Task number 70.
Solve the crossword "From the history of ancient Rome."
Attention! The correct answers are indicated in brackets.
Horizontally: 1. A city in Africa, near which Hannibal's troops were defeated by the Romans ( Zama
). 5. Greek city, destroyed by the Romans to the ground ( Corinth
). 7. The legendary founder of Rome ( Romulus
). 10. God of war, father of the founder of Rome ( Mars
). 11. Solemn entry into Rome of the victorious commander ( triumph
). 13. Slaves trained to fight each other for the amusement of the Roman public ( gladiators
). 16. The river on the left bank of which the city of Rome was founded ( Tiber
). 17. Carthaginian commander ( Hannibal
). 18. The son of the god Mars, killed by his twin brother ( rem
). 19. Goddess of fire and hearth (Vesta
). 20. An animal tamed in India that participated in battles ( elephant
). 22. Clothes of a Roman citizen, an oval-shaped piece of woolen cloth ( toga
). 23. Country on the Apennine Peninsula ( Italy
). 26. Residents of ancient Rome, settlers from different regions of Italy and their descendants ( plebeians
). 29. Roman commander, winner of Hannibal ( Scipio
). 30. Country in the Eastern Mediterranean, whose king Antiochus was defeated by the Romans ( Syria
). 31. A noble Roman who ended his speeches in the Senate with a call for the destruction of Carthage ( Cato
).
32. Ancient people, who lived on the right bank of the Tiber and in a vast area to the west of it ( Etruscans
). 34. A city in Italy, near which Hannibal encircled the Roman army and defeated it ( Cannes
). 36. Official in Rome, elected by the plebeians ( tribune
). 37. What ropes for throwing machines were made of in Carthage besieged by the Romans ( hair
). 38. Clothing of the Romans, woolen shirt with short sleeves ( tunic
). 39. Roman youth, nicknamed Lefty for his feat ( Mucius
). 40. Building where gladiatorial games were held ( amphitheater
).
Vertically: 2. A country on the Balkan Peninsula north of Greece, conquered by the Romans ( Macedonia
). 3. Mountains, the passage through which cost Hannibal almost half of the army ( Alps
). 4. The main square of Rome (forum).5. A city in Africa, destroyed by the Romans in the same year as Corinth ( Carthage
).
6. City founded by Romulus ( Rome
). 7. Name of the city of Rome on Latin (Roma
). 8. Descendants of the most ancient inhabitants of Rome ( patricians
). 9. The king who fought with the Romans, who is credited with the expression: “One more such victory - and we will perish!” ( Pyrrhus
). 12. According to the ideas of the Romans, "talking tool" ( slave
). 13. Warlike tribes that captured Rome in 390 BC ( galls
). 14. The last Roman king deprived of power by the Romans ( Tarquinius
). 15. King of Syria, defeated by the Romans ( Antioch
). 19. An animal that, according to legend, brought up twin brothers, sons of the god Mars ( she-wolf
). 21. Soldiers who guarded the king in Rome, and later - the consuls ( lictors
). 24. The name of the military unit of the Roman army ( legion
). 25. Government in Rome, established by the citizens in 509 BC. ( republic
).
26. A river in northern Italy, along the banks of which the Gauls lived ( By
). 27. Island triangular shape, because of which the war between Rome and Carthage began ( Sicily
). 28. The Latin word by which a people's tribune canceled the order of the consul or forbade the vote of the law ( veto
). 29. The assembly of former consuls and other officials wielded enormous power ( senate
). 33. Greek colony in southern Italy, whose inhabitants, not wanting to submit to Rome, called for help from King Pyrrhus ( Tarentum
). 34. One of two elected rulers of Rome who had equal power ( consul
). 35. Roman commander, winner of Spartacus ( Crassus
).
Plan
Introduction
1 Causes of war
2 Initial stage of the war
3 Siege of Praeneste
4 Battle of Colline Gate
5 Surrender of Praeneste
6 Results of the war
Bibliography
Civil War in Ancient Rome (83-82 BC)
Introduction
Civil War 83-82 BC e. (lat. Bella Civilia, 83-82 years. BC e.; sometimes there is a combination of events in a civil war 88-82 BC. BC) - an internecine war in the Roman Republic between the supporters of Sulla and the adherents of the deceased Gaius Marius, united around his son Gaius Maria the Younger and the consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbon.
