Submarines in World War II. German submarines of the Second World War: "wolf packs" of the Wehrmacht

I bring to your attention short story about the seven most successful submarine projects of the war years.

T-type boats (Triton-class), Great Britain Number of submarines built - 53. Surface displacement - 1290 tons; underwater - 1560 tons. Crew - 59 ... 61 people. Operating immersion depth - 90 m (riveted hull), 106 m (welded hull). Full speed on the surface - 15.5 knots; in the underwater - 9 knots. A fuel reserve of 131 tons ensured a surface cruising range of 8,000 miles. Armament: - 11 533 mm torpedo tubes (on boats of sub-series II and III), ammunition - 17 torpedoes; - 1 x 102 mm universal gun, 1 x 20 mm anti-aircraft "Oerlikon".

HMS Traveler A British submarine Terminator capable of knocking the crap out of the head of any enemy with a bow-mounted 8-torpedo salvo. The T-type boats had no equal in destructive power among all submarines of the WWII period - this explains their ferocious appearance with a bizarre bow superstructure, which housed additional torpedo tubes. The notorious British conservatism is a thing of the past - the British were among the first to equip their boats with ASDIC sonar. Alas, despite its powerful weapons and modern facilities discovery, the high-seas T-type boats were not the most effective of the British submarines of World War II. Nevertheless, they went through an exciting battle path and achieved a number of remarkable victories. "Tritons" were actively used in the Atlantic, in the Mediterranean Sea, smashed Japanese communications on pacific ocean, several times noted in the cold waters of the Arctic. In August 1941, the Taigris and Trident submarines arrived in Murmansk. British submariners demonstrated a master class to their Soviet colleagues: 4 enemy ships were sunk in two campaigns, incl. "Baia Laura" and "Donau II" with thousands of soldiers of the 6th Mountain Division. Thus, the sailors prevented the third German attack on Murmansk. Other famous T-boat trophies include the German light cruiser Karlsruhe and the Japanese heavy cruiser Ashigara. The samurai were “lucky” to get acquainted with the full 8-torpedo salvo of the Trenchent submarine - having received 4 torpedoes on board (+ one more from the stern TA), the cruiser quickly capsized and sank. After the war, the powerful and perfect Tritons were in service with the Royal Navy for another quarter of a century. It is noteworthy that Israel acquired three boats of this type in the late 1960s - one of them, INS Dakar (formerly HMS Totem), died in 1968 in the Mediterranean Sea under unclear circumstances.

Boats of the "Cruising" type of the XIV series, the Soviet Union Number of submarines built - 11. Surface displacement - 1500 tons; underwater - 2100 tons. Crew - 62 ... 65 people. Operating immersion depth - 80 m, maximum - 100 m. Full speed on the surface - 22.5 knots; in the underwater - 10 knots. Surface cruising range 16,500 miles (9 knots) Submerged cruising range - 175 miles (3 knots) Armament: - 10 torpedo tubes of 533 mm caliber, ammunition load - 24 torpedoes; - 2 x 100 mm universal guns, 2 x 45 mm anti-aircraft semi-automatic; - up to 20 minutes of barriers.

... On December 3, 1941, German hunters UJ-1708, UJ-1416 and UJ-1403 bombarded a Soviet boat that tried to attack a convoy near Bustad Sund. - Hans, do you hear this creature? - Nine. After a series of explosions, the Russians sank to the bottom - I detected three hits on the ground ... - Can you determine where they are now? - Donnerwetter! They are blown. Surely they decided to surface and surrender. The German sailors were wrong. From the depths of the sea, a MONSTER rose to the surface - a cruising submarine K-3 of the XIV series, which unleashed a barrage of artillery fire on the enemy. From the fifth salvo, the Soviet sailors managed to sink U-1708. The second hunter, having received two direct hits, smoked and turned aside - his 20 mm anti-aircraft guns could not compete with the “hundreds” of a secular submarine cruiser. Having scattered the Germans like puppies, K-3 quickly disappeared over the horizon at 20 knots. The Soviet Katyusha was a phenomenal boat for its time. Welded hull, powerful artillery and mine-torpedo weapons, powerful diesel engines (2 x 4200 hp!), high surface speed of 22-23 knots. Huge autonomy in terms of fuel reserves. Remote control ballast tank valves. A radio station capable of transmitting signals from the Baltic to the Far East. Exceptional level of comfort: shower cabins, refrigerated tanks, two seawater desalters, an electric galley… Two boats (K-3 and K-22) were equipped with Lend-Lease ASDIC sonar.

But, oddly enough, neither the high performance nor the most powerful weapons made the Katyusha an effective weapon - in addition to the dark story with the K-21 attack on the Tirpitz, during the war years, boats of the XIV series accounted for only 5 successful torpedo attacks and 27 thousand br. reg. tons of sunk tonnage. Most of the victories were won with the help of exposed mines. Moreover, their own losses amounted to five cruiser boats. K-21, Severomorsk, today The reasons for the failures lie in the tactics of using the Katyushas - the mighty submarine cruisers, created for the expanses of the Pacific Ocean, had to "stomp" in the shallow Baltic "puddle". When operating at depths of 30-40 meters, a huge 97-meter boat could hit the ground with its bow, while its stern was still sticking out on the surface. It was a little easier for the sailors of the North Sea - as practice has shown, the effectiveness of the combat use of the Katyushas was complicated by the poor training of personnel and the lack of initiative of the command. It's a pity. These boats were counting on more.

Malyutki, Soviet Union Series VI and VI-bis - 50 built. Series XII - 46 built. Series XV - 57 built (4 took part in the fighting). TTX boats type M series XII: Surface displacement - 206 tons; underwater - 258 tons. Autonomy - 10 days. Working immersion depth - 50 m, maximum - 60 m. Full speed on the surface - 14 knots; in the underwater - 8 knots. Cruising range on the surface - 3380 miles (8.6 knots). Submerged cruising range - 108 miles (3 knots). Armament: - 2 torpedo tubes of caliber 533 mm, ammunition - 2 torpedoes; - 1 x 45 mm anti-aircraft semi-automatic.

