in Hail and Najd. In 1964, conspiracies were uncovered in the Saudi army, which caused new repressions against "unreliable elements." Faisal's projects and the funds needed to modernize the armed forces fighting in North Yemen meant that the king's personal expenses had to be reduced. On March 28, 1964, by decree of the royal council and the council of the ulema, the powers of the king and his personal budget were cut (Crown Prince Faisal was declared regent, and Saud the nominal ruler). Saud, who regarded this as an act of arbitrariness, tried to win the support of influential circles in order to regain power, but failed. On November 2, 1964, Saud was deposed by members of the royal family, whose decision was confirmed by a fatwa (religious decree) of the Ulema Council. November 4, 1964 Saud signed the abdication and in January 1965 went into exile in Europe. This decision ended a decade of internal and external instability and further consolidated conservative forces at home. Faisal ibn al-Aziz al-Faisal al-Saud was proclaimed the new king, retaining the post of prime minister. In March 1965, he appointed his half-brother, Prince Khalid ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud, as the new heir.

Faisal declared his first priority the modernization of the kingdom. His first decrees were aimed at protecting the state and the nation from potential internal and external threats that could interfere with the development of the kingdom. Cautiously but decisively, Faisal followed the path of introducing Western technologies in industry and the social sphere. Under him, the reform of the education and health systems was developed, and national television appeared. After the death of the Grand Mufti in 1969, a reform of religious institutions was carried out, a system of religious bodies controlled by the king was created (Council of the Assembly of Leading Ulemas, the Supreme Qadi Council, the Administration of Scientific (Religious) Research, Decision-Making (Fatwas), Propaganda and Leadership, etc.).

In foreign policy, Faisal made great progress in resolving border disputes. In August 1965, a final agreement was reached on the demarcation of the borders between Saudi Arabia and Jordan. In the same year, Saudi Arabia agreed on the future contours of the border with Qatar. In December 1965, an agreement was signed on the delimitation of the continental shelf between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain on joint rights to the offshore Abu Saafa field. In October 1968, a similar agreement was signed on the continental shelf with Iran.

In 1965, Saudi Arabia and Egypt organized a meeting of representatives of the Yemeni opposing sides, at which an agreement was reached between Egyptian President Nasser and King Faisal of Saudi Arabia to end foreign military interference in the affairs of the YAR. However, hostilities soon resumed with renewed vigor. Egypt has accused Saudi Arabia of continuing to provide military assistance to supporters of the ousted Yemeni imam, and announced the suspension of the withdrawal of its troops from the country. Egyptian aircraft attacked the bases of the Yemeni monarchists in southern Saudi Arabia. Faisal's government responded by closing several Egyptian banks, after which Egypt proceeded to confiscate all property owned by Saudi Arabia in Egypt. In Saudi Arabia itself, a number of terrorist attacks have been carried out against the royal family and citizens of the United States and Great Britain. 17 Yemenis were publicly executed on charges of sabotage. The number of political prisoners in the country in 1967 reached 30,000.

The sympathy that Faisal might have felt for King Hussein of Jordan as his fellow monarch, as well as an opponent of all kinds of revolutions, Marxism and republican sentiment, was overshadowed by the traditional rivalry between the Saudis and the Hashemites. Nevertheless, in August 1965, a 40-year-old dispute between Saudi Arabia and Jordan over the border was resolved: Saudi Arabia recognized Jordan's claims to the port city of Aqaba.

Egyptian and Saudi differences were not resolved until the Khartoum Conference of Arab Heads of State in August 1967. This was preceded by the third Arab-Israeli war ("Six-Day War", 1967), during which the government of Saudi Arabia declared its support for Egypt and sent its own military units (20 thousand soldiers, who, however, did not take part in the hostilities). Along with this, the Faisal government resorted to economic leverage: an embargo was announced on oil exports to the United States and Great Britain. However, the embargo did not last long. At the Khartoum conference, the heads of government of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Libya decided to allocate £135 million annually to the “victim states of aggression” (UAR, Jordan). Art. to restore their economy. At the same time, the embargo on oil exports was also lifted. In exchange for economic assistance, Egypt agreed to withdraw its troops from North Yemen. The civil war in the YAR continued until 1970, when Saudi Arabia recognized the republican government, withdrew all its troops from the country and stopped military assistance to the monarchists.

