Science during the Great Patriotic War. Education and science during the war

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF MOSCOW

_____________________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACT ON THE HISTORY OF THE FATHERLAND

"Soviet science during the Great Patriotic War"

Fulfilled Art. gr.

Consultant

Moscow 2005

I. Introduction ………………………………………. ……………………………… 2.1

II. Science during the Great Patriotic War ……………………………… .3

1. The line of scientific defense …………………………………………… 6

2. Soviet historical science …………………………………… .15

3. Book publishing …………………………………………………… .16

III. Conclusion. Their share of victory ……………………… ... …………………… ..21

Literature ……………………………………………………………………… .22

I. Introduction

This year marks 60 years since great victory... How many tears were shed, how many solemn speeches were said, but our gratitude to the great liberators will not dry up, people who, without sparing their lives, went on the attack, did not sleep for days inventing more powerful armor or standing behind the conveyor belt of the plant. And although historical realities force us to reconsider the already unsweetened pill of victory, the number of victims, the methods of achieving victory, and its goals, the Stalinist camps, injustice, but a simple soldier, scientist, worker - did not deserve the attitude that is now practiced towards them. They did everything for victory, everything for the freedom of their homeland. Their exploits touch upon the greatest feelings of gratitude to those millions of famous and nameless heroes who labored vigorously for the benefit of a common cause.

I chose this topic in order to try to rehabilitate in our memory convicted and executed scientists, the intelligentsia. Those who expressed their opinion, independent of the party, or even simply slandered by the anonymous letter of an unknown envious person. Those who did not then have any rights except to die for their homeland. No marshal or general was as patriotic as they were. Working day and night in camp casemates, in marshes of evaporating stench, not seeing any encouragement and elementary gratitude, but confident in victory, even if "... one for all ..."!

Today their contribution, especially in the West, is greatly underestimated by historians, although in such conditions as they worked, it was impossible to live, let alone create. They also created the groundwork for decades to come, they made a huge contribution not only to Soviet, but also to world science.

We bow our heads before their exploits, although they were not on the front line, they did not run shouting "Hurray" to the enemy bunker. They had their own war, not so noticeable at first glance, but no less hot and dramatic, because on the fields of scientific battles, especially on our side, there were many victims. Whose armor is stronger, whose planes fly faster, that was their front line of defense. Tens of millions of soldiers were killed on the battlefields, and how many scientists were shot or died in the camps. When we know the names of the distinguished heroes of the warriors, the names of these heroes from the side of science will be hidden for a long time by the signature stamp, or even by the walls of the camps.

How much they have done: scientists have made a significant contribution to solving such defense problems as the creation of new explosives and armor-piercing shells, high-strength armor for tanks, more advanced optical devices for aviation, artillery, tanks and submarines, increasing the speed and range of aircraft , improvement of radio equipment and radar devices, new methods of obtaining fuel and plastics. But their successes did not end with the invention of new, more effective ways killings, despite all the prohibitions, they brought their own into a peaceful life, creating projects with the expectation of a future peaceful life. Space exploration projects, philosophical calculations, theories of the "peaceful atom". Despite all the difficulties, they did not give up, did not succumb to the panic that reigned in the first year of the war. They did not try to run, they did everything to bring the day of victory even a little closer.

So let us learn the lessons of history and try to do everything in our power to prevent the tragedy of the 20th century from repeating itself.

II... Science during the Great Patriotic War

The coverage of this issue has been rebuilt to the greatest extent in accordance with the requirements of the time. The cost of victory is a key problem in the history of the War. However, our historiography still reduces matters only to the significance of victory. The notions well-known from wartime have not yet been eliminated: "what a war without casualties", "war will write off everything", "winners are not judged." Whatever sacrifices were: the great minds of that time, expressing their own opinion, unlike the opinion of the ruling elite, or an ordinary soldier who gave his life for the future of his homeland. And although today it is already difficult to convince anyone that there were no gross miscalculations of the leadership of the USSR on the eve and during the war, unjustified repressions against workers in science and the intelligentsia, we often still try to unite good and evil in its history under lofty words " heroic and tragic ". Science has played an exceptional role, the exceptional courage of the army and the people, their ability to surpass the enemy in science, technology and military art. Until now, the exact number of military personnel who died in the camps of scientists, shot by oppositionists is still unknown, although during the Great Patriotic War it was science that made a significant contribution to the development of the defense potential of the USSR. In the second half of 1941, 76 research institutes were evacuated to the east, which included 118 academicians, 182 corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and thousands of scientific workers. Their activities were directed by the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences, relocated to Sverdlovsk. Here in May 1942 at general meeting Academy discussed the tasks facing scientists in the war. The leading directions of scientific research were the development of military-technical problems, scientific assistance to industry, the mobilization of raw materials, for which intersectoral commissions and committees were created. So, at the end of 1941, a commission was created to mobilize the resources of the Urals, which also oversees the reserves of Siberia and Kazakhstan. The commission was headed by academicians, etc. In close cooperation with practical engineers, scientists found methods of high-speed metal melting in open-hearth furnaces, steel casting High Quality, obtaining a rental of a new standard. A little later, a special commission of scientists headed by the academician made important proposals for mobilizing the resources of the Volga and Kama regions. Thanks to geologists and others, new deposits of iron ore in Kuzbass, new sources of oil in Bashkiria, and a deposit of molybdenum ores in Kazakhstan were explored. The contribution of scientists-mathematicians was significant,. Physicists, chemists, worked actively for the defense. Scientists, B / A. Gaev, and others have successfully solved the problem of mine protection of ships. In 1943, a technology was developed for separating plutonium from irradiated uranium. In the fall of 1944, under the leadership of the academician, a variant was created atomic bomb with a spherical detonation "inward", and at the beginning of 1945 the plant for the production of plutonium was put into operation.
Scientists of the USSR have achieved significant success in the fields of biology, medicine, and agriculture. They found new plant materials for industry, looked for ways to increase the productivity of food and industrial crops. So, in the eastern regions of the country, the cultivation of sugar beet was urgently mastered. Of great importance was the activity of medical scientists: academicians, professors-surgeons and others, who introduced into practice new methods and means of treating sick and wounded soldiers. The doctor of medical sciences made a number of important defense inventions, including the replacement of absorbent cellulose cotton wool, the use of turbine oil as a basis for the manufacture of ointments, etc.
A necessary condition for the successful development of the country's national economy was the continuous training of new personnel in universities and technical schools. In 1941, the number of universities decreased from 817 thousand to 460 thousand, admission to them was halved, the number of students decreased by 3.5 times, and the duration of study was 3-3.5 years. However, by the end of the war, student numbers, especially as a result of the increased enrollment of women, approached their pre-war levels.

During the war, the creators of weapons and military equipment... Particular attention was paid to improving the quality of artillery systems and mortars. In this area, great merit belongs to scientists and designers, and others. Successes in the production of small arms were achieved with the leading role of designers. Soviet scientists managed to shorten the development and introduction of new types of weapons many times over. So, the well-proven 152-mm howitzer was designed and manufactured in 1943 in 18 days, and its mass production was mastered in 1.5 months. About half of all types of small arms and the overwhelming number of new types of artillery systems in service in the army in 1945 were created and launched in series during the war. The calibers of tank and anti-tank artillery have almost doubled, and the armor penetration of shells has increased by about 5 times. The USSR surpassed Germany in terms of the average annual production of field artillery by more than 2 times, mortars - 5 times, anti-tank guns - 2.6 times. The efforts of the Soviet tank builders, especially the workers and engineers of the Ural "Tankograd", relatively quickly overcame the enemy's advantage in armored vehicles. By 1943, the preponderance of the Soviet Armed Forces in tanks and self-propelled artillery mounts began to grow. Domestic tanks and self-propelled guns significantly surpassed their foreign counterparts in their combat characteristics. Great credit for their creation belonged, etc.
From the second half of 1942, the production of aircraft and aircraft engines steadily increased. The most massive aircraft of the Soviet Air Force was the Il-2 attack aircraft. Most Soviet combat aircraft were superior to those of the German Air Force. During the war, 25 aircraft models (including modifications), as well as 23 types of aircraft engines, entered serial production. Aircraft designers contributed to the creation and improvement of new combat vehicles,, A; S. Yakovlev, creators of aircraft engines,.

