Q.31.
"Crimean War 1853-1856"
Course of events
In June 1853 Russia broke off diplomatic relations with Turkey and occupied the Danube principalities. In response, Turkey declared war on October 4, 1853. The Russian army, having crossed the Danube, pushed the Turkish troops back from the right bank and laid siege to the fortress of Silistria. In the Caucasus, on December 1, 1853, the Russians won a victory near Bashkadyklyar, which stopped the offensive of the Turks in the Transcaucasus. At sea, a flotilla under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimova destroyed a Turkish squadron in the Sinop Bay. But after that England and France entered the war. In December 1853 the British and French squadrons entered the Black Sea, and in March 1854. On the night of January 4, 1854, the British and French squadrons passed through the Bosphorus into the Black Sea. Then these powers demanded that Russia withdraw its troops from the Danube principalities. On March 27, England, and the next day France, declared war on Russia. On April 22, the Anglo-French squadron bombarded Odessa with 350 guns. But the attempt to land near the city failed.
England and France managed to land in the Crimea, on September 8, 1854, defeated the Russian troops at the Alma River. On September 14, the landing of the allied forces began in Evpatoria. On October 17, the siege of Sevastopol began. The defense of the city was led by V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov and V.I. Istomin. The garrison of the city numbered 30 thousand people, the city was subjected to five massive bombings. On August 27, 1855, French troops captured the southern part of the city and the hill dominating over the city - the Malakhov Kurgan. After that, the Russian troops had to leave the city. The siege lasted 349 days, attempts to divert the troops from Sevastopol (such as the Inkerman battle) did not give the desired result, after which Sevastopol was still taken by the allied forces.
The war ended with the signing of a peace treaty on March 18, 1856 in Paris, according to which the Black Sea was declared neutral, the Russian fleet was reduced to a minimum, and the fortresses were destroyed. Similar demands were made against Turkey. In addition, Russia was deprived of the mouth of the Danube, the southern part of Bessarabia, the fortress of Kars captured in this war and the patronage of Serbia, Moldova and Wallachia. Balaklava, a city in Crimea (from 1957 as part of Sevastopol), in the area of which during the struggle in the XVIII-XIX centuries The Ottoman Empire, Russia, as well as the leading European powers for domination of the Black Sea and the Black Sea states, a battle took place on October 13 (25), 1854, between Russian and Anglo-Turkish troops during the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The Russian command intended with a surprise attack to seize the well-fortified base of British troops in Balaklava, the garrison of which consisted of 3,350 British and 1,000 Turks. The Russian detachment of Lieutenant General P.P. Liprandi (16 thousand people, 64 guns), concentrated in the village of Chorgun (about 8 km northeast of Balaklava), was supposed to attack the allied Anglo-Turkish troops in three columns. To cover the Chorgun detachment from the French troops on the Fedyukhin Heights, a 5-thousandth detachment of Major General OP Zhabokritsky was stationed. The British, having discovered the movement of the Russian troops, advanced their cavalry to the redoubts of the second line of defense.
Early in the morning, under cover of artillery fire, Russian troops launched an offensive, captured the redoubts, but the cavalry could not take the village. With the withdrawal, the cavalry found itself between the detachments of Liprandi and Zhabokritsky. British troops, in pursuit of the Russian cavalry, also moved into the interval between these detachments. During the attack, the order of the British was upset and Liprandi ordered the Russian uhlans to strike them in the flank, and the artillery and infantry to open fire on them. The Russian cavalry pursued the defeated enemy to the redoubts, but due to the indecision and miscalculations of the Russian command, it was not possible to develop the success. The enemy took advantage of this and significantly strengthened the defense of his base, therefore, in the future, the Russian troops abandoned their attempts to capture Balaklava until the end of the war. The British and Turks lost in killed and wounded up to 600 people, the Russians - 500 people.
Causes of defeat and consequences.
The political reason for the defeat of Russia during the Crimean War was the unification of the main Western powers (England and France) against it with the benevolent (for the aggressor) neutrality of the rest. This war showed the consolidation of the West against a civilization alien to them. If after the defeat of Napoleon in 1814 an anti-Russian ideological campaign began in France, then in the 50s the West switched to practical actions.
The technical reason for the defeat was the relative backwardness of the armament of the Russian army. The Anglo-French troops had rifled fittings, which allowed the loose formation of the Jaegers to open fire on the Russian troops before they approached at a distance sufficient for a salvo from smooth-stock rifles. The closed formation of the Russian army, designed mainly for one group salvo and bayonet attack, with such a difference in weapons, became a convenient target.
The socio-economic reason for the defeat was the preservation of serfdom, which is inextricably linked with the lack of freedom of both potential hired workers and potential entrepreneurs limiting industrial development. Europe to the west of the Elbe was able to break away from Russia in industry, in the development of technology, thanks to the social changes that took place there, contributing to the creation of a capital and labor market.
The war resulted in legal and socio-economic transformations in the country in the 60s of the XIX century. The extremely slow overcoming of serfdom before the Crimean War prompted, after the military defeat, to force reforms, which led to distortions in the social structure of Russia, which were superimposed by destructive ideological influences that came from the West.
Bashkadyklar (modern Basgedikler - Bashgedikler), a village in Turkey, 35 km east. Kars, in the area to-rogo 19 nov. (December 1) 1853 during the Crimean War of 1853-56, a battle took place between the Russian. and tour. troops. Retreating to Kars tour. the army under the command of serasker (commander-in-chief) Akhmet Pasha (36 thousand men, 46 guns) tried to stop the advancing Rus. troops under the command of gen. V.O.Bebutova (about 10 thousand people, 32 guns). A vigorous attack by Rus. the troops, despite the stubborn resistance of the Turks, crushed their right flank and turned the round. army to flight. Losses of Turks over 6 thousand people, Russians - about 1.5 thousand people. The defeat of the Turkish army at Byelorussia was of great importance for Russia. It meant disrupting the plans of the Anglo-French-Turkish coalition to seize the Caucasus with one blow.
