1. The most significant foreign policy event of the Epoch of the Board of Alexander II became Russian turkish war 1877 - 1878, completed by Russia's victory. As a result of victory in this war:
- Prestige increased and the positions of Russia have strengthened, shaken after Crimean war 1853 - 1856;
- The peoples of the Balkans were liberated from nearly 500-year-old Turkish yoke.
The main factors predetermined Russian-Turkish war 1877 - 1878:
- the growth of the power of Russia as a result of conducted bourgeois reforms;
- the desire to return the positions lost as a result of the Crimean War;
- a change in the international situation in the world due to the advent of a single German state - Germany;
- the increase in the national liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples against Turkish yoke.
On the eve of the war, a significant part of the Balkan peoples (Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians) was located near the Turkish IG, which was the economic exploitation of these peoples, preventing the formation of their statehood and normal independent development, suppressing culture, imposing alien culture and religion (for example, Islamization of Bosnians and parts of Bulgarians). In the mid-1870s. In the Balkans there were widespread discontent with Turkish ig and a high national climb, which Russia as the leading Slavic state, applying to the patronage to all Slavs, ideologically supported. Another factor predetermined the war was the change in the situation in Europe in connection with the emergence of a new strong state in the center of Europe - Germany. Germany, United O. Background Bismarck in 1871 and defeated France during the war of 1870 - 1871, hardly tried to undermine the Anglo-Franco-Turkish system of European domination. This corresponded to the interests of Russia. Taking advantage of the defeat from Prussia France - the main ally of England and the enemy of Russia in the Crimean War, Russia in 1871 was the abolition of a number of conditions of the humiliating Paris Treaty of 1856 as a result of this diplomatic victory The neutral status of the Black Sea was canceled and Russia returned himself the right to restore the Black Sea Fleet.
2. The reason for the new Russian-Turkish war was the antitarying uprising in Bosnia and Serbia in 1875 - 1876. Performing extensive allied obligations to the "fraternal peoples", Russia in April 1877. Announced Turkish War. Turkey, deprived of the help of the main allies - England and France, could not resist Russia:
- Military actions developed for Russia successfully both in Europe and in the Caucasus - the war was a momentous and ended for 10 months;
- Russian army defeated Turkish troops in the battle of Pulve (Bulgaria) and Shipkin's pass;
- Kare, Batum and Ardan in the Caucasus fortresses were taken;
- In February 1878, the Russian army approached Constantinople (Istanbul), and Turkey was forced to ask for peace and go for serious concessions.
3. In 1878, wanting to stop the war, Turkey in a hurry signed a San Stefan peace treaty with Russia. According to this Agreement:
- Turkey provided the complete independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania;
- Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina remained as part of Turkey, but received wide autonomy;
- Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina were obliged to pay Turkey Dan in return to the complete demilitarization of these autonomies - Turkish troops from Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina were displayed, and the Turkish fortresses were destroyed - the actual presence of the Turks in these countries was terminated;
- Russia was returned to Kara and Batum, it was allowed to culturally patronize Bulgarians and Bosnians.
4. The results of the San Stefan peace treaty, a sharply strengthened position of Russia, all leading European countries were unhappy, including the main ally of Russia in Europe of the 1870s. - Germany. In 1878, Berlin Congress on the Balkan settlement was convened in Berlin. The delegation of Russia, Germany, England, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Turkey took part in the Congress. The purpose of the Congress was to develop a pan-European solution for the Balkans. Under the pressure of the leading countries in Europe, Russia was forced to give up and abandon the San Stefan peace treaty. Instead, a Berlin peace treaty was signed, which significantly reduced the results of the victory for Russia. On the Berlin Treaty:
- the territory of the Bulgarian autonomy has decreased by about 3 times;
- Bosnia and Herzegovina occupied by Austria-Hungary and was part of her composition;
- Macedonia and Eastern Romania returned Turkey.
5. Despite Russia's concessions to European countries, win in the war 1877 - 1878. There was a great historical meaning:
- the expulsion of Turkey from the European continent began;
- Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, and in the future - Bulgaria, were released from 500-year-old Turkish yoke and gained independence;
- Russia finally recovered from defeat in the Crimean War;
- the international prestige of Russia and Emperor Alexander II, who received a nickname liberator was restored;
- This war has become the last major Russian-Turkish conflict - Russia finally gained in the Black Sea.