1 ... Scientific defense line

Museum of the history of KSU. C - Academician, President of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 1985

In May 1985, during the celebration of the 40th anniversary of the Victory, an exhibition was opened in the Museum of the History of Kazan University, which we called "The Line of Scientific Defense". It was dedicated to the scientific feat of scientists from the Moscow and Leningrad institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences, evacuated to Kazan during the Great Patriotic War.
The first visitors to the exhibition were the participants of the 42nd visiting session of the Academy. Sciences of the USSR, headed by its President A.P.
Aleksandrov and vice-presidents, and. In the book of the honorary guests of the museum, their opinion was preserved: "We sincerely thank the staff of the museum for creating such an interesting and impressive exposition and for the excellent demonstration of it to us. It is surprising that literally in all periods of the University's existence, so many outstanding people have passed through it. Mathematicians, physicists, chemists, political, public and literary figures, outstanding physicians - this whole cohort shows that a creative atmosphere reigned at Kazan University, a new one was born. born here - non-Euclidean geometry, outstanding chemical research and medical research, then we can say that Kazan University is outstanding not only in our country, but also in world science. familiarization of our entire country ".
The creation of the exhibition was preceded by a large research and search work of the museum staff. For more than two years we worked in the archives of the Academy in Moscow and Leningrad, in the archives of academic institutes and laboratories, met and corresponded with famous scientists, relatives and friends of those who did not live up to those days.

The interest and support of the leadership of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences and the archive of the Academy, the director of the archive B. Levshin, many Muscovites, Leningraders, Kazan residents and our disinterested assistants (for example, in those years she was the "extraordinary and plenipotentiary representative" of the museum in Moscow) contributed to the success of our work, allowed to collect the richest collection, numbering over five hundred items. It contains documents, photographs, books and manuscripts, letters and memoirs, personal belongings of academicians,. This collection formed the basis of the exposition, which revealed the invaluable contribution of the scientists of the USSR Academy of Sciences to the Victory. In July \ W, it was decided to evacuate the institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR from Moscow and Leningrad. On July 19, the vice president flew to Kazan, who was entrusted with managing the placement of academic institutions, employees and their families. The museum keeps a travel certificate and air tickets.

Echelons with people and equipment began to arrive in Kazan on 23 July. The city hospitably received the evacuees. An important role in their placement was played by the appointed plenipotentiary of the presidium for their arrangement. Subsequently, the academician who headed the Institute of Organic Chemistry recalled: “He also met our train, arranged for a night in the university building, and we immediately felt warmth and care. according to their adaptation. In the center of all this ebullient activity stood AE, always calm, benevolent, and managerial. "
Kazan University became the center of academic life, which provided the Academy with its classrooms, laboratories, all auxiliary and office premises. The assembly and sports halls were temporarily equipped for the hostels. In the museum, in its main exposition, the drawing "Assembly Hall during the War" is shown - this friendly cartoon was placed in one of the numbers of the wall newspaper of the Leningrad Physics and Technology Institute.

I remember well the gym in 1943, as I lived there with my mother, an employee of the Leningrad Botanical Institute. Now it is difficult to imagine the hall of the university museum during the war years: one hundred and fifty beds, fenced off from each other by sheets or cardboard boxes; there are no passages between them, you can undress or dress only by bending over or squatting, in the hall it is twilight, the incessant rumble of voices and the noise of primus stoves ...
The main building of the university housed the Presidium of the Academy, headed by vice presidents and, and since 1943 - and. It also housed several large academic institutes, including FIAN, Institute of Physical Problems and Phystech.
, at that time a senior researcher at one of the FIAN laboratories (later an academician, Nobel Prize laureate), told me about the incredibly difficult living and living conditions of evacuated scientists. The Institute removed almost all of its scientific equipment from Moscow. There was not enough room for it - the laboratory was given one room - and most of it remained in the boxes that cluttered the corridors of the university. When it was necessary to get some device, many large heavy boxes had to be rearranged, then they were nailed up again and piled on top of each other. The room was poorly heated - the temperature was close to zero, and sometimes even lower, so they worked in a coat in winter. We ate very poorly. Concerns about food, about stocking up food and bread cards, queues in the canteen, processing tiny vegetable gardens took a lot of time, distracting from scientific work.

The academician (I do not know, jokingly or seriously) recalled that one of the employees of the Phystech, located in the premises of the Ethnographic Museum, used the museum exhibit for its intended purpose:
he ground a handful of rye he had got somewhere with the help of primitive millstones belonging to some Indian tribe. Cutlets and barbecue made from shellfish, which were caught in Kazanka, were very popular. A song was composed in their honor (the author is a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences).

SONG OF MOLLUSCS
Following the Lord, we will begin a song about slippery clams,
Those that served as food for the men of grateful science.
Many mollusks live in the seas, subject to Poseidon,
In overseas countries, they deliver brilliant pearls.
Also others are known, of which the divine purple
Previously, they could extract porphyry of crowned bearers for coloring.
But our song is not about them. In the domain of the god Hiereus,
To whom the flowing rivers in the valleys are also subject,
The tribe lives differently.
They are not glorious with bright pearls,
They do not deliver purple either, but they are nevertheless edible.
It is clear to everyone how to prepare them. We will not describe this:
Let's just say that we are edible clam cutlets
We ate and were satisfied with them, and we invite everyone to eat.
In the river Sarmatian Kazanka, we caught a lot of mollusks.
Very large and delicious.
But will it be so in Moscow?
We do not know, and now we are sending a prayer to Nereya,
So that even there he would supply us with these mollusks to our heart's content .

In these difficult conditions, academic institutions directed all their efforts to help the front. The scientists showed dedication and courage by working twelve hours a day.
Already in August-September 1941, the first work plan of the Academy of Sciences in war conditions was developed. It included more than two hundred topics related to the tasks of the country's defense. In late September - early October, Kazan hosted an expanded meeting of the presidium with the participation of directors of institutes, at which the topics of scientific research were discussed; a resolution was adopted on the creation of a Thematic Commission in order to further improve the planning of defense work, which included other scientists.
The museum funds contain the text of the Presidium decree of October 2, 1941, as well as plans and reports of academic institutions for 1941-43.
On the work of the Physics Institute named after the academician later wrote: "Without any coercion, the laboratories changed the themes of their work in such a way that they helped the Red Army, the military industry, and hospitals."
, who simultaneously headed two institutes - FIAN and the State Optical Institute, evacuated to Yoshkar-Ola, managed to combine their efforts to solve the most important defense tasks. In 1942, the staff of the luminescence laboratory, which was directly headed by Vavilov, developed methods and means of blackout of military objects. At one of the Kazan enterprises, the production of permanent light compositions was organized. New means of blackout were sent to aircraft gunpowder factories, and were used to camouflage docks on the Volga. Together with his "employee, Vavilov developed a series of special-design fluorescent lamps for the Navy, produced at the Kazan plant. Special optical devices were manufactured for aimed fire at night."
The creation of acoustic trawls - an effective means of fighting enemy mines - was successfully dealt with by another FIAN laboratory, which was in charge. Together with the staff of his laboratory, he carried out a significant part of the work on the warships of the Black and Baltic Seas. With their help, about forty warships were equipped with acoustic trawls.
Important military topics related to radar were developed in the laboratory. In the laboratory, a device was designed to combat the icing of aircraft. in the winter of 1 year, he organized optical workshops in one of the rooms of the Museum of Local Lore, where the manufacture of steeloscopes was established. The devices were immediately handed over to representatives of defense factories and front-line repair units of the Red Army. In total, during the war, before the resumption of industrial production, about a hundred devices were manufactured.
One of the greatest achievements of the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology, led by, was the work to protect warships from magnetic mines and torpedoes. It is known that not a single ship equipped with a mine protection system was blown up by an enemy mine. The initiators of this work were both, and the most active participants in the implementation of this method, and, who worked in different fleets. In 1942, scientists were awarded Stalin Prize first degree. Next to the photographs of the scientists, the exhibition displayed a travel certificate sent to Sevastopol to carry out an urgent special assignment in the Black Sea Fleet.
"I am very sad that life is not very easy," Igor Vasilyevich wrote to his wife in Kazan, "but do not be sad, the time will come and they will come again happy Days for our work, and therefore for us. "
I quote in full the letter to the Molotov district military enlistment office of Kazan - a petition for awarding the medal "For the Defense of Stalingrad": Stalingrad, where he supervised the defense of the ships of the Volga Military Flotilla. Prof. Aleksandrov's work proceeded directly in a combat situation on the ships of the WWF, often in conditions of bombing and shelling. Prof. Aleksandrov's clear and selfless work ensured the successful completion of a mission vital for defense Prof. Aleksandrov left Stalingrad only by order of the commander of the WWF, counter-admiral comrade Rogachev, after completing all the necessary work. "
I remember the excitement and tears in the eyes of Anatoly Petrovich when he read this letter at an exhibition in the museum.
One of the large departments of the Leningrad Physics and Technology Institute, directed, studied the electrical and thermal properties of semiconductors. His research was used in the manufacture of a "partisan bowler hat" - a thermoelectric generator, which was intended to power radio stations in partisan detachments and reconnaissance groups. When we met Anna Vasilievna Ioffe, the widow of Abram Fedorovich, we asked her to tell what this "bowler hat" is (AV Ioffe is a physicist). On her advice, we found both a description and a photograph of the "bowler hat" in the magazine "Science and Life" for 1965, and his photograph appeared in our exposition. Anna Vasilievna donated photographs of the outstanding physicist in different years life, monographs, articles of the war years, his personal belongings.
An outstanding event in the scientific life of the Academy was the work on the creation of new methods for achieving low temperatures and obtaining liquid oxygen. Arriving in Kazan in July 1941, the Institute for Physical Problems immediately proceeded to install the equipment. And soon oxygen began to flow to Kazan hospitals. "The war aggravates the need for oxygen," he said, speaking at a meeting of the presidium on May 18, 1943. "We had to
to act energetically in order to use for our country all the possibilities that our method of producing oxygen opens up for industry. " engineering talent, perhaps the genius of Pyotr Leonidovich ", - said.
For more than two years the Institute of Chemical Physics was in Kazan, headed by an academician, later a Nobel Prize laureate. The Institute deeply studied the processes of combustion and explosions. Valuable research in the field of the theory of combustion and detonation in gases was carried out by a young scientist professor, later an academician, three times Hero of Socialist Labor. Another employee of the institute, Professor Yu. B. Khariton, also later an academician and three times Hero of Socialist Labor, studied the combustion of gunpowder of rockets for "Katyushas".