1. Causes of the war
The conflict flared up primarily because of the insoluble contradictions between the two groups that rallied around Lucius Cornelius Sulla on the one hand and Gaius Marius the Younger on the other.
The Marians, holding power in an undemocratic way, sought to conserve the existing order. None of their reforms are known, except for the few by which they actually came to power. The main activities of the Marians were the implementation of a bill on the distribution of Italics among all tribes, the removal of Sulla from all positions held and the destruction of the opposition with the help of mass terror.
The passage of the bill on the distribution of the Italics among all the tribes was, however, the most important political step of the Marian party. As a result of the Allied War, as already noted, the Italians received only formally equal rights with the Romans. In fact, they did not have any noticeable influence on the solution of political issues, since they were enrolled exclusively in the last, most numerous tribes. This was probably done by the Roman legislators in order to reassure the Italics by the visible gift to them of what they fought for. Indeed, the Romans would not have been able to fight on all fronts by military means alone (the Italians surrounded Rome from almost all sides).
However, Marius and Sulpicius, shortly after the end of the Allied War, decided to use the Italics to achieve such political goals as establishing their rule in Rome, as well as to appoint Marius to a future war with Mithridates.
It is likely that the last goal was the main one. The Marians, having reached power, did not make anything significant besides this belated decision (belated because Sulla had already gone to war). Therefore, their position can be called destructive in relation to the Roman state order.
Interestingly, about the political abilities of Mary (in contrast to his military talents), his main biographer Plutarch speaks extremely reservedly, rather negatively, calling him "naturally incapable of peaceful civilian activity". Having essentially unlimited power, those at the helm of power in Rome could pursue (except terror) any reformist policy, as Sulla, who replaced them, most clearly showed. The Marians certainly did not have a clear plan of action in case the plan to send Marius as a commander to Asia failed, which happened. Having reached power for the sake of fulfilling this goal and having missed real opportunity to really fulfill it, the Marians seemed to have lost all interest in creation and turned to destruction.
At the same time, Sulla sought not to restore legitimate power, but to establish a regime of his personal power. The infringement of the honor and dignity of Sulla himself, as well as the infringement of the rights of the patriciate as a whole, was chosen as the reason (the latter actually took place). In addition, Sulla could not celebrate his well-deserved triumph for the victory over Mithridates while the Marians were in charge in Rome. Not the last place was the personal enmity between Sulla and Marius, which, after the death of the latter, resulted in a confrontation between the two parties.
2. The initial stage of the war
Sulla landed at Brundisium in 83. He quickly advanced towards Rome, since the Marians were completely unprepared for war. In addition, several times he managed to divide opponents and even win over entire legions to his side.
Both representatives of the well-born nobility (the so-called optimates), who saw Sulla as their protector, and dissatisfied from among the Marians (the so-called popular) flocked to Sulla. In addition, ordinary soldiers often went over to the side of Sulla. This was primarily due to Sulla's promise to distribute land to everyone who fought on his side (he later fulfilled this promise). Most famous people who went over to the side of Sulla are Pompey and Crassus. It should not be forgotten that Sulla, although he was a rebel, was still a proconsul, that is, he was an official.
One of the first battles took place at Canusium in the region of Mount Tifata between Gaius Norbanus and Sulla. 6000 soldiers of Norbanus and 70 soldiers of Sulla died in the battle.
Winter 83/82 fighting not conducted due to adverse weather conditions
Near Faventia, Gaius Norbanus and the consul of 82, Gnaeus Papirius Carbone, launched a battle against Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius in extremely unfortunate conditions and were defeated. In this battle, up to 10,000 soldiers died near Norban, and another 6,000 defected to the side of the Sullans.
As a result of the battle of Signia, Marius with a small part of his army was forced to retreat to the fortified city of Praeneste. Soon, however, the city was surrounded by Sulla.
3. Siege of Praeneste
After Marius was locked up in Praeneste, Sulla decided to lay siege to the city. He knew that there were few soldiers loyal to Mary in the city and they would not be able to lift the siege on their own. Sulla entrusted Lucretius Ophella with the siege of Preneste. He dug a ditch at some distance around the city and erected a palisade.