With the end of the civil war in YAR, Saudi Arabia faced a new external threat - the revolutionary regime in the People's Republic of South Yemen (PRSY). King Faisal provided support to groups of the South Yemeni opposition that fled after 1967 to the YAR and Saudi Arabia. At the end of 1969, armed clashes erupted between the PRJ and Saudi Arabia over the oasis of Al-Wadeyah. The reason for the aggravation of the crisis was the alleged oil and water reserves in the region.

In the same year, the authorities prevented an attempted coup d'état, which was being prepared by Air Force officers; about 300 people were arrested and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. High wages and privileges eased the discontent in the officer corps.

In 1970, Shiite unrest again occurred in Qatif, which were so serious that the city was blockaded for a month.

The Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation concluded between the USSR and Iraq in 1972 reinforced Faisal's fears and prompted him to try to unite neighboring countries into a coalition to fight the "communist threat".

New disputes with neighbors were caused by the formation in 1971 of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Setting a condition for its recognition of the solution of the issue of al-Buraimi, Saudi Arabia refused to recognize the new state. Only in August 1974, after lengthy negotiations, was it possible to remove most of the questions on the oasis of El Buraimi. As a result of the agreement, Saudi Arabia recognized the rights of Abu Dhabi and Oman to the oasis, and in turn received the territory of Sabha Bita in the southern part of Abu Dhabi, two small islands and the right to build a road and an oil pipeline through Abu Dhabi to the Gulf coast.

During the Arab-Israeli war of 1973, Saudi Arabia sent small military units to participate in military operations on the Syrian and Egyptian fronts. At the end of the war, the country provided gratuitous financial assistance to Egypt and Syria, reduced oil production and its supply to countries that supported Israel in October-December, established a (temporary) embargo on oil exports to the United States and the Netherlands in order to force them to change their policy in the Arab world. Israeli conflict. The oil embargo and the 4-fold increase in oil prices contributed to the strengthening of the economy of the Arab oil-producing states. With the signing of truce agreements between Israel, Egypt and Syria in 1974 (both mediated by US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger) and the visit to Saudi Arabia (June 1974) of US President Richard M. Nixon, relations between Saudi Arabia and the United States were normalized. The country has made efforts to reduce the growth of world oil prices.

Saudi Arabia under Khaled (1975–1982).

On March 25, 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by one of his nephews, Prince Faisal ibn Musaid, who returned to the country after studying at an American university. The killer was arrested, declared mentally ill and sentenced to death by decapitation. The king's brother, Khaled ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud (1913–1982), ascended the throne. Due to Khalid's failing health, virtually all executive power was transferred to Crown Prince Fahd ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud. The new government continued Faisal's conservative policies, increasing spending on the development of transport, industry and education. Thanks to huge oil revenues and its military-strategic position, the role of the kingdom in regional politics and international economic and financial issues has increased. The treaty concluded in 1977 between King Khaled and US President Ford further strengthened US-Saudi relations. At the same time, the Saudi government condemned the peace agreements between Israel and Egypt, concluded in 1978-1979, and broke off diplomatic relations with Egypt (restored in 1987).

Saudi Arabia was influenced by the rising tide of Islamic fundamentalism that followed the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1978-1979. In 1978, large anti-government demonstrations again took place in Qatif, accompanied by arrests and executions. The tension in Saudi society was openly manifested in November 1979, when armed Muslim oppositionists led by Juhayman al-Oteibi captured the al-Haram mosque in Mecca, one of the Muslim shrines. The rebels were supported by part of the local population, as well as hired workers and students of some religious educational institutions. The rebels accused the ruling regime of corruption, deviation from the original principles of Islam and the spread of the Western way of life. The mosque was liberated by Saudi forces after two weeks of fighting that killed more than 300 people. The capture of the Great Mosque and the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran provoked new actions of Shiite dissidents, also suppressed by the troops and the National Guard. In response to these speeches, Crown Prince Fahd announced in early 1980 plans to create an Advisory Council, which, however, was only formed in 1993, and to modernize the administration in the Eastern Province.