From the archives of the Institute of Chemical Physics, we received two remarkable documents - social obligations and Yu. B. Khariton for the second quarter of 1942. On one of them, by the hand of Yakov Borisovich, it is written that he undertakes to fully, on time and at a high quality level, fulfill the most important points of the quarterly plan: to find out the nature of the anomalies in the combustion of gunpowder by interfering with the process; investigate the flammability of gunpowder in various conditions; draw up theoretical calculations.
It is not difficult to understand how enormously important these studies, which were awarded the Stalin Prize, had for the country's defense.
I showed this document to Zeldovich when I met him in Moscow in 1984. He joked and laughed a lot, but did not mind showing it at the exhibition. Yakov Borisovich donated a photograph to the museum, writing on it "40 years later":, and. Forty years ago, when they were very young, they lived and worked in Kazan.
The Radium Institute was headed by the founder of the scientific school of radiochemists, the creator of the radium industry. In Kazan, he developed a method for obtaining light compositions using radiatorium. With his direct participation, the processing of state stocks of radium was carried out in order to allocate radiatorium for the production of light compositions necessary for the defense industry. In 1943, Khlopin and his colleagues were awarded the Stalin Prize for this work.
The most important research work aimed at achieving an early victory was carried out by employees of all chemical institutes. At the Institute of Organic Chemistry, a professor, later an academician, developed carbinol glue, which has found wide application for the repair of military equipment in factories and in the field. Next to the unique exhibit - Nazarov's glue, the exhibition at the museum displayed photographs of the institute's employees teaching the use of glue for military engineers and technicians, books on the use of glue for the repair of auto parts and tanks, as well as letters from the fronts reporting on the effective results of its use in the army.
In wartime, the academy scientists lived a full-blooded creative life: fundamental theoretical research, in all institutes successfully passed the defense of candidate
and doctoral dissertations. The research results were discussed at scientific conferences. Together with Kazan University, jubilee sessions dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the synthesis of aniline by N. Zinin, the 300th anniversary of I. Newton, and the 150th anniversary of N. Lobachevsky were held.
Many employees of academic institutes worked at the same time at Kazan University. During these years, students of the Faculty of History and Philology were very lucky, they listened to lectures by academicians EB. Tarle, DB. Grekov,. Former student N. Munkov kept invitations to the lectures of academicians and handed them over to the museum. Lectures to students of Physics and Mathematics and the Faculty of Chemistry were delivered by prominent scientists and the Academy of Sciences. Nesmeyanov, AF. Kapustinsky, PA Rebinder, AA Greenberg. The staff of the Academy of Sciences actively participated in the lecture propaganda among the population of the city. The bureau of scientific and technical propaganda was headed by an academician. From November 1, 1941 to March 1, 1942 alone, over two hundred lectures were delivered.
A notable contribution to the history of Russian science was made by the works created by scientists in Kazan. It " Crimean War"," Notes on the theory of turbulence "by Academician Kolmogorov, the famous" Kazan "work of another prominent mathematician, articles published in 1943-44 in the" Historical Journal "and the magazine" Zvezda ":" Culture of Russia at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries "," Culture Kievan Rus under Ya. the Wise "," The Art of War of Ancient Rus ... "In 1943-44, a corresponding member wrote in Kazan his well-known monograph" The Kinetic Theory of Liquids. " Schmidt, where the physicist lived.In the garden adjacent to the house, there was a small shed, which Yakov Ilyich adapted for a study, in which he wrote this work at a table made of a piece of plywood, laid on his knees.
An outstanding mathematician, mechanic, and shipbuilder academician wrote a wonderful book "My Memories" in 1941 in Kazan. Sergei Petrovich Kapitsa, grandson, in his letter to the museum says: “I remember well how my grandfather read his manuscript in the evenings, and my brother and other family members, holding our breath, listened. continued under the uneven light of a kerosene lamp, giving it an even more extraordinary look. " The museum contains several pages of Alexei Nikolaevich's manuscript, the first edition of the 1942 book signed by the author. The museum received a later edition of the book as a gift from her daughter Anna Alekseevna Kapitsa with her dedication: "This book was written by Aleksey Nikolaevich in Kazan in 1941, it’s good that it will be in the KSU museum."
The meeting with Anna Alekseevna was imprinted in my memory for a long time. At the end of 1984, during another visit to Moscow, the assistant phoned Anna Alekseevna and escorted me and the museum employee to a beautiful two-story mansion on the territory of the Institute of Physical Problems. The submarine lived here from 1956 to 1984. Kapitsa. Everything in the house is preserved in the form in which it was during his lifetime (now it houses a memorial museum).
Anna Alekseevna greeted us very warmly and hospitably. But the feeling of excitement and trepidation did not leave us - we were in the house where one of the most outstanding scientists of the 20th century lived and worked, a man of great courage, indisputable authority in everything the scientific world(we felt the same thrill in the apartment). Anna Alekseevna warmly recalled Kazan, talked about the people who surrounded her, about Kazan friends, spoke with gratitude about the gynecologist with whom she did not break contact. And she did not say a word about the everyday difficulties and hardships that her large family simply could not fail to experience during the evacuation. She also did not mention her selfless work in the hospital. We learned about this from the surgeon's book "Vocation". Every day, as if to work, she came on duty, carefully looked after the seriously wounded. Anna Alekseevna took with her to the hospital her teenage sons Sergei and Andrey, future famous scientists who helped roll bandages, prepare material for the operating room and dressing room, served water or tea to the wounded, and fed them lunch.
Helping the wounded soldiers of the Red Army of the employees of the Academy of Sciences and the wives of scientists is a special page in the life of the USSR Academy of Sciences evacuated to Kazan.
The Physiological Institute named after V.I. Pavlova and the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology, headed by the academician. The collectives of these institutes and Leon Abgarovich himself invested a lot of work in improving the qualifications of hospital doctors, organized lectures on physiological and medical topics. Orbeli often visited hospitals, sometimes, at the request of surgeons, attended operations, found time to analyze in detail the most severe cases of injuries, delicately advised to apply one or another method of treatment.
With all their might, scientists sought to help the front, and not only with their scientific work in institutes and laboratories. Everyone, from a laboratory assistant to an academician, were constant participants in numerous subbotniks and Sundays: they loaded coal, unloaded wagons and barges, cleared the airport runway from snow ...
Particular interest and revival of the visitors of the exhibition was aroused by the Order for the Kazan group of the Leningrad Physico-Technical Institute of January 8, 1943, placed in the exposition: "In pursuance of the order of the administration of the USSR Academy of Sciences, I order comrades to come to Tekhsnab to comrade Stepanov to load coal. - AP Aleksandrov ".
The passionate voices of scientists sounded at meetings, on the radio, and in the press. At the beginning of 1942, a movement arose in Kazan to create a Defense Fund. Many scientists contributed their money savings and state awards to it. Applications to the accounting department of the Academy of Sciences, written on scraps of paper by academicians, DB are carefully kept in the university museum. Grekov, AN. Krylov, ND. Papaleksi with a request during the war to deduct one day's earnings from their salaries to the country's Defense Fund.
The victory in the Great Patriotic War coincided with the celebration of the 220th anniversary of the Academy of Sciences. At the jubilee session, words of gratitude were heard to Soviet scientists who helped the front and rear, who made a huge contribution to the defeat of the enemy, to Victory.
In connection with the 275th anniversary of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the museum again turned to one of the most heroic pages of its history. On May 13, the second exhibition dedicated to the scientific feat of scientists of the USSR Academy of Sciences was opened here.