Marius had high hopes for Carbon and for the large army of Telesinus. While waiting for their arrival, he sent a message to Rome to his supporter, Praetor Brutus, ordering him to deal with his personal enemies. However, the army of Carbon was significantly reduced in several skirmishes with the detachments of Sulla, Metellus, Pompey and Crassus. Finally, Pompey managed to ambush and put Carbone's soldiers to flight. Frustrated by the constant failures, the soldiers rebelled, and the warriors of one of the legions completely went home. Telesinus with a large army could not even get close to Praenesta, since the narrow passages on the way there were completely blocked by Sulla. Marius, seeing that food supplies in Prenest were running out, withdrew his troops outside the city gates and tried to break through the fortifications of the besiegers, but failed.
A major success of Sulla was the transition to his side of the commander Albinovan with a legion of Lucanians. Sulla promised to ensure Albinovan's safety only if he did something outstanding, so Albinovan called a lot of unsuspecting Marian commanders to him and killed them. Upon learning of this, one of the leaders of the Marians, Gaius Norban, abandoned the army and fled to Rhodes.
The Marians were still trying to drive Sulla out of the narrow passages on the way to Praeneste. After Mark Terentius Varro Lucullus inflicted another defeat on the Marian army (the Marians did not win a single serious victory in the entire war), and all the territories north of Rome finally went over to the side of Sulla, Carbon, who was one of the two consuls for 82, fled from Italy to Africa, hoping to organize a center of resistance for Sulla there.
After this incident, the remaining Marian commanders (Karina, Marcius and Damasippus) made one last attempt to break through to Praeneste, and when this failed, they joined forces with Telesinus and moved on Rome. Sulla, having learned about this, quickly left the place and also hurried to Rome.
4. Battle of the Colline Gate
The battle between Sulla on the one hand, and the united army of the Marians on the other, took place at the beginning of 82. The army of Sulla was outnumbered by the 70,000th Marian, but the latter was made up of inexperienced Italics who did not burn with the desire to die in battle. It is also known that many Italics from the tribes of the Samnites and Lucanians took part in the battle on the side of the Marians.
During the battle, Sulla first won on the right flank of the battle (he was commanded by Marcus Licinius Crassus), while his left flank was put to flight. The retreaters tried to escape into Rome through the Colline Gate, but the soldiers of Sulla, who were on duty on the walls, closed the gate with a mechanical device. This crippled several dozen soldiers, but forced the rest to turn around and continue the battle. The battle continued for the rest of the night, and Sulla was victorious.
Appian puts the total death toll in the battle at 50,000. Another 8,000 captured soldiers, mostly Samnites, Sulla immediately ordered to be killed. During the battle, Telezin and Albin were killed. Two more commanders of the losing army were soon captured and killed, and their heads were carried around the walls of the besieged Preneste.
5. Surrender of Praeneste
After the heads of these commanders were shown to the defenders of Praeneste, it became clear to the besiegers that the armies of the Marians were defeated, and Sulla was the winner. The inhabitants of Praeneste voluntarily surrendered the city to the besieger Lucretius. Guy Marius Jr. committed suicide, but his body was found, and soon his head was delivered to Sulla.
After arriving in the city, Sulla destroyed all the military leaders of Maria, and then ordered all the defenders of the city to line up in the field without weapons, while breaking up into three groups - Romans, Samnites and Prenestines. Sulla forgave the Romans, ordered all the rest to be cut out, but ordered to leave their wives and children. The city of Sulla gave the soldiers to plunder.
6. Results of the war
“The war destroyed everything. Often 10,000-20,000 people died in one battle, and 50,000 died on both sides in the vicinity of Rome. In relation to each of the survivors, in relation to the cities, Sulla did not stop at any cruelties until he declared himself sole ruler of the entire Roman state for the period that seemed to him desirable and necessary.
During the hostilities, the Marians were defeated in all directions (with the exception of Spain, where else long time continued the resistance of Quintus Sertorius, but he fought not for the ideals of the Marian party, but for his own interests). All the cities of Italy submitted to Sulla, who was the clear winner.