Baby! The project of mini-submarines for the rapid strengthening of the Pacific Fleet - main feature boats type M became the possibility of transportation by rail in full assembled. In pursuit of compactness, many had to be sacrificed - service on the "Baby" turned into a grueling and dangerous event. Heavy living conditions, strong "chatter" - the waves ruthlessly threw a 200-ton "float", risking breaking it into pieces. Shallow diving depth and weak weapons. But the main concern of the sailors was the reliability of the submarine - one shaft, one diesel engine, one electric motor - the tiny "Baby" left no chance for the careless crew, the slightest malfunction on board threatened the submarine with death. The kids quickly evolved - the performance characteristics of each new series differed several times from the previous project: contours were improved, electrical equipment and detection tools were updated, diving time was reduced, autonomy was growing. The "babies" of the XV series no longer resembled their predecessors of the VI and XII series: one and a half hull design - the ballast tanks were moved outside the pressure hull; The power plant received a standard twin-shaft layout with two diesel engines and electric motors for underwater travel. The number of torpedo tubes increased to four. Alas, the XV series appeared too late - the brunt of the war was borne by the "Babies" of the VI and XII series.

Despite their modest size and only 2 torpedoes on board, the tiny fish were distinguished by simply terrifying "gluttony": in just the years of World War II, Soviet M-type submarines sank 61 enemy ships with a total tonnage of 135.5 thousand gross tons, destroyed 10 warships, and also damaged 8 transports. The little ones, originally intended only for operations in the coastal zone, have learned to fight effectively in open sea areas. They, along with larger boats, cut enemy communications, patrolled at the exits of enemy bases and fjords, deftly overcame anti-submarine barriers and undermined transports right at the piers inside protected enemy harbors. It's just amazing how the Red Navy could fight on these flimsy boats! But they fought. And they won!

Boats of the "Middle" type of the IX-bis series, the Soviet Union Number of submarines built - 41. Surface displacement - 840 tons; underwater - 1070 tons. Crew - 36 ... 46 people. Working immersion depth - 80 m, maximum - 100 m. Full speed on the surface - 19.5 knots; submerged - 8.8 knots. Surface cruising range 8,000 miles (10 knots). Submerged cruising range 148 miles (3 knots). “Six torpedo tubes and the same number of spare torpedoes on racks convenient for reloading. Two cannons with a large ammunition load, machine guns, explosive equipment ... In a word, there is something to fight. And 20-knot surface speed! It allows you to overtake almost any convoy and attack it again. The technique is good ... "- the opinion of the commander of the S-56, the Hero Soviet Union G.I. Shchedrin

The Eskis were distinguished by their rational layout and balanced design, powerful armament, and excellent running and seaworthiness. Originally a German design by Deshimag, modified to meet Soviet requirements. But do not rush to clap your hands and remember the Mistral. After the start of serial construction of the IX series at Soviet shipyards, the German project was revised with the aim of a complete transition to Soviet equipment: 1D diesel engines, weapons, radio stations, a noise direction finder, a gyrocompass ... - there was not a single boat that received the designation "IX-bis series". bolts of foreign production! The problems of the combat use of boats of the "Middle" type, in general, were similar to the cruising boats of the K type - locked in mine-infested shallow water, they could not realize their high combat qualities. Things were much better in the Northern Fleet - during the war years, the S-56 boat under the command of G.I. Shchedrin made the passage through the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, moving from Vladivostok to Polyarny, subsequently becoming the most productive boat of the USSR Navy. An equally fantastic story is connected with the S-101 “bomb catcher” - over the years of the war, over 1000 depth charges were dropped on the boat by the Germans and the Allies, but each time the S-101 returned safely to Polyarny. Finally, it was on the S-13 that Alexander Marinesko achieved his famous victories.

Boats of the Gato type, USA The number of submarines built is 77. Surface displacement is 1525 tons; underwater - 2420 tons. Crew - 60 people. Working depth of immersion - 90 m. Full speed on the surface - 21 knots; in a submerged position - 9 knots. Surface cruising range 11,000 miles (10 knots). Submerged cruising range 96 miles (2 knots). Armament: - 10 torpedo tubes of caliber 533 mm, ammunition - 24 torpedoes; - 1 x 76 mm universal gun, 1 x 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft gun, 1 x 20 mm Oerlikon; - one of the boats - USS Barb was equipped with a multiple launch rocket system for shelling the coast.

The Getow-class ocean-going submarines appeared at the height of the Pacific War and became one of the most effective tools of the US Navy. They tightly blocked all strategic straits and approaches to the atolls, cut off all supply lines, leaving the Japanese garrisons without reinforcements, and Japanese industry without raw materials and oil. In the skirmishes with the Gatow, the Imperial Navy lost two heavy aircraft carriers, lost four cruisers and a damn dozen destroyers. High speed, lethal torpedo weapons, the most modern radio equipment for detecting the enemy - radar, direction finder, sonar. The cruising range that provides combat patrols off the coast of Japan when operating from a base in Hawaii. Increased comfort on board. But the main thing is the excellent training of the crews and the weakness of Japanese anti-submarine weapons. As a result, the Gatow ruthlessly destroyed everything in a row - it was they who brought victory in the Pacific Ocean from the blue depths of the sea.

... One of the main achievements of the Getow boats, which changed the whole world, is the event of September 2, 1944. On that day, the Finback submarine detected a distress signal from a falling plane and, after many hours of searching, found a frightened pilot in the ocean, and there was already a desperate pilot . The one who was saved was George Herbert Bush. The list of Flasher trophies sounds like a fleet joke: 9 tankers, 10 transports, 2 patrol ships with a total tonnage of 100,231 gross tons! And for a snack, the boat grabbed a Japanese cruiser and a destroyer. Lucky damn!

Electric robots type XXI, Germany By April 1945, the Germans managed to launch 118 submarines of the XXI series. However, only two of them were able to achieve operational readiness and go to sea in the last days of the war. Surface displacement - 1620 tons; underwater - 1820 tons. Crew - 57 people. Working depth of immersion - 135 m, maximum - 200+ meters. Full speed on the surface - 15.6 knots, in the submerged position - 17 knots. Surface cruising range 15,500 miles (10 knots). Submerged cruising range 340 miles (5 knots). Armament: - 6 torpedo tubes of caliber 533 mm, ammunition - 17 torpedoes; - 2 anti-aircraft guns "Flak" caliber 20 mm.