2. Soviet historical science.

Losses of the historical and scientific community, teaching and student corps during the war. Evacuation of the main academic institutions and part of historians to the east of the country. Losses in the source and material base historical research as a result of hostilities. Reorientation in state ideology, its new national-patriotic tendencies and a change in this regard in scientific issues and a general assessment of the historical past. Search for heroic and epochal personalities and events in Russian history. The return of the names of prominent military leaders of the past (A. Nevsky, A. Suvorov, M. Kutuzov) and the revitalization of interest in the traditions of the Russian army, military history.

Military-patriotic and social activities of Soviet historians. Creation of an anti-fascist committee of Soviet scientists, participation of historians in it. The influence of evacuated historians on the formation of historical science in the union and autonomous republics of the USSR. Creation of histories of the union republics. “History of Kazakhstan” and controversy around its concept. The beginning of the study of the history of the Great Patriotic War. Closed conference of historians at the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) in 1944: reasons for convening, results. Reflection of patriotic historical views on the screens of Soviet cinema (films "Ivan the Terrible", "Alexander Nevsky", "Fedor Ushakov", etc.)

3. Book publishing

The Great Patriotic War left an indelible mark on the history of our country and the entire world community. It is quite justified that the years of the war stand out as an independent historical period. This fully applies to the history of book publishing, which experienced great changes during the war years. It is noteworthy that in extreme conditions the spiritual life of the country continued, the culture developed, books were published, but the war imperatively demanded books of a new content and direction. Scientists and cultural figures created them, and publishers published them with the note "Lightning". They were in the interests of defending the Motherland, the mighty appeal "Everything for the front." The book fostered feelings of patriotism and love for the country, was a powerful weapon in the fight against the invasion of foreigners. In general, during the war years, the number of published books dropped markedly. Compared with the pre-war year in 1943, their number has decreased by almost three times. If we compare the average annual indicators, then the damage done to book publishing is especially significant, in particular, in terms of natural sciences and mathematics, the publication of books decreased by 3.2 times, on political and socio-economic literature - by 2.8 times, on linguistics and literary studies - by 2.5 times. Despite all the hardships of martial law, the library of the USSR Academy of Sciences continued to serve readers, supply literature to formations and units of the active army, books about the military past of the Russian people. Moving libraries were organized. State Public Library. -Shchedrina was always open during the blockade, despite the lack of light and heat. During the war, 138 employees died in the library, most of them in the winter of 1941/42. One cannot fail to mention the print media during the years of the blockade, which were an increasing weapon in the fight against the enemy. During the siege, Pravda, Izvestia, and Komsomolskaya Pravda entered Leningrad. In Leningrad, during the entire blockade, "Leningradskaya Pravda" and "Smena" were published. From July 28 to September 14, 1941, 46 issues of the special newspaper - “Leningradskaya Pravda at the Defense Construction Site” were published. This was the most intense period of the battle for Leningrad. From July 6 to October 6, 1941, 79 issues of the newspaper “On defense of Leningrad "- the organ of the Leningrad army of the people's militia. The newspaper" Fighter MPVO "was published, as well as front-line newspapers -" On guard of the Motherland "and" Red Baltic Fleet. " (Kirovsky plant), Baltiets (Baltic plant), Izhorets (Izhora plant), Molot (plant named after), etc. During the war years Moscow continued to be the leading publishing center. During the years 1300 issues were published " Pravda. "M. Kalinin, G. Krzhizhanovsky, D. Manuilsky, V. Karpinsky appeared on its pages. E. Stasova, E. Yaroslavsky, A. Tolstoy, M. Sholokhov, A. Fadeev, military leaders, heroes of battles, soldiers, officers, generals. Served the front "Izvestia", "Krasnaya Zvezda" (in it only I. Ehrenburg baked about 400 publications), Komsomolskaya Pravda, Moskovsky Bolshevik (now Moskovskaya Pravda), Moskovsky Komsomolets, Vechernyaya Moskva. At the same time, newspapers were also a tribune for covering the advanced response of shock workers in military production. During the war, more than 100 factory editions were published in Moscow. The role of the print media in defeating the enemy can hardly be overestimated. On the whole, the number of newspapers published during the war years cannot be accurately determined. For example: in 1943 alone, 74 divisional multi-circulation newspapers and about 100 new army newspapers were re-created. Data are given indicating that, for example, in 1944. almost 800 newspapers were published on the fronts with a total one-time circulation exceeding 3 million copies. The war situation required a revision of publishing policies and publishing portfolios. Thus, the country's largest publishing house of fiction, Goslitizdat, has mothballed 1,132 manuscripts and excluded 67 from the editorial portfolio. As a result, in 1942 the number of publications of fiction, in comparison with 1940, fell by 47%. Regarding wartime fiction, one cannot fail to note the changes in the policy of publishing the so-called thick literary magazines, which, of course, were many times inferior in efficiency and massiveness to newspaper publications. Quite a few of these magazines have been discontinued, and the rest have "lost weight" and have changed the frequency of publication in the direction of reducing the number of issues and the year. Literature, as it were, moves from magazines to newspaper pages, occupying an important place in Pravda, Izvestia, and Komsomolskaya Pravda. Here are printed not only essays, publicistic articles, stories, poems, but also plays, stories. chapters of novels. So, only in "Krasnaya Zvezda" were the chapters of V. Grossman's story "The People Are Immortal" (1942), "" (1942), "Russian Character" (1943) and many publicistic articles by A. Tolstoy, "Green Ray" by L. Sobolev (1943), articles and essays by I. Ehrenburg, V. Grossman, K. Simonov, P. Pavlenko, poems by N. Tikhonov, V. Lebedev-Kumach, M. Isakovsky and others. A large group of writers became regular correspondents of central newspapers, where their stories, novels, poems and plays were published. As an example, we can cite publications in the Pravda newspaper: in July K. Simonov's play "Russian People" was published, in August - "Front" by A. Korneichuk, in September - chapters of the poem "Vasily Terkin" by A. Tvardovsky, in October - "Alexey Kulikov, a soldier" by B. Gorbatov, in November - stories from the book "Sea Soul" by L. Sobolev. In subsequent years "Pravda" published chapters of M. Sholokhov's new novel "They Fought for the Motherland" (May 1943 - July 1944), "The Unconquered" by B. Gorbatov (May, September, October 1943), "On the Roads of Victories" by L. Sobolev ( May-June 1944), chapters of L. Leonov's story "The Capture of Velikoshumsk" (July-August 1944), and others. The poetry of the war years also played a huge role in the fight against the enemy. "It would seem that the roar of war should drown out the voice of the poet," put literature "in a narrow gap in the trench," but "literature in the days of war becomes a truly folk art, the voice of the heroic soul of the people," - this is how he assessed the role of the lyric poetry of the war years in his report at the jubilee session Academy of Sciences November 18, 1942 A. Tolstoy. During the war years, poetry, no doubt, was equated with a bayonet. A. Tvardovsky, A. Surkov, K. Simonov, S. Kirsanov, I. Selvinsky, S. Shchipachev, A. Prokofiev, O. Bergolts, V. Inber, A. Zharov, I. Utkin, S. Mikhalkov and others. Newspapers published poetic letters from the rear. Dozens of versions of songs by famous authors, "sequels", "answers" were created. Such poetic works included, for example, M. Isakovsky's song "Ogonyok". If we talk about domestic book publishing as a whole, then, despite all the difficulties of wartime, it provided the country's primary needs not only for literature on military topics, but also for political, industrial, technical, general cultural and scientific problems. So, for years. almost 170 million copies of fiction, 111 million copies of textbooks of all kinds, 60 million copies of children's and more than 50 million copies of scientific literature were published. An important stage public policy preservation, in particular, of the scientific potential of the country, there was a decision to relocate scientific institutions to the east. The evacuation of Moscow institutes and laboratories of the USSR Academy of Sciences began in the last decade of July. Among those evacuated at the first stage was an academic publishing house relocated to Kazan, where the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences began to work. Already on September 30, 1941, its expanded meeting was held there. In general, the dynamics of the release of books and journals by the Academy of Sciences during the war years is given in the table. For comparison, data are also given on the pre-war and the first post-war years... In the pre-war 1940, the academic publishing house reached a comparatively high level editions: by the number of books and magazines it approached 1000 titles, and by volume in the author's sheets - to 13 thousand. Already in 1946 the level of the first year of the war was exceeded.