By the end of the 2nd century BC. e. The Roman Republic was a powerful power in the Mediterranean. With the conquest of new lands, new enemies were also acquired - wars almost did not stop. Endless victories gave a lot of wealth: the provinces were forced to pay heavy taxes. The Roman nobility was seized by a money fever. Now the consulate meant not so much serving the people as enrichment and power. All this leads to the first prerequisites for a civil war in Rome. When, with the growth of prosperity, politics becomes corrupt.
Causes of civil wars in Rome
The conquest of the world has led to the fact that the country has become a victim of globalization. The influx of free slave labor and low grain prices from the conquered territories ruined the peasant farms of the Republic. And the plebeians, left without land, went to Rome to seek help from the authorities.
The People's Assembly and the Senate were hardly in control of the state. The ruling aristocracy had no unity. Some insisted on change, others did not want to change anything.
In short, the civil wars in Rome significantly shook the foundations of the Republic: Roman laws were violated by the weapons of the soldiers and the will of the generals, and the army became the decisive force in settling political issues.
Attempted reform by the Gracchi brothers
Clashes begin in 133 BC. e. Tiberius Gracchus, being a people's tribune, proposed that part of the lands of wealthy citizens be distributed to the plebeians. He talked about the loss of balance in society, when some owned everything, while others were beggars. The Senate did not like his plans, and those in power turned the opposition against him. When Tiberius and his like-minded people came to the forum, he was killed by enemies.
Ten years later, his brother, Gaius Gracchus, continued his work. He made sure that the poor could get land. The Corn Law also came into force, according to which the poor bought bread 10 times cheaper than the market price. Guy planned to start building roads throughout Italy to enable extensive trade and communications to develop. His proposal to grant Roman citizenship to all Italics resonated. Gracchus had many enemies. Addressing the consul, the senate declared a state of emergency in the city. Guy and his 3,000 supporters were killed.
Attempts to stop the ruin of the peasantry and thereby strengthen the state were defeated. The death of the Gracchi brothers marked the beginning of a long period of civil wars in ancient Rome.
Marius and Sulla
Events begin in 88 BC. e. from the confrontation between two commanders - Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Gaius Maria - for the post of commander-in-chief of the Roman army in the war with the Pontic state. And when the choice was made in favor of Marius, not without the help of the popular tribune Sulpicius Rufus, his rival raises legions against Rome. Guy Marius and his supporters were forced to flee from Italy. Having taken possession of the city, Sulla cancels the adopted laws of the Marians, but he failed to completely eliminate the opposition.
After Sulla's speech to the east, Cornelius Cinna and the Sullanian Octavius were elected new consuls. The conflict that broke out between them ended with the fact that Cinna, imitating Sulla, led troops to Rome. On the way, Gaius Marius joins him with his allies. Octavius and the Senate, in order to stop the bloodshed, were forced to capitulate and actually transfer power to Mary and Cinna.
Having received the much-desired consulate, Marius died 17 days later. And Cinna managed to retain power for three years and rule the state as a dictatorial regime.
Civil War
Having won a victory in the east, Sulla returns to Italy and begins to fight for the reins of government. The first large-scale battle took place near the city of Capua, where the Sullans defeated the army of the consul Caius Norban. Another Roman consul, Scipio, and his retinue Sulla managed to win over to his side.
Another significant battle took place near Sancripont. The legions under the leadership of Sulla were opposed by the nearly 40,000-strong army of their son Marius. The fight was short lived. Experienced Sulluns put to flight the young recruits of the enemy, and they retreated to Rome, but most of them were killed.
In the autumn of 82 BC. e. The last battle of this civil war took place in Rome. All night long a fierce battle was going on at the Colline Gate. The Marians, under the command of Pontius Celesinus, could not hold the city's defenses, and Sulla's army entered Rome. The city was choked with blood: the opponents were dealt with extremely cruelly, and many civilians also died.
Fall of the Republic
The frightened Roman Senate gave all the powers to Sulla, making his power absolutely uncontrollable. This was unthinkable for a republican system of government.
With the dictatorship of Sulla in ancient Rome, the first steps of imperial power were established. The mass destruction of political opponents, punitive detachments throughout Italy, denunciations, confiscations of land, executions - a list of people declared enemies of the Republic was compiled. The country is mired in murder and robbery.