To provide external protection for its allies, the United States agreed in 1981 to sell several AWACS airborne tracking systems to Saudi Arabia, which caused a backlash in Israel, which feared the military balance in the Middle East. In the same year, Saudi Arabia took part in the establishment of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a group of six Arabian Gulf states.

On the other hand, in an effort to counter internal threats from religious extremists, the government of Saudi Arabia began to actively assist Islamist movements in various regions of the world, and above all, in Afghanistan. This policy coincided with a sharp increase in oil export revenues - between 1973 and 1978, Saudi Arabia's annual profits rose from $4.3 billion to $34.5 billion.

Modern Saudi Arabia.

In June 1982, King Khaled died and Fahd became king and prime minister. Another brother, Prince Abdullah, commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (b. 1928), minister of defense and aviation, became second deputy prime minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy was in serious trouble. The decline in world demand and oil prices that began in 1981 led to a reduction in Saudi oil production from 9 million barrels per day in 1980 to 2.3 million barrels in 1985; revenues from oil exports fell from $101 billion to $22 billion. The balance of payments deficit in 1985 amounted to $20 billion, and foreign exchange reserves also declined. All this led to the aggravation of many internal political, social and religious contradictions fueled by the tense foreign political situation in the region.

During the Iran-Iraq war, during which Saudi Arabia economically and politically supported the Iraqi government, Ayatollah Khomeini's followers repeatedly organized riots in an attempt to disrupt the annual hajj to Mecca. Saudi Arabia's tough security measures have usually prevented major incidents. In response to the unrest of Iranian pilgrims that took place in Mecca in March 1987, the country's government decided to reduce their number to 45 thousand people a year. This caused an extremely negative reaction from the Iranian leadership. In July 1987, about 25,000 Iranian pilgrims attempted to block the entrance to the Haram Mosque (Beit Ullah), fighting with security forces. More than 400 people died as a result of the riots. Khomeini called for the overthrow of the Saudi royal house to avenge the death of the pilgrims. The Saudi government has accused Iran of organizing riots in support of its demand for the extraterritoriality of Mecca and Medina. This incident, along with Iranian air raids on Saudi oil tankers in the Persian Gulf in 1984, forced Saudi Arabia to break off diplomatic relations with Iran. Numerous terrorist attacks have been carried out against Saudi agencies abroad, most notably the offices of the national airline, Saudi Arabia. Responsibility for the killings of Saudi diplomats was claimed by the Shiite groups "Party of God in Hijaz", "Faithful Soldiers" and "Generation of Arab Anger". Several Saudi Shiites were convicted and executed for bombing Saudi oil facilities in 1988. In 1989, Saudi Arabia accused Iran of being involved in two terrorist attacks during the 1989 Hajj. In 1990, 16 Kuwaiti Shiites were executed for committing terrorist attacks. During 1988–1991, Iranians did not participate in the Hajj. Normalization of relations with Iran occurred after the death of Khomeini in 1989. In 1991, the Saudis approved a quota of 115,000 Iranian pilgrims and allowed political demonstrations in Mecca. During the Hajj in 1990, more than 1,400 pilgrims were trampled to death or suffocated in the underground tunnel that connects Mecca with one of the sanctuaries. The incident, however, was not related to Iran.