book culture "and" book culture ", as well as the criteria that define them. We speak of book culture as a synthesis of spiritual culture and art, a product of spiritual culture and spiritual production, material culture and material production. Speaking about the book, scientists have repeatedly emphasized the uniqueness Here are two examples: By definition, a book in Russia in the 17th century acts as the most important "fact and factor of culture", and figuratively speaking, a book in Russia is a brainchild of culture and "at the same time its main building material." A book as a phenomenon and a cultural monument is also a "consumer" of the achievements of science, culture and education, but a book is also a barometer of the culture of society, its spirituality, a source of knowledge and progress. in full about the art of artistic design of the publication, the art of binding, the art of typography. However, the justified choice of the publishing repertoire, which has left a noticeable mark on the history of book culture, can be considered an indisputable fact. The golden fund includes many prose and poetic works. published during the war years (a soldier in a trench with a volume of poetry by his favorite poet!). In 1943, the publication begins full collection works, and in 1944 a volume of collected works. And this is in the midst of hostilities! And what about the published handwritten letters from the front? This is a whole chapter in the history of society and its culture. Here is the reprint of book monuments, the release of spiritual literature, the talented popularization of science - the fruit of the work of prominent scientists. Book monuments as "a value category that embodied the results of human activity, the history and culture of their era" include handwritten books and publications published before 1830 inclusive. However, publications of a later historical period, in which "they receive a specific reflection ... of events and epochs of great historical significance," can also be attributed to them. Guided by this indisputable principle, many works of wartime should be classified - and referred to by history itself - as monuments of book culture. Of course, by virtue of disabilities during wartime, most publications had a strict design. At the same time, in 1943, the Iskusstvo publishing house began publishing two series "Fine Art" and "Theater", the editions of which contained half-tone illustrations (among them "Architectural Ensembles of Leningrad"), two-color covers, and woodcuts. Goslitizdat published collections in design and with excellent linoleum engravings by artists B. Dekhtyarev ("Vasily Terkin"). The largest book designers - Lebedeva, D. Shmarinov - and many others create wonderful graphic series during the war years. The art of the poster also opened a new page in the history of wartime book culture. The role and place of books in the history of the Great Patriotic War and book culture in the cultural construction of society still await their worthy reflection in the research and publications of historians, culturologists, and bibliologists.

III... Conclusion. Their share of victory

Scientists have made a significant contribution to solving such defense problems as the creation of new explosives and armor-piercing shells, high-strength armor for tanks, more advanced optical devices for aviation, artillery, tanks and submarines, increasing the speed and range of aircraft, improving radio equipment and radar devices , new ways of obtaining fuel and plastics. In general, their total contribution was equal to victory. Among the sources of our victory in the Great Patriotic War, the mass heroism of the Soviet people, both on the front line and in the rear, rightly comes to the fore. Although science is a heroism of a different kind - the long and hard military labor of thousands of scientists in conditions of constant mortal danger, selfless work of employees, scientific and technical intelligentsia with the utmost exertion of spiritual and physical strength, often in conditions of hunger and cold.

The state of the scientific rear and the level of its development create the necessary conditions and directly affect the degree of realization of the combat capabilities of troops in operations and in war as a whole. As the intellectual potential develops, this dependence grows and intensifies, which in turn requires that the state and capabilities of the rear area correspond to the state of the Armed Forces, and this is possible only with their simultaneous development. Science is the comprehension of the world in which we live. Accordingly, it is customary to define science as a highly organized and highly specialized activity for the production of objective knowledge about the world, including the person himself. At the same time, the production of knowledge in society is not self-sufficient, it is necessary for the maintenance and development of human life. Victory in this great war was largely achieved thanks to the development of education and the creation of new advanced technologies. Comprehensive education of the population is the main pillar of science. Since in the conditions of accelerating scientific and technological progress, the process of improving industries takes a revolutionary form, there is a need for the further development of their rear. Some of the experience of those years could find application in modern conditions, therefore it deserves the most careful study.

Literature:

1) www. ibmh. msk. su / vivovoco - Speransky A. In - "Project Ahey"

2) www. kazadmin. ***** -

3) www. ***** -, prof. ...

4) www. modernhistory. ***** - Omsk University, 2000,

5) Nemirovsky and polygraphy during the Great Patriotic War. - Polygraphy, 1965, No. 5.

6) Vernadsky on the general history of science. M., 1988

7) "History of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union" ed.

8) "Writers in the front-line press (years). - History of Russian Soviet literature. Vol. III. M., 1961; Zhukov newspapers in the period of the final victories of the Soviet Army (years). - Questions of journalism. M. 1959.

Soviet scientists made an important contribution to the victory over fascism: physicists created theoretical and experimental prerequisites for the design of new types of weapons; mathematicians have developed techniques for the fastest calculations for artillery, aircraft and warships; chemists have found new ways of producing explosives, alloys, pharmaceuticals; biologists have found additional food resources for the Red Army. Scientists were able to mobilize resources and develop the productive forces of the eastern regions.

Let us note a number of the most important achievements of Soviet scientists in the field of military-applied scientific knowledge of the modification of military equipment:

· Development of new methods of radar (group of academician A.F. Ioffe);

· Creation of new optical devices (group of academician SI Vavilov);

· Development of methods for protecting Soviet ships from mines (I. V. Kurchatov, I. Ye. Tamm, A. P. Aleksandrov, etc.);

· Development of nuclear physics (Yu. B. Khariton) and rocketry; in the summer of 1942, experiments on the decomposition of neurons began in Kazan;

· Creation in 1941 of the P-3 radar system with a detection range of 130 km, which was the first station to determine not only the range and azimuth, but also the target height; provision of radio stations with frequency modulation to Soviet troops in 1943; in the same year, the TAI-43 telephone set (O. Repina and others) was developed for the first time, providing a single inductor call system;

· Introduction into mass production of samples of military equipment developed in the 30s. (Il-2, Yak-1, LAGG-3, MiG-3, Pe-2 aircraft; T-34, KV tanks; BM-13 Katyusha rocket launcher, etc.) and the development of new weapons standards (aircraft modifications Ilyushin, Petlyakov, Yakovlev, the creation in May 1942 of a jet aircraft, an assault rifle by GS Shpagin, anti-tank rifles of VA Degtyarev and SG Smirnov);

The transition of thousands of factories and factories of the civilian sector to the production of military equipment and other defense products became a real national feat. So, heavy engineering plants, tractor, automobile and shipbuilding plants were switched to the manufacture of tanks. With the merger of three enterprises - the base Chelyabinsk Tractor, Leningrad Kirov and Kharkov Diesel - the largest tank-building plant ("Tankograd") arose. The mortar industry was created on the basis of agricultural engineering enterprises. Nitrogen and sulfuric acid plants became suppliers of raw materials for the production of gunpowder.