Sevastopol Defense 1854 - 1855 Heroic 349-day defense of the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet against the armed forces of France, England, Turkey and Sardinia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Began on September 13, 1854 after the defeat of the Russian army under the command of A.S. Menshikov on the river. Alma. The Black Sea Fleet (14 sailing battleships, 11 sailing and 11 steam frigates and corvettes, 24.5 thousand crew) and the city's garrison (9 battalions, about 7 thousand people) were faced with an enemy 67-thousand army and a huge modern fleet (34 battleships, 55 frigates). At the same time, Sevastopol was prepared for defense only from the sea (8 coastal batteries with 610 guns). The defense of the city was headed by the chief of staff of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice-Admiral V.A.Kornilov, and Vice-Admiral PS Nakhimov became his closest assistant. To prevent the enemy from breaking through to the Sevastopol raid on September 11, 1854, 5 battleships and 2 frigates were sunk. On October 5, the first bombardment of Sevastopol began both from land and from the sea. However, the Russian gunners suppressed all French and almost all British batteries, heavily damaging several Allied ships. On October 5, Kornilov was mortally wounded. The leadership of the city's defense passed to Nakhimov. By April 1855, the Allied forces had increased to 170 thousand people. On June 28, 1855, Nakhimov was mortally wounded. On August 27, 1855 Sevastopol fell. In total, during the defense of Sevastopol, the Allies lost 71 thousand people, and the Russian troops lost about 102 thousand people.
In the White Sea, on Solovetsky Island, preparations were made for war: they took the monastery's treasures to Arkhangelsk, built a battery on the shore, installed two large-caliber cannons, and eight small-caliber cannons were reinforced on the walls and towers of the monastery. A small detachment of a disabled team was guarding the border of the Russian Empire here. On the morning of July 6, two steam ship enemy: "Brisk" and "Miranda". Each has 60 guns.
First of all, the British fired a volley - they demolished the monastery gates, then they began to shoot at the monastery, confident of impunity and invincibility. Fireworks? Drushlevsky, the commander of the coastal battery, also fired. Two Russian cannons against 120 English ones. After the very first salvoes of Drushlevsky, the Miranda received a hole. The British were offended and stopped firing.
On the morning of July 7, they sent envoys to the island with a letter: “On the 6th there was firing on the English flag. For such an offense, the commandant of the garrison is obliged to give up his sword within three hours. " The commandant refused to give up the sword, and the monks, pilgrims, the inhabitants of the island and the disabled team went to the fortress walls for the procession. July 7 is a fun day in Russia. Ivan Kupala, Midsummer. He is also called Ivan Tsvetnoy. The British were surprised at the strange behavior of the Solovetsky people: they didn’t give them the sword, they didn’t bow down, they didn’t ask for forgiveness, and even made a religious procession.
And they opened fire with all their guns. The cannons thumped for nine hours. Nine and a half hours.
The overseas enemies did a lot of harm to the monastery, but they were afraid to land on the shore: two guns of Drushlevsky, a disabled team, Archimandrite Alexander and the icon behind which the Solovetsky people walked along the fortress wall an hour before the cannonade.
Crimean War of 1853-1856 also called the Eastern War because of the so-called "Eastern question", which officially served as a pretext for the outbreak of hostilities. What is the "Eastern question", as it was understood in Europe in the middleXIXcentury? This is a set of claims to Turkish possessions, stretching back from the Middle Ages, from the time of the Crusades, to the lands associated with the ancient shrines of Christianity. Initially, they meant only Palestine and Syria. After the capture of Constantinople and the Balkans by the Turks, the "Eastern question" began to refer to the plans of the European powers to assert their dominion over all the lands of the former Byzantium under the pretext of "liberating Christians."
In the middleXIXcentury Russian Emperor NicholasIdeliberately aggravated relations with Turkey. The pretext for this was the transfer by the Turkish government of jurisdiction over some Christian churches in Jerusalem, the Catholic mission, which was under the auspices of France. For Nicholas, this was a violation of a long-standing tradition, according to which Turkey recognized the patron saint of all Christians on its territory in the Russian autocrat, and the Orthodox confession there enjoyed an advantage over other Christian denominations.
Nikolai's politicsIin relation to Turkey has changed several times. In 1827, the Russian squadron, together with the Anglo-French squadron, defeated the Turkish fleet in Navarino Bay under the pretext of protecting the insurgent Greeks. This event served as a pretext for Turkey to declare war on Russia (1828-1829), which turned out to be once again successful for Russian weapons. As a result, Greece gained independence, and Serbia received autonomy. But NikolayIfeared the collapse of Turkey and in 1833 threatened the Egyptian Pasha, Muhammad Ali, with war if he did not stop the movement of his army to Istanbul. Thanks to this, NikolayImanaged to conclude a favorable agreement with Turkey (in Uskar-Inkelessi) on the free navigation of Russian ships, including military ones, through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.
However, by the 1850s, Nicholas had matured a plan to partition Turkey with other powers. First of all, he tried to interest the Austrian Empire in this, which in 1849 was saved from collapse by the Russian army, which suppressed the revolution in Hungary, but ran into a blank wall. Then NikolayIturned to England. At a meeting with the British ambassador to St. Petersburg, Hamilton Seymour, in January 1853, the tsar outlined a plan for the partition of the Ottoman Empire. Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia passed under the protectorate of Russia. Bulgaria stood out from the Balkan possessions of Turkey, which was also supposed to make up a state under the protectorate of Russia. England received Egypt and the island of Crete. Constantinople turned to the neutral zone.
NikolayIwas sure that his proposal would meet the approval and participation of England, but cruelly miscalculated in this. His assessment of the international situation on the eve of the Crimean War turned out to be erroneous, and this was the fault of Russian diplomacy, which for decades glorified the Tsar with reassuring reports about the unfailing respect that Russia enjoys in the West. Russian ambassadors in London (Baron F.I.Brunnov), Paris (Count N.D. Kiselev), Vienna (Baron P.K. Meyendorff) and the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count K.V. The Nesselrodes managed to overlook the rapprochement between England and France and the growing hostility of Austria towards Russia.