If you say briefly about the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, about the reasons that provoked its beginning, then, first of all, it is worth nameing the cruel oppression of the Christian population of the Balkan territories occupied by the Ottoman Empire and part of it. This happened in the connivance and holding of France and England "Turkophilic" politics, which "closed the eyes" to kill civilians and, in particular, on the wild atrocities of Bashibuzuk.
Prehistory
The attitude of two empires, Russian and Ottoman, since their foundation has undergone a number of significant differences, which led to frequent cruel wars. In addition to the territorial disputes, in particular, behind the territory of the Crimean Peninsula, the prerequisites for conflicts were religious disagreements based on the fact that Russia was the succession of Byzantium, captured and looted by Muslims-Turks, which turned Christian shrines to Muslim. Ride on Russian settlements, the seizure of residents in slavery was often led to military clashes. If we talk briefly, the Russian-Turkish war is 1877-1878. It was provoked by the cruelty and intolerance of the Turks to the Orthodox population.
He contributed to the development of Russian-Turkish disagreements and the position of European states, in particular Britain, who did not want to strengthen Russia, which led to the Ottoman Empire of the tightening policy and oppression of enslaved Christians, mainly Orthodox: Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs and other Balkan Slavs.
Conflict, his background
Events predetermined Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878, briefly can be described as a struggle for the independence of Balkan peoples, mainly Slavic and Orthodox. After the completion of the Crimean War, the Paris Agreement was signed, his article 9 was obliged directly to the Government Ottoman Empire Provide Christians living in its territory equal to the Muslims of the right. But then the Sultan Decision did not go.
The Ottoman Empire, in its essence, could not provide all residents of equality, as evidenced by the events of 1860 in Lebanon and events 1866-1869. On the island of Crete. Balkan Slavs continued to be brutal oppressions.
By that time, a change in domestic political moods to the Turkish question in society occurred in Russia, strengthening the power of the Russian army. Prerequisites for preparing for the Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878 can be summarized in two points. The first is a successful reform in the Russian army, conducted by Alexander II. The second is the policy of rapprochement and union with Prussia, which focused a new chancellor - an outstanding Russian politician Prince A. M. Gorchakov.
The main reasons for the beginning of the war
Briefly the causes of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 can be characterized by two moments. As the struggle of the Balkan peoples with Turkish enslavers and strengthening Russia who wants to help the Slavs brothers in their fair struggle and seeking to take revenge for the lost war of 1853-1856.
The beginning of the Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878 (briefly) served as a summer rebellion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose premises were the unreasonable and exorbitant increase in taxes established by the Turkish government, which at that time was financially insolvent.
In the spring of 1876, for the same reason, an uprising occurred in Bulgaria. When it was suppressed, more than 30 thousand Bulgarians were killed. Special atrocities distinguished the irregular troops of Bashibuzuk. All this became the property of the European Public, which created an atmosphere of sympathy to the Balkan peoples and criticism of his government, which, thanks to silent agreement, contributed to this.
Not a smaller wave of protests rolled through the territory of Russia. The public is concerned about the growth of violence slavic peoples Balkans, expressed his discontent. Thousands of volunteers expressed a desire to assist Serbia and Montenegro, who announced in 1876 by the War of Turkey. The victims defeat from the troops of the port, Serbia requested help from European states, Including Russia. The Turks announced a monthly truce. Let's say briefly: the Russian-Turkish war is 1877-1878. It was predetermined.
Entry into war of Russia
In October, the truce ended, the situation for Serbia became threatening, only the lightning accession of Russia in the war and the opportunity to complete it in one company could restrain England and France from the invasion. These countries, under pressure from the population of the public, make a decision to send their expeditionary buildings to the Balkans. Russia, in turn, conducting meetings with a number of European powers, such as Austria-Hungary, and having enlisted them with neutrality, decides to introduce troops to Turkey's territory.
Russia declares the war of Turkey on 12.04.1877. The Russian troops enter the territory of Romania. The army of this country decides to speak on its side, but performs the decision only in August.