Our allies were very lucky that all the forces of Germany were thrown into Eastern front- the Fritz did not have enough resources to release a flock of fantastic "Electroboats" into the sea. If they appeared a year earlier - and that's it, kaput! Another turning point in the battle for the Atlantic. The Germans were the first to guess: everything that shipbuilders of other countries are proud of - a large ammunition load, powerful artillery, high surface speed of 20+ knots - is of little importance. The key parameters that determine the combat effectiveness of a submarine are its speed and power reserve in a submerged position. Unlike its peers, "Eletrobot" was focused on being constantly under water: the most streamlined body without heavy artillery, fences and platforms - all for the sake of minimizing underwater resistance. Snorkel, six groups of batteries (3 times more than on conventional boats!), powerful el. full speed engines, quiet and economical el. creep engines.

The stern of U-2511, flooded at a depth of 68 meters The Germans calculated everything - the entire campaign "Electrobot" moved at periscope depth under the RDP, remaining difficult to detect for enemy anti-submarine weapons. At great depths, its advantage became even more shocking: 2-3 times the range, at twice the speed, than any of the submarines of the war years! High stealth and impressive underwater skills, homing torpedoes, a complex of the most advanced detection tools ... "Electrobots" opened new milestone in the history of the submarine fleet, having determined the vector of development of submarines in post-war years. The Allies were not ready to face such a threat - as post-war tests showed, the Electrobots were several times superior in terms of mutual sonar detection range to the American and British destroyers guarding the convoys.

Type VII boats, Germany Number of submarines built - 703. Surface displacement - 769 tons; underwater - 871 tons. Crew - 45 people. Operating immersion depth - 100 m, maximum - 220 meters Full speed on the surface - 17.7 knots; in a submerged position - 7.6 knots. Surface cruising range 8,500 miles (10 knots). Submerged cruising range 80 miles (4 knots). Armament: - 5 torpedo tubes of caliber 533 mm, ammunition - 14 torpedoes; - 1 x 88 mm universal gun (until 1942), eight options for add-ons with 20 and 37 mm anti-aircraft guns. * the given performance characteristics correspond to boats of the VIIC sub-series

The most effective warships ever to sail the world's oceans. A relatively simple, cheap, massive, but at the same time well-armed and deadly means for total underwater terror. 703 submarines. 10 MILLION tons of sunk tonnage! Battleships, cruisers, aircraft carriers, destroyers, corvettes and submarines of the enemy, oil tankers, transports with aircraft, tanks, cars, rubber, ore, machine tools, ammunition, uniforms and food ... The damage from the actions of German submariners exceeded all reasonable limits - if not for the inexhaustible the industrial potential of the United States, capable of compensating for any losses of the allies, the German U-bots had every chance to “strangle” Great Britain and change the course of world history.

U-995. Graceful underwater killer Often the success of the "sevens" is associated with the "prosperous time" of 1939-41. - allegedly when the Allies had the escort system and Asdik sonars, the successes of the German submariners ended. A completely populist claim based on a misinterpretation of "prosperous times". The alignment was simple: at the beginning of the war, when for each German boat there was one anti-submarine ship of the allies each, the “sevens” felt themselves invulnerable masters of the Atlantic. It was then that the legendary aces appeared, sinking 40 enemy ships each. The Germans already had victory in their hands when the allies suddenly deployed 10 anti-submarine ships and 10 aircraft for every active Kriegsmarine boat! Beginning in the spring of 1943, the Yankees and the British began methodically bombarding the Kriegsmarine with anti-submarine warfare and soon achieved an excellent loss ratio of 1:1. So they fought until the end of the war. The Germans ran out of ships faster than their opponents. The whole history of the German "sevens" is a formidable warning from the past: what kind of threat does the submarine pose and how high are the costs of creating effective system countering the underwater threat.

Funky American poster of those years. “Hit the pain points! Come serve in the submarine fleet - we account for 77% of the sunk tonnage! Comments, as they say, are unnecessary

The outcome of any war depends on many factors, among which, of course, weapons are of considerable importance. Despite the fact that absolutely all German weapons were very powerful, since Adolf Hitler personally considered them the most important weapon and paid considerable attention to the development of this industry, they failed to inflict damage on the opponents, which would significantly affect the course of the war. Why did it happen? Who stands at the origins of the creation of the submarine army? Were the German submarines of World War II really so invincible? Why were such prudent Nazis unable to defeat the Red Army? You will find the answer to these and other questions in the review.

general information

Collectively, all the equipment that was in service with the Third Reich during World War II was called the Kriegsmarine, and submarines made up a significant part of the arsenal. Underwater equipment passed into a separate branch on November 1, 1934, and the fleet was disbanded after the war ended, that is, having existed for less than a dozen years. In such a short period of time, the German submarines of World War II brought a lot of fear into the souls of their opponents, leaving their huge mark on the bloody pages of the history of the Third Reich. Thousands of dead, hundreds of sunken ships, all this remained on the conscience of the surviving Nazis and their subordinates.

Commander-in-Chief of the Kriegsmarine

During World War II, one of the most famous Nazis, Karl Doenitz, was at the helm of the Kriegsmarine. The Germans in World War II played, of course, an important role, but without this person this would not have happened. He was personally involved in creating plans to attack opponents, participated in attacks on many ships and achieved success in this path, for which he was awarded and - one of the most significant awards Nazi Germany. Doenitz was an admirer of Hitler and was his successor, which did him a lot of harm during Nuremberg Trials, after all, after the death of the Fuhrer, he was considered the commander-in-chief of the Third Reich.

Specifications

It is easy to guess that Karl Doenitz was responsible for the state of the submarine army. German submarines in World War II, whose photos prove their power, had impressive parameters.

In general, the Kriegsmarine was armed with 21 types of submarines. They had the following characteristics:

displacement: from 275 to 2710 tons;
surface speed: from 9.7 to 19.2 knots;
underwater speed: from 6.9 to 17.2;
diving depth: from 150 to 280 meters.

This proves that the German submarines of the Second World War were not only powerful, they were the most powerful among the weapons of the countries that fought against Germany.

Composition of the Kriegsmarine

1154 submarines belonged to the military boats of the German fleet. It is noteworthy that until September 1939 there were only 57 submarines, the rest were built specifically for participation in the war. Some of them were trophies. So, there were 5 Dutch, 4 Italian, 2 Norwegian and one English and one French submarines. All of them were also in service with the Third Reich.

Navy Achievements

The Kriegsmarine inflicted considerable damage on its opponents throughout the war. So, for example, the most productive captain Otto Kretschmer sank almost fifty enemy ships. There are also record holders among the courts. For example, the German submarine U-48 sank 52 ships.