NikolayIhoped for a rivalry between England and France. At that time, the king considered France to be his main enemy in the East, inciting Turkey to oppose. French ruler Louis Bonaparte, who in 1852 proclaimed himself emperor under the name of NapoleonIII, dreamed of settling scores with Russia, and not only because of his famous uncle, but also because he considered himself a gravely offended Russian tsar, who for a long time did not recognize his imperial title. Britain's interests in the Middle East brought her closer to France, as opposed to Russia's intentions.
Nevertheless, being convinced of the benevolence or cowardice of the Western powers, NicholasIin the spring of 1853 he sent Prince A.S. Menshikov with the task of negotiating "holy places" and privileges Orthodox Church in Turkey from a position of strength. Menshikov made the tsar's desired break in relations with Turkey, and in June of the same year NikolaiIbegan to introduce Russian troops into Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the protectorate of Turkey.
For their part, France and England, being confident in their strength, also looked for a pretext for war. The strengthening of Russia's position in the East was not at all pleasant to both powers, and they were not at all going to yield to her influence in Turkey, sprawling at the seams. British diplomacy very skillfully showed the appearance that it did not want the aggravation of relations with Russia. Meanwhile, behind the scenes, the British ambassador to Constantinople, Stretford-Ratcliffe, was strenuously inciting Porto to obstinate Menshikov in the negotiations (which was, however, easy). When England finally threw off the mask, NikolaiIunderstood everything, but it was too late.
The king decided to occupy the Danube principalities to ensure his claims against Turkey, but, like in 1827, he did not declare war yet, leaving the Turks to do so (which happened in October 1853). However, in contrast to the times of the Navarino battle, the situation was now completely different. Russia found itself in international isolation. England and France immediately demanded that Russia withdraw its troops from the Danube principalities. The Vienna court was increasingly inclined towards an ultimatum to Russia about the same. Only Prussia remained neutral.
NikolayIbelatedly decided to intensify military action against Turkey. Having abandoned at the very beginning from landing operation near Constantinople, he ordered the troops to cross the Danube and transfer the war to the Ottoman Empire proper (on the territory of present-day Bulgaria). At the same time, the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed the Turkish one in the roadstead of Sinop and burned the city. In response, England and France brought their fleets into the Black Sea. On March 27, 1854, they declared war on Russia.
The main reason for the Crimean War was the desire of the great European powers to assert themselves at the expense of the decrepit Ottoman Empire and prevent rivals from doing so. In this respect, Russia, Britain and France were driven by similar motives. England and France managed to agree on common interests, while Russia failed to attract any ally. An unsuccessful foreign policy combination for Russia, in which the war began and proceeded for it, was due to an inadequate assessment of it the ruling circles the international situation, as well as the forces and influence of Russia.
Introduction
For my essay, I chose the topic "The Crimean War of 1853-1856: Aims and Results". This topic seemed to me the most interesting. "The Crimean War is one of the turning points in the history of international relations, and especially in the history of Russia's domestic and foreign policy" (E.V. Tarle). It was an armed solution to the historical confrontation between Russia and Europe.
Crimean War of 1853-1856 considered one of the largest and most dramatic international conflicts. To one degree or another, all the leading powers of the world of that time took part in it, and in its geographical scope until the middle of the 19th century it had no equal. All this allows us to consider it a kind of "proto-world" war.
She claimed the lives of more than 1 million people. In a way, the Crimean War can be called a rehearsal of the world wars of the 20th century. This was the first war when the leading world powers, who suffered gigantic losses, came together in a fierce confrontation.
I wanted to work on this topic and to generalize the goals and results of the Crimean War. The main tasks of the work include:
1. Determination of the main causes of the Crimean War
2. Review of the course of the Crimean War
3. Assessment of the results of the Crimean War
1. Literature review
In historiography, E.V. Tarle (in the book "The Crimean War"), K.M. Basili, A.M., Zayonchkovsky and others.
Evgeny Viktorovich Tarle (1874 - 1955) - Russian Soviet historian, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
Basili Konstantin Mikhailovich (1809 - 1884) - an outstanding Russian orientalist, diplomat, writer and historian.
Andrey Medardovich Zayonchkovsky (1862 - 1926) - Russian and Soviet military leader, military historian.
To prepare this work, I used books:
"Russian Imperial House" - for information on the significance of the Crimean War for Russia
"Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" - a description of the Crimean War and some general information on this issue is taken from this book
Andreev A.R. "History of Crimea" - I used this literature to describe common history wars of 1853-1856
Tarle E.V. "Crimean War" - information about hostilities and the meaning of the Crimean War
Zayonchkovsky A.M. "Eastern War 1853-1856" - to obtain information about the events preceding the war and the beginning of hostilities against Turkey.
2. Causes of the Crimean War
The Crimean War was the result of years of rivalry between Western powers in the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire was going through a period of decline and the European powers, who had views on its possessions, carefully watched each other's actions.
Russia sought to secure its southern borders (to create friendly, independent Orthodox states in Southeastern Europe, whose territory could not be swallowed up and used by other powers), to expand its political influence in the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East, to establish control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles - an important for Russia the path to the Mediterranean. This was significant both from the military and from the economic side. The Russian emperor, recognizing himself as a great Orthodox monarch, strove to free the Orthodox peoples under the influence of Turkey. Nicholas I decided to strengthen his position in the Balkans and the Middle East with the help of tough pressure on Turkey.
By the time the war began, Sultan Abdul-Majid was pursuing a policy of reforms - tanzimat, caused by the crisis of the Ottoman feudal society, socio-economic problems and increased rivalry between European powers in the Middle East and the Balkans. For this, borrowed funds from Western states (French and British) were used, which were spent on the purchase of industrial products and weapons, and not on strengthening the Turkish economy. We can say that Turkey gradually fell under the influence of the European powers in a peaceful way.
Great Britain was faced with the possibility of forming an anti-Russian coalition and weakening Russia's influence in the Balkans. The French emperor Napoleon III, who reached the throne through a coup d'état, was looking for an opportunity to intervene in European affairs and take part in any serious war in order to maintain his power with the glory and glory of the victory of French arms. Therefore, he immediately joined England in her eastern politics against Russia. Turkey decided to use this chance to restore its positions and tear away the territories of Crimea and the Caucasus from Russia.