The course of war
Let's try to describe the russian-Turkish war (1877-1878) briefly. In June, Russian troops, having consisting of 185 thousand soldiers, focused on the left bank of the Danube, in the Zimnitsa area. Command of the Russian army led grand Duke Nikolai.
In the Turkish Army opposed Russia, there were more than 200 thousand people, most of which were the garrisons of fortresses. He commanded her Marshal Abdulkerim-Nadir-Pasha.
To promote the Russian army, it was necessary to force the Danube, in which the Turks had military flotilla. By railway Light boats were delivered, who, with minecraft, prevented its action. The troops successfully crossed and switched to the offensive, moving into the depths of the country. The Russian army fell in two directions: in the Caucasus and Balkans. The balkans were paramount, since, capturing Constantinople, it was possible to talk about the exit of Turkey from the war.
The main battle occurred during the transition of the bike pass. In this battle, the Russians won and continued to move towards Constantinople, where in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Pleven fortress they met serious resistance to the Turks sitting in it. And only in November the situation has changed in favor of Russians. Winning in battles, Russia in January 1878 took the city of Andrianopol.
Conclusion of a peace treaty
According to the results of the war, 03/16/1878 signed an agreement in San Stefano. He did not arrange a number of leading countries in Europe led by England. In addition, Britain conducted secret negotiations with Turkey, as a result of which she occupied the island of Cyprus in exchange for the protection of the Turks from the Russians.
As a result of the backstage intrigues, which England was a craftswoman, a Berlin treatise was signed dated July 01, 1878. As a result of his signing, most of the points of the San Stefan treaty were canceled.
Results of war
Let us sum up the results of the Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878. Russia as a result of the war returned the previously lost southern part of Bessarabia and the Kara region populated mainly by Armenians. The territory of the island of Cyprus was occupied by England.
In 1885, the Unified Principality of Bulgaria was formed, after the Balkan wars, the Kingdom of Bulgarian became sovereign. Independence received Serbia, Romania and Montenegro.
War between Turkey and Russia in 1877-1878. It was unleashed as a result of a political crisis that covered Europe in the early 70s of the 19th century.
The main causes and prerequisites of war
In 1875, the uprising against Turkish Sultan broke out in Bosnia and distributed in Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro and Bulgaria for several months. The Turkish army was forced to suppress the Slavic resistance, which brought huge human losses for these states.
The forces of the warring sides were unequal small slavic states They did not possess a professional army nor the material and technical base. To exemplate from Turkish expansion, the help of other, strong states in this way, the Russian Empire was drawn into the conflict.
The Russian government first acted as a referee, trying to try on the parties, however, with the strengthening of the Anti-Slovyan politics of Tupy Sultan, was forced to join the confrontation with the Ottoman Empire.
Military actions in the Turkish War
Russian emperor has tried to pull out all available methods martialctions: The reformation of the army, which began at the end of the 60s, has not yet been completed, the military industry has worked at a low level and there was a sharp deficit of ammunition and weapons.
Despite this, in May 1877, Russia entered into an active military confrontation. The fighting took place at the two theaters of the Transcaucasian and Balkan. In the period of October, the Russian army together with the military forces of Bulgaria and Romania won a number of victories in the Balkan front.
In early 1878, the Allied army was able to overcome the Balkan Mountains and take part of Southern Bulgaria, where decisive fighting were unfolded. Under the leadership of the outstanding general M, D. Skobleva, Russian troops not only kept the large-scale opponent's offensive from all fronts, but in early January 1879 were able to take Adrianopol and go to Constantinople.
Significant progress was achieved in the Transcaucasian front in November 1877, the Russian army assault took the main strategic object of the Ottoman Empire. The defeat of Turkey in the war became apparent.
Mirny Treaty and Berlin Congress
In mid-1878 in the Constantinople suburb of San Stefano, a peace treaty was concluded between the warring parties. According to the contract, the Balkan states received sovereignty and independence from the Ottoman Empire.
The Russian Empire, the Winner's Rights, returned to himself southerly Bessarabia, lost during the Crimean War, and also acquired new military bases in the Caucasus Ardagan, Bayazet, Batum and Kare. Owning these fortresses meant full control of Russia of the Turkish government actions in the Transcaucasian region.