Throughout World War II, 63 destroyers, 9 cruisers, 7 aircraft carriers and even 2 battleships were destroyed. The largest and most remarkable victory for the German army among them can be considered the sinking of the battleship Royal Oak, the crew of which consisted of a thousand people, and its displacement was 31,200 tons.

Plan Z

Since Hitler considered his fleet extremely important for the triumph of Germany over other countries and had extremely positive feelings for it, he paid considerable attention to it and did not limit funding. In 1939, a plan was developed for the development of the Kriegsmarine for the next 10 years, which, fortunately, never materialized. According to this plan, several hundred more of the most powerful battleships, cruisers and submarines were to be built.

Powerful German submarines of World War II

Photographs of some surviving German submarines give an idea of the power of the Third Reich, but only faintly reflect how strong this army was. Most of all, the German fleet had type VII submarines, they had optimal seaworthiness, were of medium size, and most importantly, their construction was relatively inexpensive, which is important in

They could dive to a depth of 320 meters with a displacement of up to 769 tons, the crew ranged from 42 to 52 employees. Despite the fact that the “sevens” were quite high-quality boats, over time, the enemy countries of Germany improved their weapons, so the Germans also had to work on modernizing their offspring. As a result of this, the boat has several more modifications. The most popular of these was the VIIC model, which not only became the epitome of German military power during the attack on the Atlantic, but was also much more convenient than previous versions. The impressive dimensions made it possible to install more powerful diesel engines, and subsequent modifications also featured strong hulls, which made it possible to dive deeper.

German submarines of the Second World War were subjected to a constant, as they would say now, upgrade. Type XXI is considered to be one of the most innovative models. In this submarine, an air conditioning system was created and optional equipment, which was intended for a longer stay of the team under water. A total of 118 boats of this type were built.

Results of the Kriegsmarine

German submarines of World War II, photos of which can often be found in books about military equipment, played a very important role in the advance of the Third Reich. Their power cannot be underestimated, but it should be borne in mind that even with such patronage from the bloodiest Fuhrer in world history, the German fleet did not manage to bring its power closer to victory. It is probably not enough just to have good equipment and strong army, for the victory of Germany, the ingenuity and courage possessed by the brave soldiers of the Soviet Union were not enough. Everyone knows that the Nazis were incredibly bloodthirsty and shunned little on their way, but neither the incredibly equipped army nor the lack of principles helped them. Armored vehicles, a huge amount of ammunition and the latest developments did not bring the expected results to the Third Reich.

The starting point in the history of the German submarine fleet was 1850, when the Brandtaucher double submarine, designed by engineer Wilhelm Bauer, was launched in the harbor of Kiel, which immediately sank when trying to dive.

The next significant event was the launch of the submarine U-1 (U-boat) in December 1906, which became the ancestor of a whole family of submarines, which fell to the hard times of the First World War. In total, until the end of the war, the German fleet received more than 340 boats. In connection with the defeat of Germany, 138 submarines remained unfinished.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forbidden to build submarines. Everything changed in 1935 after the establishment of the Nazi regime and with the signing of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, in which submarines ... were recognized as obsolete weapons, which lifted all prohibitions on their production. In June, Hitler appointed Karl Dönitz as commander of all submarines of the future Third Reich.

Grand Admiral and his "wolf packs"

Grand Admiral Karl Doenitz is an outstanding figure. He began his career in 1910, enrolling in the naval school in Kiel. Later, during the First World War, he showed himself to be a brave officer. From January 1917 until the defeat of the Third Reich, his life was connected with the German submarine fleet. He is credited with developing the concept of submarine warfare, which consisted of sustained groups of submarines called "wolf packs".

The main objects of the “hunting” of the “wolf packs” are enemy transport ships that provide supplies to the troops. The basic principle is to sink more ships than the enemy can build. Very soon, this tactic began to bear fruit. By the end of September 1939, the Allies had lost dozens of transports with a total displacement of about 180,000 tons, and in mid-October, the U-47 boat, slipping unnoticed into the Scapa Flow base, sent the Royal Oak battleship to the bottom. The Anglo-American convoys were especially hard hit. "Wolf packs" raged in a huge theater from the North Atlantic and the Arctic to South Africa and the Gulf of Mexico.

What did the Kriegsmarine fight on

The basis of the Kriegsmarine - the submarine fleet of the Third Reich - were submarines of several series - 1, 2, 7, 9, 14, 17, 21 and 23rd. At the same time, it is worth highlighting the boats of the 7th series, which were distinguished by their reliable design, good technical equipment, weapons, which allowed them to operate particularly successfully in the Central and North Atlantic. For the first time, a snorkel was installed on them - an air intake device that allows the boat to recharge batteries while submerged.

Aces Kriegsmarine

German submariners were characterized by courage and high professionalism, so each victory over them came at a high price. Among the aces submariners of the Third Reich, the most famous were captains Otto Kretschmer, Wolfgang Luth (each with 47 sunk ships) and Erich Topp - 36.

Deadly duel

The huge losses of the allies at sea sharply intensified the search for effective means fight against "wolf packs". Soon, patrol anti-submarine aircraft equipped with radars appeared in the sky, means of radio interception, detection and destruction of submarines were created - radars, sonar buoys, homing aircraft torpedoes and much more. Improved tactics, improved interaction.

rout

Kriegsmarine met the same fate as the Third Reich - a complete, crushing defeat. Of the 1153 submarines built during the war years, about 770 were sunk. Together with them, about 30,000 submariners, or almost 80% of the entire personnel of the submarine fleet, went to the bottom.