Thus, the reasons for the Crimean War were rooted in the collision of the colonial interests of the countries, i.e. (all countries participating in the Crimean War pursued serious geopolitical interests).
Nicholas I was sure that Austria and Prussia, Russia's partners in the Holy Alliance, would remain at least neutral in the Russian-French conflict, and France would not dare to fight Russia one-on-one. In addition, he believed that Great Britain and France were rivals in the Middle East and would not enter into an alliance. Nicholas I, opposing Turkey, hoped for an agreement with England and for the isolation of France (in any case, the Russian emperor was sure that France would not go for rapprochement with England).
The formal reason for the intervention was the dispute over the holy places in Jerusalem, where the Turkish sultan gave some advantages to the Catholics, infringing on the rights of the Orthodox. Relying on the support of France, the Turkish government not only handed over the keys to the Bethlehem Church to Catholics, but also began to restrict the Orthodox in the Holy Land, did not allow the restoration of the dome over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, did not allow the construction of a hospital and an almshouse for Russian pilgrims. All this provoked the participation in the dispute between Russia (on the side of the Orthodox Church) and France (on the side catholic church), who were looking for a reason to put pressure on Turkey.
Defending co-religionists, Emperor Nicholas I demanded that the Sultan observe the treaties on Russia's rights in Palestine. For this, in February 1853, at the highest command, Prince A.S. Menshikov. He was instructed to demand that the Sultan not only resolve the dispute over holy places in favor of the Orthodox Church, but also give the Russian Tsar a special right to be the patron saint of all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire. When this was refused, Prince Menshikov notified the Sultan of the severance of Russian-Turkish relations (although the Sultan agreed to give the holy places under the control of Russia) and left Constantinople. Following this, Russian troops occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, and England and France, in order to support Turkey, brought their fleets into the Dardanelles. The Sultan, having declared to Russia the demand for the cleansing of the Danube principalities in 15 days, did not wait for the end of this period and began hostile actions against Russia. 4 (16) October 1853 Turkey, counting on the help of the European powers, declared war on Russia. As a result, on October 20 (November 1), 1853, Nicholas I promulgated a manifesto on the war with Turkey. Turkey willingly went to the outbreak of war, wanting the return of the northern coast of the Black Sea, Crimea, Kuban.
The Crimean War began as a Russian-Turkish war, but then turned into a coalition war of England, France, Turkey and Sardinia against Russia. It got its name from the Crimean War because Crimea became the main theater of military operations.
The active policy of Nicholas I in the Middle East and Europe rallied the interested countries against Russia, which led to its military confrontation with a strong bloc of European powers. England and France sought to prevent Russia from entering the Mediterranean Sea, to establish their control over the straits and to carry out colonial conquests in the Middle East at the expense of the Turkish Empire. They sought to take control of Turkey's economy and public finances.
In my opinion, the main reasons for hostilities can be formulated as follows:
firstly, England, France and Austria sought to strengthen their influence in the European possessions of the Ottoman Empire, to oust Russia from the Black Sea region, thereby limiting its advance to the Middle East;
secondly, Turkey, encouraged by Britain and France, hatched plans to sever Crimea and the Caucasus from Russia;
thirdly, Russia sought to crush the Ottoman Empire, seize the Black Sea straits and expand its influence in the Middle East.
3. Course of the Crimean War
The Crimean War can be divided into two major stages. At the first stage (from 1853 to the beginning of 1854), Russia fought one-on-one with Turkey. This period can be called the classic Russian-Turkish war with the Danube, Caucasian and Black Sea theaters of operations. At the second stage (from 1854 to February 1856), England, France, and then Sardinia took the side of Turkey. The small Sardinian kingdom sought to gain recognition for itself European capitals the status of "power". England and France promised her this in the event that Sardinia entered the war against Russia. This turn of events had a great impact on the course of the war. Russia had to fight a powerful coalition of states that surpassed Russia in the scale and quality of weapons, especially in the field of naval forces, small arms and communications. V this respect we can assume that the Crimean War opened new era wars of the industrial era, when the importance of military equipment and the military-economic potential of states.
The Turkish Sultan, supported by Britain and France, on September 27 (October 4), 1853 demanded that Russia cleanse the Danube principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia) and, without waiting for the 15 days allotted for him to respond, began hostilities. 4 (16) October 1853. Turkey has declared war on Russia. Under the command of Omar Pasha, the Turkish army crossed the Danube.
The day before the declaration of war on October 3 (15), 1853, the Ottomans fired at the Russian pickets on the left bank of the Danube. October 11 (23), 1853. Ottomans shelling Russian military ships passing along the Danube. 15 (27) October 1853, with an attack by Ottoman troops on Russian fortifications, hostilities began on the Caucasian front. As a result, on October 20 (November 1), Nicholas I issued a manifesto on Russia's entry into the war with the Ottoman Empire, and in November opened hostilities.
On November 18 (30), in the Sinop Bay, the Russian Black Sea squadron, under the command of Nakhimov, attacked the Turkish fleet and, after a stubborn battle, destroyed it all.
On November 11 (23), the commander Nakhimov approached Sinop with small forces and blocked the entrance to the port. A ship was sent to Sevastopol with a request for reinforcements. On November 17 (29), the first part of the expected reinforcements arrived. At that moment, Nakhimov's squadron included 6 battleships and two frigates. The Turkish squadron, which arrived in Sinop from Istanbul, stood in the roadstead and prepared for the landing of a large assault force in the Sukhumi and Poti area. On the morning of November 18 (30), without waiting for the arrival of the Kornilov detachment, Nakhimov led his squadron to Sinop. By the evening of the same day, the Turkish squadron was killed almost completely, along with the entire team. Only one ship survived from the entire Turkish squadron, which escaped to Constantinople and brought there the news of the death of the fleet. The defeat of the Turkish squadron significantly weakened the Turkish naval forces.