European states could not accept the fact of strengthening positions Russian Empire On the Balkan Peninsula. In the summer of 1878, a congress was convened in Berlin, in which the part of the Russian-Turkish war and European countries took part.
Under the political pressure of Austria, Hungary and England, the Balkan states were forced to abandon the sovereignty of Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina actually turned into a colony of European powers. The Ottoman Empire, the Island of Cyprus provided for the support provided by England.
Summary of the lesson on the history of Russia in grade 8
The date of the: 04/21/2016
Theme lesson: "Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878".
Type of lesson: studying a new material.
Objectives lesson:
1. Note the causes and prerequisites of war; evaluate the forces of the Russian army on the eve of the war; give a characteristic and describe the course of hostilities; consider the main battles of war; analyze and compare the San Stefan Peace Treaty and the Berlin Treaty; call the causes of the victory of the Russian army in the war;
2. To form the skill of students to work with the text of the textbook, with the historical card and media files; analyze historical documents;
3. Rise up a feeling of pride for his country, to instill love for the glorious victories of Russian weapons.
Expected results: in the course of the lesson, students will be able to:
Call the causes and prerequisites of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.
Describe the course of hostilities.
Name the dates of the main battles between Russian and Turkish armies.
Show on the historical map: a) battle points; b) directions of the movement of troops; c) the place of conclusion of the San Stefan peace treaty; d) states such as: Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzogi, Romania.
To conduct an independent search for information, working with textbook text and documents in accordance with the tasks.
Analyze the San Stefan Peace Treaty and the Berlin Agreement.
Call the causes of the victory of the Russian army and tell the results of the war.
Equipment: Danilov A.A., Kososulina L.G. Russian history. the endXVI – XVIII century. Grade 8: studies. For general education institutions. - M.: Enlightenment, 2009; Map "Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878".
Lesson plan
1. Causes and prerequisites for the beginning of the war, the Balkan crisis.
2. The course of hostilities.
3. Conclusion of the San Stefan peace treaty and Berlin Congress.
4. The final results of the war and the cause of the victory of the Russian Empire.
During the classes
Check homework: what topic in the past, we studied?What have you been to the house?
Name the tasks of Russian foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII. .
Name the main directions of Russian foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII. .
Name the results of Russia's foreign policy in all directions.
What is the main outcome of the foreign policy of Russia during the reign of AlexanderII. ?
Introductory word: Today in the lesson we will talk about the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.
Foreign policy Alexander II, §27.
Restoration of the international prestige and the abolition of the conditions of the Parisian world.
European, Caucasian, Central Asian, Far Eastern, Alaska.
In the European direction: the search for an ally, the establishment of friendly relations with Prussia;
In the Caucasian direction: end Caucasian War, accession of occupied territories, suppressing the actions of local tribes and commander;
On Central Asian:
Accession of the Bukhara and Khiva Khanation, the formation of the Turkestan region in the composition of the Russian Empire;
In the Far Eastern direction:
Conclusion of the Aigong and Peking Contracts with China, establishing a clear boundary between Russia and China; establishing the border between Russia and Japan;
Sale of Alaska USA.
Russia was able to regain international prestige and authority, restore the status of the Great Power.
2. Studying a new material.
1) causes and prerequisites of war, the Balkan crisis.
2) The course of combat operations.
3) Conclusion of the San Stefan peace treaty and Berlin Congress.
4) Final results of war. The reasons for the victory of Russia.
What role did Russia play against the Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula?
What was Turkey's policy in this region?
So, in the mid-1970s of the XIX century, the rebellion of religious and ethnic tensions broke out on the basis of religious and ethnic tensions, which was supported by Serbs and Bulgarians, as long as the uprising.
What do you think, could the rebel peoples resist for a long time? Agregate your answer.
Russia speaks in support of the rebel peoples, convenes a number of international conferences on this issue. Russia, Germany and Austria openly urge Turkey to comply with the rights of Christians, to which Turkey responds with refusal. Russia places Turkey an ultimatum that turkish side ignored.
What do you think, was Russia fair to start war in this situation?