In this note, I bring to your attention the firepower that the boats had. The topic was again reviewed by me briefly, without giving details and nuances, since with a detailed coverage of this issue, it will be necessary to write at least a large review article. To begin with, to make it clear how the Germans singled out the issue of the need to have a gun on board and use it, I will cite an excerpt from the "Manual to submarine commanders", where the following is said about this:

"Section V Artillery weapons of submarines (submarine as a carrier of artillery)
271. The presence of artillery on a submarine is fraught with contradictions from the very beginning. The submarine is unstable, has a low-lying artillery platform and an observation platform, and is not suitable for artillery fire.
All gun mounts on a submarine are ill-suited for an artillery duel, and in this respect the submarine is inferior to any surface ship.
In an artillery battle, a submarine, in contrast to a surface ship, must immediately bring all its forces into action, because. even one hit in the strong hull of a submarine already makes it impossible for it to dive and leads to death. Therefore, the possibility of an artillery battle between a torpedo submarine and military surface ships is excluded.
272. For submarines used for torpedo attacks, artillery is, as it were, a conditional and auxiliary weapon, because the use of artillery over water contradicts the whole essence of a submarine, i.e., a sudden and covert underwater attack.
Based on this, it can be said that on a torpedo submarine, artillery finds its use only in the fight against merchant ships, for example, to delay steamers or to destroy unarmed or lightly armed ships (§ 305).(With)

deck artillery
Caliber, A type, Shooting, rate of fire, Angle of elevation , effect. range, Payment

105 mm SK C/32U - U-boot L C/32U Single 15 35° 12.000 m 6 pers.
105 mm SK C/32U - Marine Pivot L Single 15 30° 12.000 m 6 pers.
88 mm SK C/30U - U-boot L C/30U Single 15-18 30° 11.000 m 6 pers.
88 mm SK C/35 - U-boot L C/35U Single 15-18 30° 11.000 m 6 pers.

Of all types of German submarines designed and built from 1930 to 1945, boats of I, VII, IX and X series were armed with deck artillery of a caliber over 88 mm. At the same time, only the VII series carried an 88-mm caliber gun, the rest of the indicated series of boats had a 105-mm gun. The gun was located right on the upper deck in front of the wheelhouse, the ammunition was stored partly there in the superstructure of the boat, partly inside the strong hull. Deck artillery was in the department of the second shift officer, who acted on the boat as the senior gunner.
On the "sevens" the gun was installed in the region of 54 frames on a pyramid specially reinforced in the superstructure, which was reinforced with longitudinal and transverse beams. In the area of the gun, the upper deck was expanded to 3.8 meters in length, thus forming a place for artillery crew. The standard ammunition for the boat was 205 shells - 28 of which were in special containers in the superstructure next to the gun, 20 shells in the wheelhouse, the rest in the "weapon" inside the strong hull in the second compartment from the bow.
The 105 mm gun was also mounted on a pyramid, which was welded to the pressure hull. Depending on the type of boat, the ammunition for the gun ranged from 200 to 230 shells, of which 30-32 were stored in the superstructure next to the gun, the rest in the "weapons" located in the CO and the galley.
The deck gun was protected from water from the side of the barrel by a waterproof plug, from the side of the breech in a special sleeve-plug. A well-thought-out gun lubrication system made it possible to keep the gun in working condition at various temperatures.
I mentioned various cases of using a deck gun and .
By the end of 1942, the command of the submarine forces came to the conclusion that the deck guns on the boats that participated in the hostilities in the Atlantic theater should be dismantled. Thus, almost all "sevens" of type B and C lost such artillery. The guns were left on the Type IX submarines, Type VIID and X minzags. But by the end of the war it was already difficult to find a German boat of any type that carried deck artillery.

88 mm guns U29 and U95. The waterproof cap is clearly visible.

Elevation angle of the 88 mm gun on the U46. It seems that it still exceeds those 30 and 35 degrees indicated in the performance characteristics. The gun had to be lifted with the barrel up when loading torpedoes into the bow compartment. The photo below shows how this happened (U74 getting ready to receive a torpedo)

105-mm gun on "one" U26

105 mm guns U103 and U106

General view of the 105 mm gun with its mounts.

Gunners U53 and U35 are preparing for practical firing

Artillery crew U123 prepare to open fire. The tanker is directly ahead. The target will be sunk by artillery fire. The end of the operation "Paukenschlag" February 1942.

But sometimes the tools were used for other purposes :-)
In the pictures below U107 and U156

Flak
Caliber, A type, Shooting, rate of fire, Angle of elevation , effect. range, Payment

37 mm SK C/30U - Ubts. LC 39 Single 12 85° 2.500 m 3/4 pers.
37 mm M42 U - LM 43U Automatic (8 shots) 40 80° 2.500 m 3/4 pers.
37 mm Zwilling M 42U - LM 42 Automatic (8 rounds) 80 80° 2.500 m 3/4 pers.
30 mm Flak M 44 - LM 44 Automatic (exact specifications unknown. For type XXI submarines)
20 mm MG C/30 - L 30 Automatic (20 rounds) 120 90° 1.500 m 2/4 pers.
20 mm MG C/30 - L 30/37 Automatic (20 shots) 120 90° 1.500 m 2/4 pers.
20 mm Flak C/38 - L 30/37 Automatic (20 rounds) 220 90° 1.500 m 2/4 pers.
20 mm Flak Zwilling C/38 II - M 43U Automatic (20 shots) 440 90° 1.500 m 2/4 pers.
20 mm Flak Vierling C38/43 - M 43U Automatic (20 shots) 880 90° 1.500 m 2/4 pers.
13.2mm Breda 1931 Automatic (30 rounds) 400 85° 1.000 m 2/4 pers.

Quad installations are highlighted in red, dual installations in blue.

Of the firepower that the German submarines had, the most interesting anti-aircraft weapons. If deck guns were obsolete by the end of the war, then the evolution of anti-aircraft fire among the Germans is clearly visible from the above table.

By the beginning of the war, German submarines had only a minimum of anti-aircraft guns, since it was believed that the threat from the air was clearly underestimated by the fleet command. As a result, the designers in the projects provided for no more than one anti-aircraft gun on the boat. But during the war, the situation changed and reached the point that some submarines were literally stuck with anti-aircraft guns, such as "anti-aircraft boats" (flakboats).
The main weapons of the boats were initially recognized as 20-mm 20-round anti-aircraft guns, which were installed on all types of boats with the exception of the II series. On the latter, they were also provided, but were not included in the standard armament of the boats.

Initially, on the first "sevens" in up to war time The 20-mm anti-aircraft machine type MG C / 30 - L 30 was supposed to be installed on the upper deck behind the wheelhouse. This is clearly seen on the example of U49. Behind the open hatch, an anti-aircraft gun carriage is visible.