Alarmed by the victory of Russia at Sinop, on December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854) England and France entered their fleet into the Black Sea, and demanded from Russia to withdraw Russian troops from the Danube principalities. Nicholas I refused. Then on March 15 (27) England and March 16 (28) France declared war on Russia.
England is trying to involve Austria and Prussia in the war with Russia. However, she did not succeed, although they took a position hostile to Russia. 8 (20) April 1854 Austria and Prussia demand that Russia clear the Danube principalities of its troops. Russia is forced to fulfill the requirements.
On August 4 (16), French troops captured and destroyed the Bomarzund fortress on the Aland Islands, and after that a brutal bombardment was carried out in Sveaborg. As a result, the Russian Baltic Fleet was blocked at its bases. But the confrontation continued, and the allied attack on Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky at the end of August 1854 ended in complete failure.
Meanwhile, in the summer of 1854, the 50-thousandth expeditionary corps of the allied forces was concentrated in Varna. This unit was provided with the latest weapons that the Russian army did not have (rifled guns, etc.).
England and France tried to organize a broad coalition against Russia, but managed to involve only the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was dependent on France, in it. At the beginning of hostilities, the Allied fleets bombarded Odessa, but without success. Then the British squadrons staged demonstrations in the Baltic Sea, in the White Sea, at the Solovetsky Monastery, even off the coast of Kamchatka, but they did not take any serious action anywhere. After a meeting of the French and British commanders, it was decided to strike at Russia in the Black Sea and lay siege to Sevastopol as an important military port. If this operation succeeded, England and France counted on simultaneously destroying the entire Russian Black Sea Fleet and its main base.
On September 2-6 (14-18), 1854, a 62,000-strong Allied army landed near Evpatoria, more numerous, better equipped and armed than the Russian army. Due to a lack of forces, the Russian troops could not stop the landing of the allied forces, but nevertheless tried to stop the enemy on the Alma River, where on September 8 (20), 1854, the Allied army was met by Prince Menshikov with only 35 thousand people and, after an unsuccessful battle, retreated south to Sevastopol - the main stronghold of Russia in the Crimea.
The heroic defense of Sevastopol began on 13 (25) September 1854. The defense of the city was in the hands of V.A. Kornilov and Admiral P.S. Nakhimov. The garrison of Sevastopol consisted of only 11 thousand people, and the fortifications were only on one coastal side, and from the north and south the fortress was almost unprotected. Allied forces, supported by a strong fleet, took by storm northern part Sevastopol. In order to prevent the enemy fleet from reaching the southern side, Menshikov ordered the ships of the Black Sea squadron to be flooded, and their guns and commands to be transferred ashore to strengthen the garrison. At the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, the Russians flooded several sailing ships, thus blocking the access to the bay for the Anglo-French fleet. In addition, the strengthening of the southern side began.
On October 5 (12), the allies began shelling the city. One of the main defenders, Kornilov, was mortally wounded by a cannonball at the moment when he was descending from the Malakhov Kurgan, after inspecting the positions. The defense of Sevastopol was led by P.S. Nakhimov, E.I. Totleben and V.I. Istomin. The besieged garrison responded to the enemy, and the first bombardment did not bring great results to the allies. They abandoned the assault and led an intensified siege.
A.S. Menshikov, trying to divert the enemy's wax from the city, undertook a number of offensive operations. As a result of which the Turks were successfully knocked out from their positions at Kadikioi, but he did not manage to win the battle with the British at Balaklava on October 13 (25). The Battle of Balaklava was one of the largest battles of the Crimean War between Great Britain, France and Turkey on the one hand, and Russia on the other. The city of Balaklava was the base of the British Expeditionary Force in the Crimea. An attack by Russian troops on the positions of the allies at Balaklava could, if successful, lead to a disruption in the supply of the British. On October 13 (25), the battle took place in the valleys north of Balaklava. This was the only battle in the entire Crimean War in which Russian troops significantly prevailed in strength.
The Russian detachment consisted of 16 thousand people. Allied forces were represented mainly by British troops. French and Turkish units also took part in the battle, but their role was insignificant. The number of allied troops was about two thousand people.
The battle began early in the morning. In order to cover the too wide front of the attack of the Russian cavalry, the Scottish commander Campbell ordered his soldiers to form in a line of two. The first Russian attack was repulsed.
Lord Raglan gave the order to attack the Russian positions, which led to tragic consequences. During this attack, two thirds of the attackers were killed.
By the end of the battle, the opposing sides remained in their morning positions. The death toll of the allies ranged from 400 to 1000 people, Russians - about 600.
On October 24 (November 5), Russian troops in numbers under the command of General Soimonov attacked the British positions. The enemy was taken by surprise. As a result, the Russians captured the fortifications, but could not hold them and retreated. With the help of the detachment of General Pavlov, who approached from the direction of Inkerman, the Russian troops managed to achieve a significant advantage, and the British troops were in a critical situation. In the heat of the battle, the British lost a large number of their soldiers and were ready to admit defeat, but were saved by the intervention of the French, brought in by General Bosquet. The entry into battle of French troops turned the tide of the battle. The outcome of the battle was decided by the advantage in their armament, which was more long-range than the Russians.
Russian troops were defeated and forced to retreat with heavy losses (11,800 people), the allies lost 5,700 people. Among those killed in the battle was General Soimonov. The battle also had a positive result: the general assault on Sevastopol, scheduled by the allies for the next day, did not take place.
The Russians were defeated at Inkerman, and Menshikov's detachment was forced to withdraw from the city deep into the peninsula.
The war continued. On January 14 (26), 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the allied anti-Russian coalition.
The conditions for the defense of Sevastopol were incredibly difficult. There was a shortage of people, ammunition, food, medicine.
With the onset of winter, hostilities died down. Nicholas I gathered a militia and sent it to help the defenders of Sevastopol. For moral support, the Grand Dukes Mikhail and Nikolai Nikolaevich arrived in the Russian army.
In February, hostilities resumed, and, by order of the emperor, Russian troops launched an offensive near the highest point in Sevastopol - the Malakhov Kurgan. Several enemy detachments were brought down from the nearby hills, and the occupied hills were immediately fortified.