The government estimated the forces of the parties in favor of Russia, which made it possible to start the war. Based on the text of the textbook on page 198-199, the second paragraph of the "Start of Military Action" paragraph, answer the following questions:
Was there a Russian army ready for war? What were her main problems?
So, in June 1877, the Russian army crossed through the Danube. At first, the campaign was successful: there was no serious resistance, the ancient Bulgarian capital of Tarnovo was released. Bulgarians actively started to join the rings of militia. Our troops occupied strategically important Shipkin Pass and Nikopol. So, look at the map: After the Shipkin Pass, a straight road to Istanbul opens.
I propose to your attention a video device that will give us an atmosphere of combat battles on a chip. Answer the question:
While our troops fiercely reflected the attacks of the enemy on a pin, in the rear of our troops there was a serious threat: the Turks occupied the plevnu, which our command found a unavailable object. Take a look at the map and answer the question:
What is the position of the Plevna in relation to Russian troops?
Russian troops were besieged by Plevna, took 3 unsuccessful attempts The assault, lost a large number of soldiers and moved to the "right" siege. Turks surrendered only when they ended the supplies.
The forces released from under the planes in November 1877 were thrown to the aid of our troops on the chip.
What was the unusual such course of the Russian command?
The proven reinforcements dropped the Turkish forces from the chips and the attack on Istanbul was developed. From this point on, the result of the war was clear finally. Russian troops have reached the suburbs of Istanbul, Andrianapol. Turks requested a truce. Not far from Istanbul, a peace treaty was concluded in San Stefano. Open the tutorial page 201, find the item "San Stefan Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress "and read the first 2 paragraphs.
So, what were the conditions for this peace treaty?
However, we didn't like such conditions such conditions, and they insisted at the convening of the Berlin Congress, in which Russia was forced to take part. Read the following two paragraphs and write down the conditions of the Berlin Agreement.
How do you see, European countries, afraid of strengthening Russia, tried to crush it at the diplomatic level.
Based on the knowledge lesson received at the current lesson, tell me why Russia won the war?
Russia performed their defender and patroness.
Turkish policy was aimed at oppression of local Christian peoples on religious and ethnic signs.
The rebel peoples did not have the opportunity to resist long, as they did not have strong, combat-ready armies.
Russia rightly began the war, because Turkey did not fulfill the requirements of the international community and continued active actions in the Balkans.
The Russian army was ready for war, positive results I started to give a military reform: the army rearmed, relevantly completed, completed on new principles. The main problem The army was a team composition, which is an old officer school and outdated views of the war.
Record in the notebook to the trace of the teacher, the main information.
Find Shipkin Pass, analyze the nature of the area.
Watch video from x \\ f "Heroes of Shipki".
Heroic, bold, brave.
Plevna was in the rear of Russian troops, creating a serious threat.
The troops did not take to winter apartments and continued the fighting in winter, which was not characteristic of that time.
Read the text of the textbook.
Russia returns South Bessarabia;
The Transcaucasian fortresses of Batum, Kars, Ardagan joined;
Serbia, Montenegro and Romania have gained independence;
Bulgaria received autonomy;
Read the text of the textbook
Section of Bulgaria;
Cut off the territory of Serbian Montenegro;
The acquisitions of Russia in the Transcaucasia are reduced.
Military reform began to give positive results; profitable for Russia the balance of forces; the courage and heroism of warriors; high level patriotism in all society; Support for the local population.
3. Fastening.
Name the importance of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 for Russia.
Analyze the information obtained during the lesson, determine the importance of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 for Russia.
Analyze their work in a lesson with tables, raise an assessment.
2 - unsatisfactory;
3 - satisfactory;
4 - good;
5 - excellent.
5. Evaluation of results and home assignment.
Set and commenting marks. Verbal estimate of the class activity as a whole.
Instructions for performing homework.
Recording homework: comparative analysis San Stefan peace treaty and Berlin Agreement in writing.
Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 - the largest event in xIX history century, which provided a significant religious and bourgeois-democratic influence on the Balkan people. The large-scale military actions of the Russian and Turkish army were the struggle for justice and were of great importance for both peoples.