But already in wartime, the 20-mm anti-aircraft gun was moved to the site located behind the bridge. It looks good in the photo. Alternately, anti-aircraft platforms U25, U38 (Karl Doenitz himself is on the bridge of the boat), U46

"Twos", depending on the type and purpose of the boat, received anti-aircraft weapons, both before the war and during the war. The gun was located in front of the wheelhouse. Either a carriage was installed for it, or it was installed in the same place on a waterproof container (in the form of a barrel) in which the machine was stored in a disassembled state).
U23 before the war

Waterproof "barrel", also known as a carriage on the U9 (Black Sea)

Same for U145

And this is already ready. U24 (Black Sea)

Option to install an anti-aircraft gun on a gun carriage. U23 (Black Sea)

"Twos" operating on the Black Sea were subjected to some modification. In particular, the cabin was modified in the direction of standard ocean-going boats by adding to it a platform for installing additional firepower. The armament of boats of this type at the World Cup theater due to this has grown to 2-3 barrels per submarine. In the photo U19 is fully armed. Anti-aircraft guns in front of the cabin, spark on the site behind the bridge. By the way, machine guns are visible on the sides of the cabin.

The growth of the threat from the air forced the Germans to take measures to increase anti-aircraft weapons. The boat received an additional platform for placing firepower, which could accommodate two twin 20-mm machine guns and one (or twin) 37-mm machine guns. This site was nicknamed " Winter Garden"(Wintergarten). Below is a photo of the boats that surrendered to the allies U249, U621 and U234

As the pinnacle of the evolution of anti-aircraft weapons of German boats, a quad anti-aircraft gun Flak Vierling C38 / 43 - M 43U, which was received by the so-called "anti-aircraft boats". As an example U441.

In the Mediterranean, the "sevens" received additional weapons by installing Italian "Breda" machine guns in the form of sparks. As an example U81

A separate word is worth mentioning such a "miracle" weapon as a 37 mm anti-aircraft gun SK C / 30U - Ubts. LC 39, which fired solo. This gun was installed on later types of Type IX submarine cruisers (B and C) and Type XIV submarine tankers. "Cash Cows" carried two guns of this type on both sides of the felling. "Nines" had one installed behind the wheelhouse. Below are examples of such a weapon on the U103.

Since I did not set myself the task of conducting a complete and detailed description of anti-aircraft weapons, I omit such nuances as ammunition and other characteristics of this type of weapon. I once mentioned the training of anti-aircraft gunners on submarines and. Examples of the confrontation between submarines and aircraft can be obtained if you look at the topics of my tag.

Firearms and signal weapons
Caliber, A type, Shooting, rate of fire, Angle of elevation , effect. range, Payment

7.92 mm MG15 Automatic (50/75 rounds) 800-900 90° 750 m 1-2
7.92 mm MG34 Automatic (50/75 rounds) 600-700 90° 750 m 1-2
7.92 mm MG81Z Automatic (Tape) 2.200 90° 750 m 1-2
In addition to this, the crew of the submarine had at its disposal 5-10 Mauser 7.65 mm pistols, 5-10 rifles, MP-40 assault rifles, hand grenades and two flare guns.

MG81Z on U33

In general, I want to note that the German submarines had quite modern weapons at that time, which proved themselves well during the hostilities. In particular, the British noted after testing the artillery captured by them U570 that, compared with the 3-inch gun of the 1917 model of the year, installed on S-type boats, the 88-mm German gun was superior to the British. The 20 mm anti-aircraft gun was considered by them to be an excellent and effective weapon, which, to their surprise, did not vibrate when fired and had a good magazine.

Resource used to illustrate the note photo http://www.subsim.com

As usual, Vladimir Nagirnyak pored over the analysis.

Submarines dictate the rules in naval warfare and force everyone to meekly follow the established order.

Those stubborn ones who dare to neglect the rules of the game will face a quick and painful death in cold water, among floating debris and oil slicks. Boats, regardless of the flag, remain the most dangerous fighting vehicles capable of crushing any enemy.

I bring to your attention a short story about the seven most successful submarine projects of the war years.

Boats type T (Triton-class), UK
The number of submarines built is 53.
Surface displacement - 1290 tons; underwater - 1560 tons.
Crew - 59 ... 61 people.
Operating immersion depth - 90 m (riveted hull), 106 m (welded hull).
Full speed on the surface - 15.5 knots; in the underwater - 9 knots.
A fuel reserve of 131 tons ensured a surface cruising range of 8,000 miles.
Armament:
- 11 torpedo tubes of caliber 533 mm (on boats of sub-series II and III), ammunition load - 17 torpedoes;
- 1 x 102 mm universal gun, 1 x 20 mm anti-aircraft "Oerlikon".

HMS Traveler

A British submarine Terminator capable of knocking the crap out of the head of any enemy with a bow-mounted 8-torpedo salvo. The T-type boats had no equal in destructive power among all submarines of the WWII period - this explains their ferocious appearance with a bizarre bow superstructure, which housed additional torpedo tubes.

The notorious British conservatism is a thing of the past - the British were among the first to equip their boats with ASDIC sonar. Alas, despite their powerful weapons and modern means of detection, the T-type boats of the high seas did not become the most effective among the British submarines of the Second World War. Nevertheless, they went through an exciting battle path and achieved a number of remarkable victories. "Tritons" were actively used in the Atlantic, in the Mediterranean Sea, smashed Japanese communications in the Pacific Ocean, and were noted several times in the cold waters of the Arctic.

In August 1941, the Taigris and Trident submarines arrived in Murmansk. British submariners demonstrated a master class to their Soviet colleagues: 4 enemy ships were sunk in two campaigns, incl. "Baia Laura" and "Donau II" with thousands of soldiers of the 6th Mountain Division. Thus, the sailors prevented the third German attack on Murmansk.

Other famous T-boat trophies include the German light cruiser Karlsruhe and the Japanese heavy cruiser Ashigara. The samurai were “lucky” to get acquainted with the full 8-torpedo salvo of the Trenchent submarine - having received 4 torpedoes on board (+ one more from the stern TA), the cruiser quickly capsized and sank.

After the war, the powerful and perfect Tritons were in service with the Royal Navy for another quarter of a century.
It is noteworthy that Israel acquired three boats of this type in the late 1960s - one of them, INS Dakar (formerly HMS Totem), died in 1968 in the Mediterranean Sea under unclear circumstances.

Boats of the "Cruising" type of the XIV series, the Soviet Union
The number of submarines built is 11.
Surface displacement - 1500 tons; underwater - 2100 tons.
Crew - 62 ... 65 people.