On February 18, 1855, among these events, Emperor Nicholas I died. But the war continued under the emperor's successor, Alexander II. Siege and defensive work on both sides went on until the end of March; On the 28th of this month, the Allies began bombing from land and continued it until April 1, then they soon resumed it again, and only on April 7 the besieged breathed more freely. There have been great changes in their composition. In place of Prince Menshikov, Emperor Alexander II appointed Prince Gorchakov. In turn, among the allies, the French commander-in-chief Canrobert was replaced by General Pelissier.
Realizing that the Malakhov Kurgan is the key to the defense of Sevastopol, Pelissier directed all efforts to capture it. On May 26, after a terrible bombing, the French took the fortifications closest to the Malakhov Kurgan with hostility. It remained to seize the mound itself, but it turned out to be more difficult than the attackers had expected. 5 (17) June, a cannonade began, and an assault was carried out on June 6 (18), but unsuccessfully: General Khrulev repulsed all attacks, the enemy had to retreat and continued for 3 more months. fighting over the mound, around which all the forces of both sides are now concentrated. 8 (20) June, the wounded head of the Totleben defense left the defenders of the fortress, and on June 27 (9 July) they were struck by a new heavy loss: Nakhimov was mortally wounded in the temple and through died three days.
On August 4, Gorchakov launched an offensive against the enemy's positions near the Black River, and the next day he gave battle there, which ended unsuccessfully for the Russian army. After that, from August 6 (18), Pelissier began bombing the city and continued it continuously for 20 days. Gorchakov became convinced that it was unthinkable to defend Sevastopol any longer, and in the event of a new assault, the fortress would be taken. To prevent the enemy from getting anything, they began to lay mines under all the fortifications, and a floating bridge was built to transfer the troops.
On August 27 (September 8), at 12 noon, the enemy moved to Malakhov Kurgan and after a terrible battle took possession of it, and General Khrulev, the main defender, was wounded and almost captured. Russian troops immediately began to withdraw across the bridge to the north side, the remaining ships were flooded, and the fortifications were blown up. After 349 days of stubborn struggle and many bloody battles, the enemy took possession of the fortress, which was a heap of ruins.
After the occupation of Sevastopol, the Allies suspended hostilities: they could not begin an offensive into Russia without carts, and Prince Gorchakov, who had fortified himself with an army near the captured fortress, did not accept battles in open areas. Winter completely stopped the military operations of the allies in the Crimea, as illnesses began in their army.
Sevastopol Defense 1854 - 1855 showed everyone the strength of the patriotic feeling of the Russian people and the firmness of its national character.
Not counting on the close end of the war, both sides started talking about peace. France did not want to continue the war, not wanting to either strengthen Britain or weaken Russia beyond measure. Russia also wanted an end to the war.
4. Results of the Crimean War
On March 18 (30), 1856, in Paris, with the participation of all the warring powers, as well as Austria and Prussia, a peace was signed. The Russian delegation was headed by Count A.F. Orlov. He managed to achieve conditions less severe and humiliating for Russia than expected after such an unfortunate war.
According to the Paris Peace Treaty, Russia received back Sevastopol, Yevpatoria and other Russian cities, but returned the fortress Kars, which had been taken in the Caucasus, to Turkey, Russia lost the mouth of the Danube to southern Bessarabia, the Black Sea was declared neutral, and Russia was deprived of the right to keep a military fleet on it, also pledging not build fortifications on the coast. Thus, the Russian black sea coast became defenseless against possible aggression. Eastern Christians came under the auspices of European powers, i.e. Russia was deprived of the right to protect the interests of the Orthodox population on the territory of the Ottoman Empire, which weakened Russia's influence on Middle Eastern affairs.
The Crimean War had adverse consequences for Russia. Its result was a significant weakening of Russia's influence, both in Europe and in the Middle East. The destruction of the remnants of the military fleet in the Black Sea and the elimination of fortifications on the coast made the southern border of the country open to any enemy invasion. Although, under the terms of the Paris Treaty, Turkey also abandoned its Black Sea fleet, but it always had the opportunity to bring its squadrons there from the Mediterranean Sea through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles.
The positions of France and Great Britain and their influence in the Eastern Mediterranean, on the contrary, were seriously strengthened, and France became one of the leading powers in Europe.
Crimean War in the period 1853-1856 killed more than 1 million people (522 thousand Russians, 400 thousand Turks, 95 thousand French and 22 thousand British).
By huge scale(the size of the theater of military operations and the number of mobilized troops) The Crimean War can be compared with the world one. Russia fought this war alone, defending itself on several fronts. It was opposed by an international coalition of Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Sardinia (since 1855), which inflicted a crushing defeat on Russia.
The Crimean War frankly demonstrated the fact that in order to achieve its global goals, the West is ready to unite its power with the Muslim East. In the event of this war, for the destruction of the third center of power - Orthodox Russia.
In addition, the Crimean War showed the Russian government that economic backwardness leads to political and military vulnerability. Further economic lag behind Europe threatened more serious consequences. As a result, the main task of Russia's foreign policy in 1856-1871. there was a struggle for the abolition of some articles of the Paris Treaty, tk. Russia could not put up with the fact that its Black Sea border remained unprotected and open to military attack. The security interests of the state, as well as economic and political ones, demanded the abolition of the neutral status of the Black Sea.
Conclusion
Crimean War of 1853-1856 was originally fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires for domination in the Middle East. On the eve of the war, Nicholas I misjudged the international situation (regarding England, France and Austria). Nicholas I did not take into account either the advantage for Napoleon III of diverting the attention of the French broad popular strata from internal affairs to foreign policy, or the economic interests of the French bourgeoisie in Turkey. The victories of the Russian troops at the beginning of the war, namely the defeat of the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Sinop, prompted England and France to intervene in the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. In 1855, the Sardinian Kingdom joined the warring coalition, which wanted to obtain the status of a world power. Sweden and Austria were ready to join the allies, which were tied by the ties of the "Holy Alliance" with Russia. Military operations were conducted in the Baltic Sea, Kamchatka, the Caucasus, and the Danube principalities. The main actions took place in the Crimea during the defense of Sevastopol from the Allied forces.