Thus, Soviet scientists and designers made their contribution to the Victory, to providing the army with the best weapons and military equipment in the world. Scientific institutes and laboratories evacuated to the east of the country successfully solved complex problems in achieving technical superiority over the enemy.

spiritual culture soviet

The Great Patriotic War brought about tremendous changes in the cultural life of Soviet people. Cultural institutions underwent restructuring, the role of radio, press, cinematography increased. Already at the beginning of the war, front brigades and theaters. Libraries, museums and theaters continued to work in the most difficult wartime conditions. Many cultural institutions were relocated from the front-line areas to the East. Thus, Uzbekistan hosted 53 educational institutions and academic institutions, about 300 creative unions and organizations. The rarest books from the library. IN AND. Lenin, the Library of Foreign Languages, the Historical Library were taken to Kostanay. Pictures of the Russian Museum and the Tretyakov Gallery are housed in Perm, and the treasures of the Hermitage are in Sverdlovsk. By the end of 1941, about 60 theaters were evacuated to the eastern regions.

In enemy-occupied territory, the network educational institutions was actually destroyed. Many children were temporarily deprived of the opportunity to study. The number of teaching staff has decreased. However, the selfless work of the teachers allowed them not to interrupt their studies even in the besieged cities (Leningrad, Odessa, Sevastopol). As the Soviet territories were liberated from the invaders, destroyed school buildings were restored, and studies were improved. Since 1943, the state has increased spending on culture. Measures were taken to combat homelessness. Have arisen boarding schools, the contingent of Suvorov and Nakhimov schools expanded. Were also created evening schools for working youth. In 1943 there was Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR (since 1962 APN USSR).

There have been changes in higher education. Many large universities were evacuated. More than 300 universities that found themselves in the occupied territory were destroyed. The number of universities in the country decreased from 817 to 460. The enrollment of students decreased by 41%, and the number of students - by 3.5 times. The state has taken measures to stabilize the student population: the period for training specialists has been reduced to 3-3.5 years, and the admission of girls to universities has expanded.

With the liberation of Soviet territory, the restoration of the network of educational institutions began. By the end of the 40s. the number of schools and students in them in the RSFSR has reached the pre-war level. The restoration of some of the higher educational institutions began in 1943 and by the end of the war their number and the number of students reached almost pre-war levels, mainly due to the expansion higher education in Kazakhstan, Central Asia and Transcaucasia.

Science made a great contribution to the victory. The main directions of scientific research were: the study of military-technical problems, the introduction of scientific discoveries into production, the concentration of the country's raw materials for the needs of the front. A group of scientists led by I.I. Alchkhanova(1904-1970) and D.V. Skobeltsyn(1892-1990) studied cosmic radiation. L. D. Landau(1908-1968) developed the theory of the motion of a quantum fluid, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize. I.V. Kurchatov(1903-1960) worked on the creation of the atomic bomb.

Soviet geologists explored new mineral deposits of strategic importance (manganese, bauxite, molybdenum).

A.P. Alexandrov(1903-1993) developed methods for demagnetizing ships. E.O. Paton(1870-1953) developed and introduced into production automatic welding of armor. Chemists have developed methods for producing acetone, alcohols, and plastics for weapons.

Scientists, designers, engineers and technicians worked to improve military weapons, creating weapons that were superior to the German ones. Aircraft designers A.S. Yakovlev, A.P. Tupolev, F.A. Lavochkin, S.V. Ilyushin, N.N. Polikarpov, V.M. Petlyakov and others improved existing models of machines. At the end of the war, testing of jet aircraft began. Soviet tanks designed A.A. Morozov, J. Ya. Kostin, A.F. Shamshurin, in terms of combat qualities, they were significantly superior to those in service with the enemy army.

Through selfless work medical professionals the mortality rate of the wounded has decreased. After treatment in hospitals, 70% of the wounded returned to duty.

Literature and art played a significant role in achieving the victory, the leading theme of which was patriotism and citizenship. The most keen interest both at the front and in the rear aroused the works M.A. Sholokhova, A.N. Tolstoy, L. Leonov, A. Fadeev, B. Polevoy, poetry K. Simonov, A. Tvardovsky, S. Marshak, V. Inber, N. Tikhonova. The plays “ Front" A. Korneichuk, "Invasion" L. Leonova, "Russian people" K. Simonov.

During the war years, the art of music and, above all, the song genre developed. Songs were especially popular M. Blanter, I. Dunaevsky; B. Mokrousov, V. Soloviev-Sedogo, A. Alexandrov.

D.D. Shostakovich wrote an outstanding Seventh (Leningrad) Symphony, which embodied the hatred of the Soviet people for the enemy and faith in victory.

Cinema, the most widespread art form, has paid particular attention to the creation of documentaries that quickly respond to wartime events. Already at the end of 1941 the film was released "The defeat of the German troops near Moscow"(directed by L. Varlamov and I. Kopalin). About 150 cameramen created the epic of the Great Patriotic War. The heroic theme is embodied in feature films: "Secretary of the District Committee"(directed by I. Pyriev), "Invasion"(directed by A. Room), "Rainbow"(directed by M. Donskoy), "She protects the Motherland"(directed by F. Ermler) and others.

The loss of culture due to the war was enormous. The Committee, created in December 1941 from representatives of various organizations and cultural institutions, determined the damage caused by fascism to our country. More than 80 thousand schools, about 300 universities were destroyed, 430 museums, 44 thousand palaces of culture and libraries were looted. The estate-museums of L.N. Tolstoy in Yasnaya Polyana, A.S. Pushkin in Mikhailovsky, I.S. Turgenev in Spassky-Lutovinovo, P.I. Tchaikovsky to Klin. Many cultural losses could not be restored (manuscripts by P.I.Tchaikovsky, paintings by I.E. Repin, V.A.Serov, I.I.Shishkin, I.K. Aivazovsky). This could not but affect the development of the culture of Soviet society after the war.

The restoration of cities and villages destroyed during the Great Patriotic War was one of the most important stages in the development of Soviet architecture. In 1945, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR adopted a resolution on urgent measures to restore 15 largest cities, and later were developed master plans for the development of 250 cities.

With the end of the war, the hope of the Soviet people, who displayed unprecedented heroism and courage, to weaken the administrative-command methods of managing society did not come true. In the artistic culture, the image of a country of a free and prosperous society was artificially implanted. However, although with great difficulty, the truth about reality made its way, positive trends were noticeable in cultural life.

V post-war period the main task in the field of education was the introduction compulsory seven-year learning for children. The training of teachers was expanding, and the network of evening and correspondence education grew rapidly both in secondary schools and in universities.

The factors that hindered the development of science were a disdainful attitude towards the achievements of scientific and technical thought in Western countries. Genetics has been declared a pseudoscience. But the conditions turned out to be favorable for the development of branches of science that have defense significance: nuclear physics, radiation biology, biochemistry.

Meanwhile, the war, which gave a powerful impetus to creativity, prompted writers to tell the truth about the war. Such works were the story V. Nekrasova (1911-1986) "In the trenches of Stalingrad"(1946) and novel A. Fadeeva (1901-1956) "Young guard"(1945). However, very soon the official criticism declared military topics unnecessary, distracting from the actual tasks of reality.

The culture of Soviet society was in a state of crisis.

The launch of the first Earth satellite in 1957, the human flight into space in 1961, the colossal rise in technical development and the great humanitarian legacy left to us by the Soviet Union - all this was the result of the high level of education for which the USSR was so famous. But few people know that all the best features that differed soviet education, were formed precisely during the Great Patriotic War.

The war ruined the dreams of graduates, most of whom, instead of continuing their studies immediately after graduation, went to the front or to work in the rear. But on the other hand, the war served as an impetus for rapid development Soviet system education. The country's leadership understood that it was impossible to close schools and stop education. On the contrary, the number of schools has increased. Pedagogy was adapted to wartime conditions.

School in wartime

Schoolchildren and teachers helped the country as best they could - they built defensive structures, worked in hospitals and in the field, but the educational process itself did not stop during this difficult time. The school was faced with the task of continuing to involve all children in it. Where schools were destroyed, other buildings were adapted for them. Great importance was attached to the education of patriotism. The teaching of natural sciences was given a practical orientation. Training and production workshops were created so that schoolchildren had the opportunity practical activities... Labor had a positive effect on discipline and the quality of the knowledge acquired.

At this time, and experimental activities aimed at increasing the level of knowledge. But not everything bore positive results. For example, competition in educational work and the introduction of separate education worsened the results of educational work.

During these years, important innovations were made, some of which we still use today:

• Five-point grading system;
• Compulsory seven-year education;
• General education of children from the age of seven;
• Compulsory final examinations in primary and 7-year school;
• Exams for the secondary school leaving certificate of maturity;
• Presentation of gold and silver medals to excellent students.