Full speed on the surface - 22.5 knots; in the underwater - 10 knots.
Surface cruising range 16,500 miles (9 knots)
Submerged cruising range - 175 miles (3 knots)
Armament:

- 2 x 100 mm universal guns, 2 x 45 mm anti-aircraft semi-automatic;
- up to 20 minutes of barriers.

... On December 3, 1941, German hunters UJ-1708, UJ-1416 and UJ-1403 bombarded a Soviet boat that tried to attack a convoy near Bustad Sund.

Hans, do you hear that creature?
- Nine. After a series of explosions, the Russians sank to the bottom - I detected three hits on the ground ...
- Can you tell where they are now?
- Donnerwetter! They are blown. Surely they decided to surface and surrender.

The German sailors were wrong. From the depths of the sea, a MONSTER rose to the surface - a cruising submarine K-3 of the XIV series, which unleashed a barrage of artillery fire on the enemy. From the fifth salvo, the Soviet sailors managed to sink U-1708. The second hunter, having received two direct hits, smoked and turned aside - his 20 mm anti-aircraft guns could not compete with the “hundreds” of a secular submarine cruiser. Having scattered the Germans like puppies, K-3 quickly disappeared over the horizon at 20 knots.

The Soviet Katyusha was a phenomenal boat for its time. Welded hull, powerful artillery and mine-torpedo weapons, powerful diesel engines (2 x 4200 hp!), high surface speed of 22-23 knots. Huge autonomy in terms of fuel reserves. Remote control of ballast tank valves. A radio station capable of transmitting signals from the Baltic to the Far East. Exceptional level of comfort: shower cabins, refrigerated tanks, two seawater desalters, an electric galley… Two boats (K-3 and K-22) were equipped with Lend-Lease ASDIC sonar.

But, oddly enough, neither the high performance nor the most powerful weapons made the Katyusha effective - in addition to the dark story with the K-21 attack on the Tirpitz, during the war years, boats of the XIV series accounted for only 5 successful torpedo attacks and 27 thousand br . reg. tons of sunk tonnage. Most of the victories were won with the help of exposed mines. Moreover, their own losses amounted to five cruiser boats.

K-21, Severomorsk, today

The reasons for the failures lie in the tactics of using the Katyushas - the mighty submarine cruisers, created for the expanses of the Pacific Ocean, had to "stomp" in the shallow Baltic "puddle". When operating at depths of 30-40 meters, a huge 97-meter boat could hit the ground with its bow, while its stern was still sticking out on the surface. It was a little easier for the sailors of the North Sea - as practice has shown, the effectiveness of the combat use of the Katyushas was complicated by the poor training of personnel and the lack of initiative of the command.

It's a pity. These boats were counting on more.

"Baby", Soviet Union
Series VI and VI bis - 50 built.
Series XII - 46 built.
Series XV - 57 built (4 took part in the fighting).

TTX boat type M series XII:
Surface displacement - 206 tons; underwater - 258 tons.
Autonomy - 10 days.
Working depth of immersion - 50 m, limit - 60 m.
Full speed on the surface - 14 knots; in the underwater - 8 knots.
Cruising range on the surface - 3380 miles (8.6 knots).
Submerged cruising range - 108 miles (3 knots).
Armament:
- 2 torpedo tubes of caliber 533 mm, ammunition - 2 torpedoes;
- 1 x 45 mm anti-aircraft semi-automatic.

Baby!

The project of mini-submarines for the rapid strengthening of the Pacific Fleet - the main feature of the M-type boats was the ability to be transported by rail in a fully assembled form.

In pursuit of compactness, many had to be sacrificed - service on the "Baby" turned into a grueling and dangerous event. Difficult living conditions, strong "chatter" - the waves ruthlessly threw a 200-ton "float", risking breaking it into pieces. Shallow diving depth and weak weapons. But the main concern of the sailors was the reliability of the submarine - one shaft, one diesel engine, one electric motor - the tiny "Baby" left no chance for the careless crew, the slightest malfunction on board threatened the submarine with death.

The kids quickly evolved - the performance characteristics of each new series differed several times from the previous project: contours were improved, electrical equipment and detection tools were updated, diving time was reduced, autonomy was growing. The "babies" of the XV series no longer resembled their predecessors of the VI and XII series: one and a half hull design - the ballast tanks were moved outside the pressure hull; The power plant received a standard twin-shaft layout with two diesel engines and electric motors for underwater travel. The number of torpedo tubes increased to four. Alas, the XV series appeared too late - the brunt of the war was borne by the "Babies" of the VI and XII series.

The little ones, originally intended only for operations in the coastal zone, have learned to fight effectively in open sea areas. They, along with larger boats, cut enemy communications, patrolled at the exits of enemy bases and fjords, deftly overcame anti-submarine barriers and undermined transports right at the piers inside protected enemy harbors. It's just amazing how the Red Navy could fight on these flimsy boats! But they fought. And they won!

Boats of the "Medium" type of the IX-bis series, the Soviet Union
The number of submarines built is 41.
Surface displacement - 840 tons; underwater - 1070 tons.
Crew - 36 ... 46 people.
Working depth of immersion - 80 m, limit - 100 m.
Full speed on the surface - 19.5 knots; submerged - 8.8 knots.
Surface cruising range 8,000 miles (10 knots).
Submerged cruising range 148 miles (3 knots).

“Six torpedo tubes and the same number of spare torpedoes on racks convenient for reloading. Two cannons with a large ammunition load, machine guns, explosive equipment ... In a word, there is something to fight. And 20-knot surface speed! It allows you to overtake almost any convoy and attack it again. Technique is good…”
- opinion of the S-56 commander, Hero of the Soviet Union G.I. Shchedrin

The problems of the combat use of boats of the "Middle" type, in general, were similar to the cruising boats of the K type - locked in mine-infested shallow water, they could not realize their high combat qualities. Things were much better in the Northern Fleet - during the war years, the S-56 boat under the command of G.I. Shchedrina made the transition across the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, moving from Vladivostok to the Polar, subsequently becoming the most productive boat of the Soviet Navy.

An equally fantastic story is connected with the S-101 “bomb catcher” - over the years of the war, over 1000 depth charges were dropped on the boat by the Germans and the Allies, but each time the S-101 returned safely to Polyarny.

Finally, it was on the S-13 that Alexander Marinesko achieved his famous victories.