The state system was completely reorganized. The Senate, replenished with new members from the Sullans, received great power. And the rights of people's assemblies were severely limited. Italy was divided into municipal territories. But in 79 B.C. e. Sulla unexpectedly resigns and retires from political activity.
Slave uprising
It is impossible to tell about the civil wars in Rome without the parallel theme of slavery. Ancient Rome, like no other country in the world, was distinguished large quantity slaves. Governors and legionnaires in the provinces imposed exorbitant taxes on the indigenous population, and those who could not pay were sold into slavery. Inhuman conditions of detention and cruel treatment lead to the fact that rebellions rose from time to time, which, however, were suppressed very quickly.
In 136 BC. e. The first major slave uprising breaks out in Sicily. They were able to hold the line and repulse the Roman troops. Only 4 years later, Consul Rupilius managed to capture the centers of resistance. But in 104 BC. e. the situation repeats itself.
The largest slave uprising takes place in Italy itself in 73-71. BC e. 60 slaves escaped from the gladiator school in Capua. The main organizer and instigator was the Thracian Spartak. The fugitives managed to hide on the volcano Vesuvius, in an extinct crater. Other escaped slaves began to join them, and the number of the detachment constantly increased.
The army sent by the Senate to suppress the rebellion was defeated at the foot of Vesuvius. The uprising engulfed the entire south of Italy. After evaluating the enemy, the senate sends two consuls at once. And they also fail. Having previously sought to cross the Alps, Spartacus changes his plans and moves south, which becomes a trap for him. His detachment was defeated by the Roman general Crassus. In a fierce battle, Spartacus dies.
Triumvirate
In 62 BC. e. Gnaeus Pompey returned to Italy after the victory over Mithridates of Pontus. After all his triumphant battles, he was expected to usurp, but he disbands the army, remaining a significant political figure. He couldn't find mutual language with the commander Crassus, who, having defeated Spartacus, had a strong position in the ranks of the authoritative men of Rome. But with a skillful political game, Gaius Julius Caesar, another well-known state leader of that time, reconciles opponents and concludes an alliance with them - a triumvirate.
It was an almost tacit agreement on the governance of Rome, which was directed against the Senate. Having received the consulate with the help of his allies in 59 BC. e., Caesar passed the agrarian laws and supported the project for the remuneration of veterans who served under Pompey.
After the expiration of the consular year, Caesar fought for 10 years in Transalpine Gaul. The freedom-loving country was conquered and became a Roman province. This war brought Julius a lot of wealth and fame as an unsurpassed commander.
Civil war in Rome 49-45. BC
This is the last political conflict in the Roman Republic before the founding of the Roman Empire.
In 49 BC. e. Pompey, conspiring with the Senate, orders Caesar to disband his troops and return to Italy to report on his reign. The option of disagreement was seen as a betrayal. Upon learning of his sentence, Caesar leads troops to Rome. Pompey fled and the city was taken without a fight.
Being a more talented commander and politician, Caesar in 48 BC. e. in the battle of Pharsalus, he defeated the enemy troops, although the size of his army was significantly inferior. 20 thousand soldiers of Pompey surrendered, 15 thousand died. Caesar himself suffered minor losses. But only in 45 BC. e. the final end was put to the resistance of the Pompeian party in the bloody battle of Munda.
The power and influence of Caesar rallied his enemies. He was betrayed by the conspirators and killed at a meeting of the Senate. And shortly thereafter, civil war breaks out in Rome with new force. As a result of dirty political games, wars and betrayals in 27 BC. e. Octavian, Caesar's nephew, takes the helm. And although the appearance of the Republic is still preserved, historians believe that it was during the years of his reign that the Roman Empire was formed.
During its existence, Rome experienced many civil wars, which peaked during the existence of the late Republic. Many of them led to fundamental changes in the social structure, public authorities, as well as in political role Rome in the international arena.
Civil wars during the late Republic
The first civil war that was unleashed in Rome was the confrontation between the Italic peoples, who inhabited the territory of Northern Italy, and the Romans. This confrontation led to the fact that most of the lands of Northern Italy fell under the rule of Rome.
Further civil wars were unleashed between the supporters of Sulla and Gaius Maria. Two wars, which lasted a total of about five years (88-83 BC), led to the victory of Sulla.