As a result, through joint efforts, the united coalition won the war. Russia signed the Paris Peace Treaty on unfavorable terms.
The defeat of Russia can be explained by several groups of reasons: political, socio-economic and technical.
The political reason for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War was the unification of the leading European powers (England and France) against it. The socio-economic reason for the defeat was the preservation of serf labor, which slowed down economic development country and caused its technical backwardness. From what followed the limited industrial development. The technical reason for the defeat was the outdated armament of the Russian army.
Military factories, which existed in small numbers, they worked poorly due to primitive technology and unproductive serf labor. The main engines were water and horse traction. Before the Crimean War, Russia annually produced only 50-70 thousand rifles and pistols, 100-120 guns and 60-80 thousand poods of gunpowder.
The Russian army suffered from a lack of weapons and ammunition. The armament was outdated, and new types of weapons were hardly introduced.
The military training of the Russian troops was also low. The War Ministry of Russia before the Crimean War was headed by Prince A.I. Chernyshev, who prepared the army not for war, but for parades. For shooting training, 10 live rounds were allocated per soldier per year.
Transport and communication lines were also in poor condition, which negatively affected the combat capability of the Russian army. There was not a single one from the center to the south of the country. railroad... The troops marched on foot, carrying weapons and ammunition on oxen. It was easier to deliver soldiers to Crimea from England or France than from the center of Russia.
The Russian Navy was the third in the world, but inferior to the British and French. England and France had 454 warships, including 258 steamers, and Russia had 115 ships with 24 steamers.
I believe that the main reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War are:
incorrect assessment of the international situation, which led to the diplomatic isolation of Russia and the war not with one, but with several of the strongest opponents
backward military industry (based mainly on serf labor)
obsolete weapons
lack of a developed road transport system
The defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) demonstrated that the country could finally lose its status as a great power.
The Crimean War was the strongest impetus for the exacerbation of the social crisis within the country, contributed to the development of mass peasant uprisings, accelerated the fall of serfdom and the implementation of bourgeois reforms.
The world-historical significance of the Crimean War lies in the fact that it clearly and convincingly drew a line of civilizational division between Russia and Europe.
Russia's defeat in the Crimean War led to the loss of its leading role in Europe, which it had played for forty years. In Europe, the so-called "Crimean system" was formed, the basis of which was the Anglo-French bloc directed against Russia. Articles of the Paris Peace Treaty dealt a tangible blow to Russian Empire... The most difficult of them was the one that forbade her to have a navy on the Black Sea and build coastal fortifications. However, according to by and large, Russia paid a much lower price for defeat than it could have if the Allies had more successful military action.
List of used literature
1. "Russian Imperial House". - Moscow, publishing house "OLMA Media Group", 2006
2. "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary". - Moscow, publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1981, p. 669
3. Tarle E.V. "Crimean War". - Moscow, publishing house "AST", 2005 - http://webreading.ru/sci_/sci_history/evgeniy-tarle-krimskaya-voyna.html
4. Andreev A.R. "History of Crimea" - http://webreading.ru/sci_/sci_history/a-andreev-istoriya-krima.html
5. Zayonchkovsky A.M. "Eastern War, 1853-1856". - St. Petersburg, publishing house "Polygon", 2002 - http://www.adjudant.ru/crimea/zai00. htm
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The article briefly describes the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which influenced the further development of Russia and became the immediate reason for the reforms of Alexander II. The war revealed a significant backlog of Russia from Europe both in the military field and in all spheres of state structure.
- Causes of the Crimean War
- The course of the Crimean War
- Results of the Crimean War
Causes of the Crimean War
- The cause of the Crimean War was the aggravation by the middle of the 19th century. eastern question. The Western powers showed an increased interest in the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire in Europe, plans were made for the possible division of these territories. Russia was interested in seizing control over the Black Sea straits, which was necessary in economically... Strengthening Russia would allow it to expand its influence in the region, which worried western countries... They adhered to the policy of preserving a weak Turkey as a source of constant danger to the Russian Empire. Turkey was promised Crimea and the Caucasus as a reward for a successful war with Russia.
- The central reason for the war was the struggle of the Russian and French clergy for the possession of the holy places in Palestine. Nicholas I, in the form of an ultimatum, declared to the Turkish government that it recognized the right of the Russian emperor to provide assistance to all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire (mainly the Balkan region). Hoping for the support and promises of the Western powers, Turkey rejected the ultimatum. It became clear that the war could no longer be avoided.
The course of the Crimean War
- In June 1853 Russia introduces troops into the territory of Moldova and Wallachia. The pretext is the protection of the Slavic population. In response, Turkey declares war on Russia in the fall.
- Until the end of the year, Russia's military operations are successful. It expands its sphere of influence on the Danube, wins victories in the Caucasus, the Russian squadron blocks Turkish ports on the Black Sea.
- Russian victories are causing concern in the west. The situation changes in 1854, when the fleets of England and France enter the Black Sea. Russia declares war on them. After that, European squadrons are sent to blockade Russian ports in the Baltic and Far East... The blockades were demonstrative in nature, the landing attempts ended in failures.
- Russia's successes in Moldova and Wallachia ended under pressure from Austria, which forced the withdrawal Russian army and she herself occupied the Danube principalities. There is a real threat of creating an all-European coalition against Russia. Nicholas I was forced to concentrate his main forces on the western border.
- Meanwhile, Crimea becomes the main arena of the war. The allies blockade the Russian fleet in Sevastopol. Then there is a landing and the defeat of the Russian army on the river. Alma. In the fall of 1854, the heroic defense of Sevastopol begins.
- The Russian army is still gaining victories in the Transcaucasus, but it is already becoming clear that the war is lost.
- By the end of 1855, the besiegers of Sevastopol succeeded in capturing the southern part of the city, which, however, did not lead to the surrender of the fortress. The huge number of casualties forces the allies to abandon further assault attempts. The fighting actually ends.
- In 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which is a black page in the history of Russian diplomacy. Russia was losing the Black Sea fleet and all bases on the Black Sea coast. Only Sevastopol remained in the hands of Russia in exchange for the Turkish fortress Kars captured in the Caucasus.