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 had significant military, political and economic consequences for Saudi Arabia. Having completed the occupation of Kuwait, Iraqi troops began to concentrate on the border with Saudi Arabia. To counter the Iraqi military threat, Saudi Arabia has mobilized and turned to the United States for military assistance. The Fahd government allowed the temporary deployment of thousands of US and allied military forces to Saudi territory. At the same time, the country hosted approx. 400 thousand refugees from Kuwait. During this period, in order to compensate for the loss of oil supplies from Iraq and Kuwait, Saudi Arabia increased its own oil production many times over. King Fahd personally played a huge role during the Persian Gulf War, by his influence he persuaded many Arab states to join the anti-Iraq coalition. During the Persian Gulf War (1991), the territory of Saudi Arabia was repeatedly bombarded by Iraq. At the end of January 1991, the Saudi cities of Wafra and Khafji were captured by Iraqi units. The battles for these cities were called the largest battle in the history of the country with enemy forces. Saudi forces participated in other combat operations, including the liberation of Kuwait.

After the Gulf War, the government of Saudi Arabia came under intense pressure from Islamic radicals who demanded political reforms, strict adherence to Sharia law, and the withdrawal of Western troops, especially American ones, from the sacred land of Arabia. Petitions were sent to King Fahd calling for increased government powers, greater public participation in political life, and greater economic justice. Following these actions, the creation in May 1993 of the "Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights" followed. However, the government soon banned this organization, dozens of its members were arrested, and King Fahd demanded that the Islamists stop anti-government agitation.

Pressure from liberals and conservatives forced King Fahd to start political reforms. On February 29, 1992, at an official meeting of the government, three royal decrees were adopted (“Fundamentals of the system of power”, “Regulations on the Advisory Council” and “The system of territorial structure”), which fixed the general principles of the state structure and government of the country. In addition to them, in September 1993, the King adopted the "Act of the establishment of the Consultative Council", according to which the members of the Consultative Council were appointed and its powers were explained. In December 1993, the first meeting of the Advisory Council took place. In the same year, the reform of the Council of Ministers and the administrative reform were announced. By royal decree, the country was divided into 13 provinces, headed by emirs appointed by the king. In the same 1993, the members of 13 provincial councils and the principles of their activities were announced. In 1994, the provinces, in turn, were divided into 103 districts.

In October 1994, as a counterbalance to the Ulema Council, an advisory body of extremely conservative theologians, the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs was formed, consisting of members of the royal family and members appointed by the king (headed by Minister of Defense Sultan), as well as the Council for Islamic Requests and Leadership (led by the Minister of Islamic Affairs, Abdullah al-Turki).

The war with Iraq had a serious impact on the country's economy. The economic problems became apparent in 1993 when the US insisted that Saudi Arabia pay for US expenses during the Gulf War. According to experts, this war cost the country $70 billion. Low oil prices did not allow Saudi Arabia to compensate for financial losses. Budget deficits and declining oil prices in the 1980s forced the Saudi government to cut social spending and reduce the kingdom's foreign investment. Despite its own economic difficulties, Saudi Arabia thwarted Iranian plans to artificially raise the price of oil in March 1994.

War on terrorism.

However, attempts at structural reforms have not been able to resolve the contradictions that have been brewing in Saudi society. Coalition troops were withdrawn from Saudi Arabia at the end of 1991; about 6 thousand American soldiers remained in the country. Their stay on Saudi soil was in blatant contradiction with the tenets of Wahhabism. In November 1995, the first terrorist attack against American citizens took place in Riyadh - a bomb exploded in a car parked outside the building of the Saudi National Guard Program Office; 7 people were killed and 42 wounded. In June 1996, after the execution of 4 Islamists who organized the explosion, a new attack followed. June 25, 1996 near the US military base in Dhahran, a mined fuel truck was blown up. The explosion killed 19 American servicemen and injured 515 people, incl. 240 US citizens. The Movement for Islamic Change in the Arab Peninsula - Jihad Wing, as well as two previously unknown groups, the Gulf Tigers and the Fighting Defenders of Allah, claimed responsibility for the attacks. While the Saudi government condemned the attacks, many prominent Saudis and religious groups have voiced their opposition to the US military presence in Saudi Arabia. In November 1996, 40 Saudis were accused of complicity in a terrorist attack after being imprisoned for several months. In December of the same year, the government approved additional measures the security of American installations in the country.