Torpedo compartment S-56

“The brutal alterations that the ship got into, bombing and explosions, depths far exceeding the official limit. The boat protected us from everything ... "

- from the memoirs of G.I. Shchedrin

Boats like Gato, USA
The number of submarines built is 77.
Surface displacement - 1525 tons; underwater - 2420 tons.
Crew - 60 people.
Working depth of immersion - 90 m.
Full speed on the surface - 21 knots; in a submerged position - 9 knots.
Surface cruising range 11,000 miles (10 knots).
Submerged cruising range 96 miles (2 knots).
Armament:
- 10 torpedo tubes of caliber 533 mm, ammunition - 24 torpedoes;
- 1 x 76 mm universal gun, 1 x 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft gun, 1 x 20 mm Oerlikon;
- one of the boats - USS Barb was equipped with a multiple launch rocket system for shelling the coast.

High speed, lethal torpedo weapons, the most modern radio equipment for detecting the enemy - radar, direction finder, sonar. The cruising range that provides combat patrols off the coast of Japan when operating from a base in Hawaii. Increased comfort on board. But the main thing is the excellent training of the crews and the weakness of Japanese anti-submarine weapons. As a result, the Gatow ruthlessly destroyed everything in a row - it was they who brought victory in the Pacific Ocean from the blue depths of the sea.

The cabin of the submarine "Flasher", a memorial in the city of Groton.

The list of Flasher trophies sounds like a fleet joke: 9 tankers, 10 transports, 2 patrol ships with a total tonnage of 100,231 gross tons! And for a snack, the boat grabbed a Japanese cruiser and a destroyer. Lucky damn!

Type XXI electric robots, Germany

By April 1945, the Germans managed to launch 118 submarines of the XXI series. However, only two of them were able to achieve operational readiness and go to sea in the last days of the war.

Surface displacement - 1620 tons; underwater - 1820 tons.
Crew - 57 people.
Working depth of immersion - 135 m, maximum - 200+ meters.
Full speed on the surface - 15.6 knots, in the submerged position - 17 knots.
Surface cruising range 15,500 miles (10 knots).
Submerged cruising range 340 miles (5 knots).
Armament:
- 6 torpedo tubes of caliber 533 mm, ammunition - 17 torpedoes;
- 2 anti-aircraft guns "Flak" caliber 20 mm.

U-2540 "Wilhelm Bauer" at the eternal parking lot in Bremerhaven, today

Our allies were very lucky that all the forces of Germany were thrown to the Eastern Front - the Fritz did not have enough resources to release a flock of fantastic "Electric boats" into the sea. If they appeared a year earlier - and that's it, kaput! Another turning point in the battle for the Atlantic.

The Germans were the first to guess: everything that shipbuilders of other countries are proud of - a large ammunition load, powerful artillery, high surface speed of 20+ knots - is of little importance. The key parameters that determine the combat effectiveness of a submarine are its speed and power reserve in a submerged position.

Unlike its peers, "Eletrobot" was focused on being constantly under water: the most streamlined body without heavy artillery, fences and platforms - all for the sake of minimizing underwater resistance. Snorkel, six groups of batteries (3 times more than on conventional boats!), powerful el. full speed engines, quiet and economical el. creep engines.

Aft part of U-2511, flooded at a depth of 68 meters

The Germans calculated everything - the entire campaign "Electrobot" moved at periscope depth under the RDP, remaining difficult to detect for enemy anti-submarine weapons. At great depths, its advantage became even more shocking: 2-3 times the range, at twice the speed, than any of the submarines of the war years! High stealth and impressive underwater skills, homing torpedoes, a set of the most advanced detection tools ... "Electrobots" opened a new milestone in the history of the submarine fleet, determining the vector of development of submarines in the post-war years.

The Allies were not ready to face such a threat - as post-war tests showed, the Electrobots were several times superior in terms of mutual sonar detection range to the American and British destroyers guarding the convoys.

Type VII boats, Germany
The number of submarines built is 703.
Surface displacement - 769 tons; underwater - 871 tons.
Crew - 45 people.
Working depth of immersion - 100 m, limit - 220 meters
Full speed on the surface - 17.7 knots; in a submerged position - 7.6 knots.
Surface cruising range 8,500 miles (10 knots).
Submerged cruising range 80 miles (4 knots).
Armament:
- 5 torpedo tubes of caliber 533 mm, ammunition - 14 torpedoes;
- 1 x 88 mm universal gun (until 1942), eight options for add-ons with 20 and 37 mm anti-aircraft guns.

* the given performance characteristics correspond to boats of the VIIC sub-series

The most effective warships ever to sail the world's oceans.
A relatively simple, cheap, massive, but at the same time well-armed and deadly means for total underwater terror.

703 submarines. 10 MILLION tons of sunk tonnage! Battleships, cruisers, aircraft carriers, destroyers, enemy corvettes and submarines, oil tankers, transports with aircraft, tanks, cars, rubber, ore, machine tools, ammunition, uniforms and food ... The damage from the actions of German submariners exceeded all reasonable limits - if not the inexhaustible industrial potential of the United States, capable of compensating for any losses of the allies, the German U-bots had every chance to “strangle” Great Britain and change the course of world history.

U-995. Graceful underwater killer

Often the successes of the "sevens" are associated with the "prosperous time" of 1939-41. - allegedly when the Allies had the escort system and Asdik sonars, the successes of the German submariners ended. A completely populist claim based on a misinterpretation of "prosperous times".

The alignment was simple: at the beginning of the war, when there was one Allied anti-submarine ship for each German boat, the “sevens” felt like invulnerable masters of the Atlantic. It was then that the legendary aces appeared, sinking 40 enemy ships each. The Germans already had victory in their hands when the allies suddenly deployed 10 anti-submarine ships and 10 aircraft for every active Kriegsmarine boat!

Beginning in the spring of 1943, the Yankees and the British began methodically bombarding the Kriegsmarine with anti-submarine warfare and soon achieved an excellent loss ratio of 1:1. So they fought until the end of the war. The Germans ran out of ships faster than their opponents.

The whole history of the German "sevens" is a formidable warning from the past: what kind of threat does the submarine pose and how high are the costs of creating an effective system to counter the underwater threat.

Funky American poster of those years. "Hit the pain points! Come serve in the submarine fleet - we account for 77% of the sunk tonnage!" Comments, as they say, are unnecessary

The article uses materials from the book "Soviet submarine shipbuilding", V. I. Dmitriev, Military Publishing, 1990.