Results of the Crimean War
- In addition to territorial concessions and losses, Russia suffered a serious moral blow. Having shown its backwardness during the war, Russia was excluded from the ranks of the great powers for long time was no longer perceived as a serious enemy in Europe.
- Nevertheless, the war became a necessary lesson for Russia, exposing all of its shortcomings. An understanding of the need for significant changes has emerged in society. The reforms of Alexander II were a natural consequence of defeat.
CRIMEAN WAR 1853-1856
Causes of the war and the balance of forces. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia took part in the Crimean War. Each of them had their own calculations in this military conflict in the Middle East.
For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the XIX century. Russian diplomacy waged an intense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkiar-Iskelessi treaty was concluded with Turkey. According to it, Russia received the right to freely send its warships through the straits. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all navies. This had a heavy impact on the Russian fleet. He found himself trapped in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military power, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits, to strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.
The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.
England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power, to deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.
The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church was supported by France. The dispute between the clergy grew into a confrontation between these two European states... The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused a sharp discontent in Russia and personally Emperor Nicholas I. A special representative of the tsar, Prince A.S. was sent to Constantinople. Menshikov. He was entrusted with obtaining privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right of patronage for the Orthodox subjects of Turkey. Failure of the mission of A.S. Menshikov was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to yield to the pressure of Russia, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only aggravated conflict situation... Thus, it would seem that it was a private, but important for that time, given the religious feelings of people, the dispute about the Holy Places became the reason for the emergence of the Russian-Turkish, and subsequently the all-European war.
Nicholas I took an irreconcilable position, hoping for the might of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. However, as it turned out in the course of the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smoothbore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies. Artillery is also outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European naval forces were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no well-established communications. This did not make it possible to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight against a similar Turkish army, but could not resist the united forces of Europe.
The course of hostilities. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were sent to Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia in October 1853. He was supported by England and France. Austria has adopted a position of "armed neutrality". Russia found itself in complete political isolation.
The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages. The first - the Russian-Turkish campaign proper - was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. On the second (April 1854 - February 1856), Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.
The main event of the first stage is the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and suppressed the coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. An Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacking Kronstadt and Sveaborg. British ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.
The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the allies began to land an expeditionary corps in the region of Evpatoria. The battle on the r. Alma in September 1854 Russian troops lost. By order of the commander, A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and went to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors from the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for the defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.
In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The garrison of the fortress showed unprecedented heroism. In Sevastopol, admirals V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, lieutenant general of artillery S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.
The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854), the offensive on Evpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, the continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied forces, however, finding there some ruins, they returned to their positions.
In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.
The extreme exhaustion of the allies' forces in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.
The Parisian world. At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from it. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was banned from having naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.
The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation in Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad outcome of the Nikolaev rule, shook the entire Russian public and made the government come to grips with reforming the state.
What you need to know on this topic:
Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. Social structure of the population.
Agricultural development.
The development of Russian industry in the first half of the XIX century. Formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, preconditions, chronology.
Development of waterways and highways. Start of railway construction.
Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country. Palace coup 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. "The days of the Alexandrovs are a wonderful beginning."
The peasant question. The decree "on free farmers". Government measures in the field of education. State activity of M.M. Speransky and his plan of state transformations. Creation of the State Council.
Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Tilsit Peace Treaty.
Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and the beginning of the war. The balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I.Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. The stages of the war. Results and significance of the war.
Foreign campaigns 1813-1814 Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Sacred union.
The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825 Strengthening of conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevshchina. Military settlements.
Foreign policy tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the Union of Salvation and the Union of Prosperity. Northern and Southern Society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are "Russian Truth" by P.I. Pestel and "Constitution" by N.M. Muraviev. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. The uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. The meaning of the Decembrist uprising.
The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening the autocratic power. Further centralization, bureaucratization of the state system in Russia. Strengthening repressive measures. Creation of the III branch. Censorship charter... The era of censorship terror.
Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. The decree "on obliged peasants."
Polish uprising 1830-1831
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the XIX century.
Eastern question. Russian-Turkish war 1828-1829 The problem of straits in the foreign policy of Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century.
Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.
Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes of the war. The course of hostilities. The defeat of Russia in the war. Paris Peace of 1856 International and internal consequences of the war.
Accession of the Caucasus to Russia.
Formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian war... The significance of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.
Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.
Formation of government ideology. The theory of the official nationality. Circles of the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century.
N.V. Stankevich's circle and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen's circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical letter" P.Ya. Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. MV Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" A.I. Herzen.
Socio-economic and political prerequisites for the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century.
Peasant reform... Preparation of the reform. "Regulations" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Nadela. Ransom. Obligations of the peasants. Temporarily liable state.
Zemskaya, judicial, urban reforms. Financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. Censorship rules. Military reforms. The significance of bourgeois reforms.
Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. Social structure of the population.
Industry development. Industrial revolution: essence, preconditions, chronology. The main stages in the development of capitalism in industry.
The development of capitalism in agriculture... Rural community in post-reform Russia. Agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.
Social movement in Russia 50-60s of the XIX century.
Social movement in Russia 70-90s of the XIX century.
The revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the XIX century.
"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Redistribution". The assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. The collapse of "Narodnaya Volya".
Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Strike struggle. The first workers' organizations. The emergence of a work question. Factory legislation.
Liberal populism of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.
Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class". V.I.Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".
Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counterreforms.
Alexander III. Manifesto on the "inviolability" of autocracy (1881). Counter-reform policy. Results and significance of counter-reforms.
The international position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changes in the country's foreign policy program. The main directions and stages of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the XIX century.
Russia in the system of international relations after Franco-Prussian War... Union of three emperors.
Russia and the Eastern Crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. The goals of Russia's policy in the Eastern question. The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: reasons, plans and forces of the parties, the course of hostilities. San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.
Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century Education Triple alliance(1882). Deteriorating relations between Russia and Germany and Austria-Hungary. The conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).
- Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. Russian history: end of XVII- XIX century. ... - M .: Education, 1996.