Relations between Saudi Arabia and the United States deteriorated further after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington. This was due to the fact that most of the participants in the attack (15 out of 19) were subjects of the Saudi kingdom. In September 2001, Saudi Arabia severed diplomatic relations with the Taliban Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. At the same time, the government of Saudi Arabia denied the United States the right to use the American military bases located on its territory for carrying out operations against terrorists. In Saudi Arabia itself, a debate unfolded about the role of the religious clergy, some of whose representatives spoke from openly anti-American and anti-Western positions. Voices began to be heard in society in favor of revising some of the concepts of the religious doctrine underlying the Wahhabi movement. In December 2001, King Fahd called for the eradication of terrorism as a phenomenon that does not comply with the norms of Islam. The government has frozen the accounts of a number of individuals and entities, including some Saudi charitable foundations. Information provided by Saudi intelligence helped to eliminate 50 companies in 25 countries through which the financing of the international terrorist network Al-Qaeda was carried out.

American pressure on Saudi Arabia escalated in August 2002, when about 3,000 relatives of victims of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks filed suit against 186 defendants, incl. foreign banks, Islamic funds and members of the royal family of Saudi Arabia. All of them were suspected of involvement in helping Islamic extremists. At the same time, the existence of a collusion between Saudi Arabia and terrorists was alleged. All accusations from the American side were denied by the Saudi authorities; in protest against the prosecution, some Saudi investors have threatened to withdraw their monetary assets from the US. In November 2002, the US CIA distributed to bankers around the world a list of 12 Saudi entrepreneurs whom Washington suspects of financing the international terrorist network Al-Qaeda. This came amid demands by a number of US congressmen to conduct an in-depth investigation into reports that Saudi Arabia provided funds to 19 terrorists who carried out the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. Meanwhile, within the US administration itself, there seemed to be no consensus on how much pressure should be exerted on Saudi Arabia. Speaking in Mexico City, U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell stressed that the U.S. must be careful not to "sever relations with a country long years which has been a good partner of the United States and still remains a strategic partner of America."

Saudi Arabia in the 21st century

In Saudi Arabia itself, the voices of supporters of reforms were getting louder. In 2003, petitions were sent to King Fahd demanding the democratization of political life, freedom of speech, independence of the judiciary, revision of the constitution, economic reforms, elections to the Consultative Council and the creation of civil institutions. Against the backdrop of deteriorating relations with the United States, the Saudi government has taken unprecedented steps to reform the system. In 2003, elections to local authorities were announced, and two human rights organizations were established (one under government patronage, the other independent). Identity cards for women were introduced. In the same year, Riyadh hosted the country's first human rights conference, which addressed the issue of human rights in the context of Islamic law.

The war in Iraq (2003) caused a deep division in the Arab world. Initially, Saudi Arabia's stance on US plans to overthrow Saddam Hussein's regime was intransigent. In August 2002, the country's authorities announced that they would not allow the use of American facilities located on the territory of the kingdom for strikes against Iraq, even if these strikes were sanctioned by the UN. Moreover, in October 2002, Saudi Arabia (for the first time since the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait) opened the border with Iraq. In preparation for the war, the government of Saudi Arabia repeatedly made attempts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. However, in early 2003 Riyadh's position changed dramatically. Already during the war in Iraq, the government of Saudi Arabia expressed its support for the United States, allowing coalition forces to use American airstrips and military bases located in the country. After the end of hostilities, Saudi Arabia participated in a conference on the reconstruction of Iraq (October 2003, Madrid), at which it announced that it would allocate $ 1 billion for the restoration of a neighboring state (500 million would be project financing, and another 500 million - commodity export).