Great attention was paid to the health of children and their nutrition. Children without parents were placed in boarding schools or adopted into families.

Pedagogical Science in the Second World War

In 1943, the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR was founded, headed by Academician V.P. Potemkin. Her tasks included the study of problems, theoretical issues of pedagogy and improving the quality of pedagogical education. Many teachers went to the front, so the question of new teaching staff arose. Improving the qualifications of the teaching staff was a prerequisite for the educational process in the new military environment. The Academy helped teachers, employees of pedagogical departments in universities in the creation of textbooks and manuals. Much attention was paid to studying the experience of the best teachers and schools in the country.

WWII educators

The war gave us many names that serve as an example for our generation and future generations, names that must not be forgotten!

Most of the scientists and teachers who made a great contribution to the development of pedagogy were part of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR. They represented the most important areas of this science and were directly involved in the enlightenment process during the war years.

• Vladimir Petrovich Potemkin(1878-1946) - President of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR. This remarkable organizing leader has successfully run the academy. He believed that it was necessary to conduct deep theoretical research, make extensive use of the existing experience and achievements of outstanding teachers, and carry out an obligatory connection between theory and practice.
• Alexey Nikolaevich Tolstoy(1883-1945) - famous Soviet writer. His creative activity and love for the Motherland positively influenced the youth. He paid special attention to the art education of children. Tolstoy's books for children and adolescents are very interesting and relevant to this day, because they talk about the inner world child, features of the formation of character.
• Nikolay Mikhailovich Golovin(1889-1954) - Honored teacher of the RSFSR school. N.M. Golovin was the director of the school, the teacher of the pedagogical school. He dealt with the methods of teaching the Russian language.
• Anna Mikhailovna Pankratova(1897-1957) was engaged history education- supervised the preparation of programs on the history of the USSR and the writing of textbooks.
• Vadim Nikandrovich Verkhovsky(1873-1947), even in the pre-revolutionary years, fought to make chemistry a separate subject. He was the compiler of the USSR's first curriculum on this subject and the author of a textbook that was reprinted many times.

The harsh conditions of the war allowed many talented teachers to appear. The teachers worked in the rear, fought heroically against the Nazis and received well-deserved awards.

And today, in peacetime, modern teachers continue to work just as selflessly, therefore Russian education there is every opportunity to re-conquer the position of the best in the world. It is worth remembering that the future of national education is in the hands of each of us!

The hard times of war did not pass the education system. Tens of thousands of school buildings were destroyed, and the survivors often housed military hospitals. Due to the lack of paper, schoolchildren sometimes wrote in the margins of old newspapers. Textbooks were replaced by the oral story of the teacher. Teaching was carried out even in the besieged Sevastopol, Odessa, Leningrad, in the partisan detachments of Ukraine and Belarus. In the occupied regions of the country, the education of children has completely stopped.

Soviet scientists made a great contribution to the victory. All the main directions of scientific research were focused on the defeat of the enemy. The main scientific centers of the country moved to the east - to Kazan, to the Urals, to Central Asia. Leading research institutes and institutions of the Academy of Sciences were evacuated here. Here they not only continued the work they had begun, but also helped in the training of local scientific personnel. More than two thousand workers of the USSR Academy of Sciences fought as part of the active army.

Despite the difficulties of wartime, the state paid great attention to the development of science. New institutes and research centers were created: the West Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Novosibirsk, the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, the Academy of Artillery Sciences and the Academy of Medical Sciences. During the war, republican academies of sciences were opened in Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Armenia.

Theoretical developments in the field of aerodynamics carried out by S. A. Chaplygin, M. V. Keldysh, S. A. Khristianovich led to the creation of new models of combat aircraft. A research team led by Academician A.F. Ioffe invented the first Soviet radars. In 1943, work began on the creation of nuclear weapons in the USSR.

Guerrilla movement

The front-line zone of the Soviet territory occupied by the enemy was at the mercy of the German military command. The rest was at the mercy of the civil administration. It was divided into 2 Reichskommissariat - "Ostland" and "Ukraine". The first of them included almost the entire territory of the Baltic states and most of Belarus. The second contained most of the Ukraine and some southern regions of Belarus. The administration of all Soviet territories seized by the enemy was carried out by the district ministry of the eastern regions, headed by Rosenberg. From among local accomplices, the Nazis created local "self-government", "volost councils" headed by foremen, appointed village elders, policemen. Local authorities were appendages of the occupation authorities. In the occupied lands, the invaders introduced a military convict regime of terror, violence, robbery and exploitation. The invaders killed and tortured 6.8 million civilians, 3.9 million prisoners of war, and drove 4.3 million people to Germany. Therefore, the fight against the occupiers at the first stage was organized in many respects spontaneously, hastily, already in the course of the war. It was distinguished by serious shortcomings: there was no single center for the leadership of the partisan movement, the detachments were poorly armed and poorly organized, most of the partisan detachments and underground groups had no connection with the Soviet rear.

The first partisan detachments began to be created in the summer of 1941. The Red October detachment became the first partisan detachment in Belarus. The detachment commander T. Bumazhkov and his deputy F. Pavlovsky were the first among the partisans to be awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. From the end of 1941, in a number of regions, the unification of small detachments into larger ones began. In the area of ​​Lake Ilmen, the first "partisan land" was created, which controlled more than 300 settlements. By the end of 1941, more than 2 thousand partisan detachments with a total number of over 90 thousand people were operating in the occupied territory. They disorganized the rear of the Hitlerite troops in all directions of the Soviet-German front. By the summer of 1942, the leadership of the partisan movement was centralized. On May 30, 1942, at the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command of the State Defense Committee, he created the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement, the head of which was appointed the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Belarus P. Ponomarenko, and the republican headquarters. The headquarters of the partisan movement were also created under the military councils of the fronts. They coordinated the actions of partisans and underground fighters with the actions of the Red Army, generalized and disseminated the accumulated experience of struggle, developed plans for major operations, trained specialists for detachments, organized the supply of partisans with weapons, ammunition, medicines, etc. In the fall of 1942, partisan raids began to be carried out in the deep rear of the enemy, the purpose of which was to activate the partisan movement in the occupied territory, consolidate partisan formations (in regiments and brigades) and strike at enemy communications and manpower. In September-November 1942, deep raids were undertaken by two formations of Ukrainian partisans under the command of S.A. Kovpak and A.N. Saburov. During the strategic offensive in the summer and autumn of 1943, Operation Rail War was organized. For the first time in the history of wars, partisans carried out a number of major operations to disable enemy railway communications over a large territory in close connection with the actions of the country's Armed Forces. For a long time, the partisans put out of action more than 2 thousand km of communication lines, bridges and various types of railway equipment in the rear of the enemy. This provided significant assistance to the Soviet troops during the battles near Kursk, Orel and Kharkov. There were also national detachments in the partisan formations. By the end of 1943, there were 122 thousand partisans in Belarus, 43.5 thousand in the Ukraine, 35 thousand in the Leningrad region, and more than 25 thousand in the Oryol region. , in the Crimea - more than 11 thousand, in Lithuania - about 10 thousand, in Estonia - 3 thousand. The partisan army reached its maximum number by the summer of 1944 - 280 thousand people. Then most of the partisans became part of the active army. During the Nazi occupation, Soviet partisans and underground fighters destroyed, wounded, captured about 1 million fascists and their accomplices, carried out more than 18 thousand train wrecks in the enemy rear, blew up and disabled 42 thousand cars, 9,400 steam locomotives, 85 thousand cars and platforms, defeated many enemy garrisons. More than 230 partisans and underground fighters were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, of which S.A. Kovpak and A.F. Fedorov. The selfless struggle of the Soviet people behind enemy lines was one of the important factors that ensured the victory of the Soviet Union in the Great Patriotic War.