Thanks to this victory, a significant redeployment was carried out political forces which eventually led to the strengthening of the Roman Republic. The last civil war in the late republic took place in 32-30 BC. between Hellenistic Egypt and Rome.
Peace under Augustus
Through the efforts of Octivian, in 30 BC, all the lands of the republic that had owned sovereignty until that time were united into a single state. In 27 B.C. The Roman Republic received the status of the Roman Empire. Octivian became the first emperor of the Roman Empire, and laid the foundation for the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
Despite the cruelty of the rulers of this famous dynasty, the period of their reign entered the history of Rome as the world of Augusts (Pax Augusti). For more than a century, not a single civil confrontation occurred in the Roman Empire.
Many historians attribute this to the fact that there were dictators in power who did not allow any popular unrest. The Augustan world ended immediately after the death of the last emperor from the Julio - Claudian - Nero clan, in 68 AD.
Civil wars in the early and late Empire
After the death of Nero, one of the most brutal civil wars broke out in the Roman Empire. In 69, four emperors successively changed in the Roman Empire - Galba, Vittelius, Otho and Vespian. Each of them, with the support of their adherents, received supreme power in a military confrontation with the forces of predecessors.
Civil strife in the Roman Empire lasted until 193. The cause of many of them was the struggle for political ideas, state power and territorial structure.
Civil War of 238
The last civil war in the Roman Empire was the confrontation between the adherents of two emperors - Maximin and Gordian I. Emperor Maximin did not pay due attention to the development of the Roman army, which provoked a riot among the troops. Several outstanding commanders, through a revolutionary coup, put one of the provincial governors, Gordian, in charge of the Empire.
The Senate immediately recognized the authority of the new emperor. However, the adherents of Maximin, having gathered a large army, which included ordinary inhabitants of the Roman Empire, moved to Carthage. In the confrontation, the son of Emperor Gordian II was killed. Upon learning of the death of his heir, Gordian I committed suicide.
Despite all the expectations of the Roman people, the Senate proclaimed Pupienus and Balbinus as new emperors, which led to a new wave of armed protests. In one of the battles, Maximinus was killed. Government unconditionally passed to the two emperors, who put an end to civil wars.
Civil War 83-82 BC e.
Conspiracy of Catiline
First triumvirate
Civil War 49-45 BC e.
Second triumvirate
Early Republic[ | ]
The conflicts associated with the formation of the republic were closely intertwined with the ongoing wars of Rome with neighboring peoples and cities, which sometimes had a decisive character.
Confrontation between Rome and the last king (509-495 BC)[ | ]
The deposed Tarquinius the Proud tried several times to restore his power.
Sextus Tarquinius, the youngest of the sons of the last king, guilty of starting the uprising in Collation, probably did not die in Battle of Lake Regilla. Thanks to his cunning, he established himself as an independent ruler in the Latin city of Gabia, but then betrayed the city to his father, eliminating the nobility of the city. According to one version, he was killed during the uprising of the Latins in Gabia, which occurred either earlier or later than the battle between the Romans and the Latins. One way or another, Titus Livius unambiguously attributes the death of the eldest son of the king, Titus Tarquinius, during this battle. Deprived of family and allies, the king could no longer continue the fight, moreover, during the last battle he was wounded.
Events 494-493 (488) BC. e.[ | ]
There are several interpretations of Coriolanus's demarche. Coriolanus, probably being a patrician leader, goes over to the side of the Volscians and leads them (491-488 BC). Either Coriolanus, on the contrary, was a plebeian commander who sought a compromise with the patricians, but, entangled in political disputes, he did not receive authority and joined the Volsci. In any case, it is believed that there was a reconciliation of the parties after a fairly successful campaign of the Volscians. But Coriolanus was most likely executed by the Volscians for what they considered a treacherous peace. Perhaps there was a return of Coriolanus to Rome as a private individual. Regarding the campaign of Coriolanus against Rome, it could have happened earlier, in 493 BC. e., then this was the reason for the end of the First Latin War in a draw - which they could not forgive Coriolanus in Rome. One way or another, the events of 494-493 (488) BC. e. closely connected. The historicity (as well as the interpretation of the personality) of Coriolanus, as well as his role in these events, can both be questioned and changed in the opposite direction, which was reflected in Roman historiography, probably for the sake of the political situation of that time. Only the secession, the campaign of the Volscians, the Treaty of Cassius and the tragic image of Coriolanus are undoubted.