In April 2003, the US announced that it would withdraw most of its troops from Saudi Arabia, as their presence was no longer needed with the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime. The presence of a foreign army in an extremely conservative Islamic country was a strong irritant that played into the hands of Islamic radicalism. One of the main reasons for the attack on September 11, 2001, according to Saudi terrorist Osama bin Laden, was the presence of US troops in the home of Islam's holy sites, Medina and Mecca. The new war in Iraq (2003) contributed to the further activation of radical Islamists. On May 12, 2003, suicide bombers carried out four attacks in Riyadh on a complex of buildings occupied by foreigners; 34 people died and 160 were injured. On the night of November 8/9, 2003, a group of suicide bombers organized a new attack. During it, 18 people were killed and more than 130 people were injured, mostly foreign workers from the Middle East. It is assumed that al-Qaeda was behind all the attacks. The US and other countries have once again questioned Saudi Arabia's willingness to fight terrorism. In July 2003, the US Congress issued a strong statement on the issue of Saudi financing of terrorist organizations and harboring government officials involved in the September 11, 2001 attacks. Although the Saudi government arrested a large number of terrorist suspects in 2002, the country, according to international experts, still remains a stronghold of Islamic radicalism.

King Fahd of Saudi Arabia died on August 1, 2005. Crown Prince Abdullah, Fahd's brother, became king, and died in January 2015.

Abdullah carried out a number of reforms in the country, in particular, he created the Supreme Court - the guarantor of the Constitution of Saudi Arabia; increased the composition of the Majlis (Consultative Council) from 81 to 150 deputies, where for the first time a woman took the high state post of Deputy Minister of Education for Women;
opened the University of Science and Technology with co-education of boys and girls; banned members of the numerous royal family from using the state treasury; carried out a state scholarship program for the education of young people in Western universities; became the first Saudi monarch to visit the head of the Roman Catholic Church.

He was succeeded by the twenty-fifth son of the country's first monarch, King Abdulazizi, Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz al-Saud.

Kirill Limanov

Literature:

Arabian countries. Directory. M., 1964
Lutsky V. B. New history of the Arab countries. 2nd ed., M., 1966
Recent history of the Arab countries. M., 1968
Saudi Arabia: Directory. M., 1980
Vasiliev A.M. History of Saudi Arabia(1745–1982 ). M., 1982
Vasiliev A.M., Voblikov D.R. Saudi Arabia. - In the book: Recent history of the Arab countries of Asia. M., 1985
Foster L.M. Saudi Arabia (Enchantment of the World). School & Library Binding, 1993
Honeyman S. Saudi Arabia (Country Fact Files). Library Binding, 1995
David E Long. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. University Press of Florida, 1997
Anscombe F.F. The Ottoman Gulf: The Creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar, 1870-1914. 1997
Cordesman Anthony H. Saudi Arabia: Guarding the Desert Kingdom. 1997
Akhmedov V.M., Gashev B.N., Gerasimov O.G. and etc. Modern Saudi Arabia. Directory. M., 1998
Vasiliev A.M. History of Saudi Arabia. M., 1998
Vassiliev A.M. The History of Saudi Arabia. Al Saqi, 1998
Armstrong H.C. Lord of Arabia: Ibn Saud. 1998
Mulloy M. Saudi Arabia(Major World Nations). Library Binding, 1998
Jerichow A. The Saudi File: People, Power, Politics. 1998
Cave B.A. Oil, God and Gold: The Story of Aramco and the Saudi Kings. 1999
Fandy M. Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent. 1999
Hart T Parker. Saudi Arabia and the United States: Birth of a Security Partnership. 1999
Wende. Saudi Arabia(True Books
Fazio Wende. Saudi Arabia(True Books). School & Library Binding, 1999
Kiselev K.A. Egypt and the Wahhabi State: The Desert War (1811–1818)// New and recent history. 2003, No. 4
Aleksandrov I.A. Monarchies of the Persian Gulf. Stage of modernization. M., 2000
Vasiliev A.M. History of Saudi Arabia: 1745 - late 20th century M., 2001
Cordesman Anthony H. Saudi Arabia: Opposition, Islamic Extremism, and Terrorism. Washington, 2002