Soviet rear during the Great Patriotic War. Putting the country's economy on a war footing 5-11-2009, 00:48 |

In the fight against the fascist invaders, not only military units participated, but also all the workers of the rear. On the shoulders of people in the rear lay the most difficult task supply the troops with everything they need. The army had to be fed, clothed, shod, continuously supplied to the front with weapons, military equipment, ammunition, fuel and much more. All this was created by the home front workers. They worked from dark to dark, enduring daily hardships. Despite the difficulties of wartime, the Soviet rear coped with the tasks assigned to it and ensured the defeat of the enemy. The leadership of the Soviet Union, with a unique diversity of the country's regions, an underdeveloped system of communications, managed to ensure the unity of the front and rear, the strictest discipline of execution at all levels, with unconditional subordination to the center. The centralization of political and economic power made it possible for the Soviet leadership to concentrate its main efforts on the most important, decisive areas. The motto "Everything for the front, everything for the victory over the enemy!" did not remain only a slogan, it was brought to life. Under the conditions of the domination of state ownership in the country, the authorities managed to achieve the maximum concentration of all material resources, to carry out a quick transfer of the economy to a war footing, to carry out an unprecedented transfer of people, industrial equipment, raw materials from areas threatened by the German occupation to the east. The foundation for the future victory of the USSR was laid even before the war. The difficult international situation, the threat of an armed attack from outside forced the Soviet leadership to strengthen the state's defense capability. The authorities purposefully, neglecting in many respects the vital interests of the people, prepared the Soviet Union to repel aggression. Much attention was paid to the defense industry. New factories were built, existing enterprises for the production of weapons and military equipment were reconstructed. During the pre-war five-year plans, a domestic aviation and tank industry was created, and the artillery industry was almost completely renewed. Moreover, even then, military production was developing at a higher rate than other industries. So, if in the years of the second five-year plan, the production of the entire industry increased by 2.2 times, then the defense industry - by 3.9 times. In 1940, the cost of strengthening the country's defense capacity amounted to 32.6% of the state budget. Germany's attack on the USSR required the country to transfer the economy to a war footing, i.e. development and maximum expansion of military production. The beginning of a radical restructuring of the economy was laid by the "Mobilization National Economic Plan for the III quarter of 1941", adopted at the end of June. Since the measures listed in it turned out to be insufficient for the economy to start working for the needs of the war, another document was urgently developed: “The military-economic plan for the IV quarter of 1941 and for 1942 for the regions of the Volga region, the Urals, Western Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia ”, approved on August 16. Providing for the transfer of the economy to a war footing, taking into account the current situation at the front and in the country, he played an important role in increasing the production of weapons, ammunition, the production of fuels and lubricants and other products of paramount importance, in the relocation of enterprises from the front line to the east, in the creation of state reserves. The economy was being rebuilt in conditions when the enemy was rapidly advancing deep into the country, and the Soviet armed forces suffered huge human and material losses. Of the 22.6 thousand tanks available on June 22, 1941, 2.1 thousand remained by the end of the year, out of 20 thousand combat aircraft - 2.1 thousand, out of 112.8 thousand guns and mortars - only about 12 , 8 thousand, out of 7.74 million rifles and carbines - 2.24 million. Without replenishment of such losses, and in the shortest possible time, an armed struggle against the aggressor would have become simply impossible. When part of the country's territory was occupied or engulfed in hostilities, all traditional economic ties were disrupted. This was especially strongly reflected in the enterprises for the production of cooperative products - casting, forgings, electrical equipment and electrical equipment. The extremely unfavorable course of affairs at the front also caused such a measure that was completely unforeseen by the pre-war plans as the transfer of people, industrial enterprises, and material values ​​to the east from the western and central regions of the country. On June 24, 1941, the Evacuation Council was created. Under the pressure of circumstances, a mass evacuation had to be carried out almost simultaneously from Belarus, Ukraine, the Baltic states, Moldova, Crimea, the North-West, and later the Central industrial regions. The people's commissariats of key industries were forced to evacuate almost all factories. Thus, the People's Commissariat of the aviation industry removed 118 factories (85% of the capacity), the People's Commissariat of Armaments - 31 out of 32 enterprises. 9 main factories of the tank industry were dismantled, 2/3 of the production capacities for the production of gunpowder were reequipped. Until the end of 1941, more than 10 million people, over 2.5 thousand enterprises, as well as other material and cultural values ​​were evacuated to the rear. This required more than 1.5 million railroad cars. If they could be lined up, they would occupy the path from the Bay of Biscay to the Pacific Ocean. In the shortest possible time (on average in one and a half to two months), the evacuated enterprises got down to work and began to provide the products necessary for the front. Everything that could not be removed was mostly destroyed or disabled. Therefore, the remaining empty factory halls, blown up power plants, destroyed blast furnaces and open-hearth furnaces, flooded mines and mines, the enemy could not make full use of. The relocation and restoration of industrial enterprises in difficult war conditions is the greatest achievement of the Soviet people. Essentially, an entire industrial country was moved to the east. The core around which the economy developed during the war was the defense industry, created in peacetime. Since its capacity was clearly not enough to meet the urgent needs of the active army, from the very first days of the war, thousands of civilian factories switched to the production of military products in accordance with the previously developed mobilization plans. So, tractor and automobile factories mastered the assembly of tanks relatively easily. The Gorky Automobile Plant began to produce light tanks. Since the summer of 1941, the production of the T-34 medium tank at the Stalingrad Tractor Plant increased significantly, which continued until the Germans reached the Volga in August 1942. Chelyabinsk became the largest machine-tool center, where, on the basis of a local tractor plant, as well as equipment evacuated from Leningrad The Kirovsky and Kharkovsky Diesel Plants and a number of other enterprises formed a diversified tank production association. The people quite rightly called it "Tankograd". Until the summer of 1942, heavy KV-1 tanks were produced here, then T-34 medium tanks. Another powerful center of Russian tank building based on the Uralvagonzavod was deployed in Nizhny Tagil. This center provided the active army with the largest number of T-34 tanks in the entire war. In Sverdlovsk at the Uralmashzavod, where mainly unique large-sized vehicles were previously created, serial production of hulls and turrets for heavy KV tanks began. Thanks to these measures, the tank industry was able to produce 2.8 times more combat vehicles in the second half of 1941 than in the first. On July 14, 1941 near the town of Orsha, Katyusha rocket launchers were used for the first time. Their widespread production began in August 1941. In 1942, Soviet industry produced 3,237 rocket launchers, which made it possible to staff the guards mortar units at the Supreme Command Headquarters. Special attention was paid to the manufacture of such complex military equipment as aircraft, requiring a high class of accuracy. Since August 1940, more than 60 operating plants were transferred from other industries to the People's Commissariat of the Aviation Industry. On the whole, by the beginning of the war, the aircraft industry of the USSR had large production capacities, hundreds of thousands of highly qualified workers and specialists. However, most of the aircraft factories were located so that already in the first weeks and months of the war, they needed to be urgently evacuated to the east. Under these conditions, the growth in aircraft production was primarily due to the exported and newly built aircraft factories. In a short time, agricultural engineering plants became the basis for the mass production of mortars. Many civilian industrial enterprises switched to the production of small arms and artillery weapons, as well as ammunition and other types of military products. In connection with the loss of Donbass and the damage that was inflicted on the Moscow region coal basin, the fuel problem in the country has sharply aggravated. The leading suppliers of coal, which at that time was the main type of fuel, were Kuzbass, Ural and Karaganda. In connection with the partial occupation of the USSR, the issue of providing the national economy with electricity arose. After all, its production by the end of 1941 had been cut by almost half. In the country, especially in its eastern regions, the energy base did not satisfy the rapidly growing military production. Because of this, many enterprises in the Urals and Kuzbass could not fully use their production capabilities. In general, the restructuring of the Soviet economy on a war footing was carried out in an unusually short time - within one year. It took other belligerent states much longer. By the middle of 1942, in the USSR, most of the evacuated enterprises were working in full force for defense, giving the output of 850 newly built factories, workshops, mines, and power plants. The lost capacities of the defense industry were not only restored, but also significantly increased. In 1943, the main task was solved - to surpass Germany in the quantity and quality of military products, the output of which in the USSR by that time exceeded the pre-war level by 4.3 times, and in Germany - only 2.3 times. The most important role in the development of military production was played by Soviet science. For the needs of the front, the work of scientific research institutions of industrial people's commissariats and the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was reorganized. Scientists and designers created new models of weapons, improved and modernized the available military equipment. All technical innovations were quickly introduced into production. Successes in the development of the military economy made it possible in 1943 to accelerate the rearmament of the Red Army with the latest military equipment. The troops received tanks, self-propelled guns, aircraft, a fair amount of artillery, mortars, machine guns; have ceased to be in dire need of ammunition. At the same time, the share of new models in small arms reached 42.3%, artillery - 83, armored - more than 80, aviation - 67%. By subordinating the national economy to the needs of the war, the Soviet Union was able to provide the Red Army with high-quality weapons and ammunition in the amount necessary to achieve victory.