Late Republic[ | ]
Through the entire period civil wars of the Late Republic undergoing a massive transformation of Roman society. The place of collective Roman patriotism is taken by the ambitions of strong individual personalities. Typically candidates for military dictators, such as Marius and Sulla, Caesar and Pompey, Octavian and Antony. Adventurers like Saturninus, Sulpicius, Cinna, Catiline, Lepidus father and son. Desperate and talented Sertorius and Sextus Pompey. They united under the flags of the opposing "parties" - Gracchians and nobles, populares and optimates, Marians and, and Pompeians, triumvirs and, replaced by another round of civil wars.
Opposition between the movement of the Gracchi brothers and the Roman aristocrats (133-100 BC)[ | ]
Gracchi brothers, unlike later reformers, did not seek to seize full power in the republic, but this is exactly what their opponents charged them with. The clashes between their supporters and the conservatives ended in bloodshed and repression, becoming the first milestones indicative of the precarious state of the republic.
Rebellions of the dependent population (135-88 BC)[ | ]
Formally, the war of 91-88 BC. e. it was not civil, as it was fought between the citizens of Rome and the allies of Rome, who did not have Roman citizenship, however, it was the question of him for the Italians that became the pretext for war. This question has been raised repeatedly. Previously - Guy Gracchus, Saturninus and Mark Livius Drusus (killed in 91 BC). And also in the subsequent wars of the Marians (whom the Italians consistently supported) and the Sullans, for the issue was not finally and fairly resolved until the wars of the Caesarians and Pompeians. This war also produced many prominent Roman commanders who later played a significant role in the civil wars of 88-72 BC. e, the only exception was Lucius Licinius Lucullus, who went through this war and then did not participate in internal conflicts. The unfinished nature of the war led to the fact that there were at least three Roman armies in Italy, ready to follow exclusively the will of their commanders, regardless of the senate and the popular assembly.
Wars between the Marians and the Sullans (88-62 BC)[ | ]
- . Between the supporters of Sulla and the forces of Gaius Maria is the victory of the Sullans.
Period of Inner Peace (62-49 BC)[ | ]
Rome owes a period of relative calm to the actions of the First Triumvirate, which paralyzed the active activity of the Senate elite, which at first was inspired by both the victories under the banner of Sulla and his death (the defeat of the dictatorship). No less important is the desire of the triumvirs to direct aggression outward - the “eastern”, sea and “Spanish” affairs of Pompey, the Parthian campaign of Crassus, the Gallic war of Caesar. The triumvirate informally united the political heirs of both opposing "parties" capable of completely controlling the popular assembly, but with the death (53 BC) of the main sponsor in the triumvirate, Crassus, the contradictions intensified and civil wars resumed.
Wars between Caesarians and Pompeians (49-36 BC)[ | ]
Wars between triumvirs (41-30 BC)[ | ]
early empire [ | ]
The era of the Principate made it possible to solve all the main problems at a glance internal device Rome peacefully. However, originating in The era of the Late Republic the tendency to change power by force of arms continued. As a rule, it was about the change of princeps dynasties and the strife within them. Along the way, Rome decided difficult task building a system of checks and balances in relations between the princeps and the senate, the Romans and the subordinate population.
Peace under Augustus (30 BC - 14 AD)[ | ]
After 30 BC, the republic was unified under the leadership of Octavian. In 27 BC e. Octavian was granted the title of Augustus by the senate. These two dates are believed to mark the end of the Republic and the birth of the Roman Empire. Period of government [ | ]
- . In 248, the commander Decius, who commanded troops in Moesia and Pannonia, defeated the Goths who invaded the territory of the empire. After this victory, the soldiers proclaimed Decius emperor. In July (or September) 249, a battle took place near Verona between the troops of Decius and the troops of Emperor Philip I. Both Philip himself and his son Philip II died in the battle.
- . The governor of Moesia, Aemilian, defeated the Goths who invaded this province and was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers. He quickly moved to Italy to meet the emperor Gallus. Gal ordered Valerian to bring legions from Rhetia and Germany. While Valerian hesitated to carry out the order, the emperor Gallus and his son Volusian in August 253 were defeated and killed by their rebellious soldiers. new emperor Aemilian soon fell ill and died. On September 6, 253, the soldiers proclaimed Valerian emperor.
- . In different sources, the dates of this period differ from each other by 1-2 years. Therefore, the exact dating by years and the exact sequence of events cannot be established. After the emperor Valerian was captured in 259 (or 260), Postum declared himself emperor, killed Saloninus, the son of Emperor Gallienus, and became an independent ruler of Gaul. His example was followed by Ingenui in Pannonia. He was supported by troops in Moesia. Ingenui was besieged in Sirmium by the commander of Gallien - Manius Acilius Avreol and defeated. During the flight, Ingenui was killed. However, the army did not stop rebelling and proclaimed Regalian, the governor of Upper Pannonia, emperor. A few weeks later, Gallienus defeated him too. In Asia Minor, meanwhile, Makrian defeated the Persians and drove them back to the Euphrates. Being already elderly, he forced his sons Macrian and Quiet to proclaim themselves emperors. They were supported by the provinces of Syria, Asia Minor and Egypt. Leaving Kviet in Syria, both Makrians crossed over with troops to the Balkans. In Illyricum, a battle took place between the Macrian army and the army of Domitian (the commander of Aurelian, who at that moment was loyal to the emperor Gallienus). The Macrians were defeated and put to death. Gallienus was called for help against Quiet by the ruler of Palmyra, Odaenathus. Odaenathus attacked Quiet at Emesa, where he died at the hands of the townspeople. The rebellion of Macrian was also supported by the ruler of Egypt, Aemilian. He was defeated by the commander of Gallienus Theodotus and strangled in prison. Gallienus did not have the strength to fight the usurper Postumus and he postponed the fight for several years. Although Gallien did not conclude any truce with Postum.
- . In 265, Gallienus launched an attack on Postumus and laid siege to him at Vienna. But the invasions of the barbarians on the Danube forced Gallienus to raise the siege again to postpone the fight against Postumus. In 267, the commander of Zenobia, Zabda, defeated the commander of Gallienus Heraclian, whom Gallienus had sent to prepare a war against the Persians. In 268, Aureolus rebelled against Gallienus and joined Postumus. Gallienus returned from the Danube to Rome and organized a campaign against the rebellious commander, defeated him and locked him in Mediolanum. During the siege, the rebellious soldiers plotted and killed Emperor Gallienus. Meanwhile, in Mainz, Lollian rebelled against Postumus. Postumus defeated him and laid siege to the city. Forbidding the soldiers to rob the inhabitants, Postumus caused a rebellion and was killed.
- . Zenobia rebelled in Palmyra and declared herself independent of Rome. Emperor Aurelian declared war on her. In 272 in Syria, Aurelian met the Palmyrene army under the command of Zabda and defeated it in the battle of Orontes (or Imma). After another victory at the Battle of Emesa, Aurelian laid siege to Palmyra along with Queen Zenobia herself and took the city by storm. Meanwhile, Aurelian's commander Probus captured Egypt without a fight. After Aurelian's return to Europe, Zenobia again revolted, and in Egypt a certain Firmus revolted. Aurelian immediately returned from Pannonia to Palmyra, captured and destroyed the city, and took Zenobia prisoner. The firm was forced to commit suicide.
- . In 274, Emperor Aurelian decided to put an end to the separatist Gallo-Roman Empire and made a campaign in Gaul. On the Catalaunian fields, he defeated the army of the usurper Tetricus. With this, Aurelian restored the integrity of the Roman Empire, which fell apart after the capture of Valerian in 259 (or 260).
Late Empire [ | ]
- . After the assassination of the Eastern Roman Emperor Numerian in 284, the soldiers did not recognize the sole ruler of the Western Roman Emperor Karin and proclaimed the emperor of one of their commanders, Diocles (he took the name Diocletian). When it became known about the death of Emperor Numerian, the governor of Venice, Julian, rebelled and proclaimed himself emperor. At the beginning of 285, Emperor Karin defeated the army of the usurper Julian at Verona. On April 1, 285, the army of Karin met with the army of Diocletian at Marg and defeated it. But at that moment, Karin fell victim to a conspiracy of his officers, and Diocletin, who lost the battle, became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.