Causes of the Russian-Turkish War
Military actions were due to Turkey's failure to stop the battle battles in Serbia. But one of the main reasons for the emergence of the war in 1877 was the exacerbation of the Eastern Question, associated with an antitururek uprising, which broke out in 1875 in Bosnia and Herzegovina due to the permanent oppression of the Christian population.
The next reason that had a special meaning for the Russian people was the goal of Russia to enter the international political level And to support the Balkan people in the national liberation movement against Turkey.
The main battles and events of the war 1877-1878
In the spring of 1877, the battle took place in the Transcaucasus, as a result of which the bayazet and ardagan fortress were captured by the Russians. And in the autumn in the vicinity of Kars, a decisive battle was held and the main point of the concentration of Turkish defense Avalius was broken down and the Russian army (a significantly changed after the military reforms Alexander 2) moved to Erzurum.
In June 1877 russian army, the number of 185 thousand people led by the brother of Tsar Nikolai became the beginning of the transition through the Danube and went to the offensive against the Turkish army, which consisted of 160 thousand people who were in Bulgaria. The battle with the Turkish army took place in the transition of Shipkinsky pass. For two days, a brutal struggle was conducted, which ended with the victory of Russians. But already on July 7, on the way to Constantinople, the Russian people faced the serious resistance of the Turks who took the fortress of the Pleum and do not want to leave it. After two attempts, the Russians threw this idea and suspended movement through the Balkans, taking a position on the chip.
And only by the end of November the situation has changed in favor of the Russian people. The weak troops of the Turks surrendered, and the Russian army continued the way, defeating in battles and joined Andrianopol in January 1878. As a result of strong onslaught of the Russian Army, the Turks were sent to the retreat.
Results of war
On February 19, 1878, a San Stefan agreement was signed, the conditions of which were made by Bulgaria by the autonomous Slavic principality, and Montenegro, Serbia and Romania became independent powers.
In the summer of the same year, the Berlin Congress took place with the participation of six states, according to the results of which South Bulgaria remained to belong to Turkey, but the Russians still achieved that Varna and Sophia are attached to Bulgaria. The question was also resolved on the reduction of the territory of Montenegro and Serbia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina by decision of the Congress fell under the Occupulation of Austria-Hungary. England received the right to bring the army to Cyprus.
Berlin Congress 1878
Berlin Congress 1878, International Congress, convened (June 13 - July 13) on the initiative of Austria-Hungary and England in order to revise the San Stefan Treaty 1878. ended with the signing of the Berlin Treatment, the terms of which were largely to the detriment of Russia, which had in the Berlin Congress In isolation. According to Berlin Treatise, the independence of Bulgaria was proclaimed, an Eastern Rumelia region was formed with administrative governments, the independence of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania was recognized, Kars, Ardagan and Batum are attached to Russia, and T. Turkey was obliged to implement reforms in their populated by Armenians of low-apiance (in Western Armenia), as well as provide for all its subjects freedom of conscience and equality in civil rights. Berlin treatise is an important international document, the main provisions of which retained its strength to the Balkan wars 1912-13. But, leaving a nonresserving a number of nodal issues (National Association of Serbs, Macedonian, Greek-Crytsky, Armenian issues, etc.). Berlin Treath prepared the soil for the emergence of World War 1914-18. In an effort to draw the attention of European countries participating in the Berlin Congress to the position of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, to include the Armenian issue on the agenda of the Congress and to fulfill the implementation of the Turkish government of the reforms promised under the San Stefan Treaty, the Armenian political circles of Constantinople were sent to Berlin to the National Delegation led by M. Chimina (see Mkrtich I Vanetsi), however, was not allowed to take part in the work of the Congress. The Delegation was a Congress project of the self-government of Western Armenia and addressed to the states of the Memorandum, which were also not taken into account. The Armenian question was discussed at the Berlin Congress at meetings on July 4 and July 6 in the situation of the collision of two points of view: the RUSSIAN delegation required the reforms before the withdrawal of Russian troops from Western Armenia, and the English delegation, relying on the English-Russian Agreement on May 30, 1878, according to which Russia has pledged to return Turkey Alashkert Valley and Bayazet, and the Secret English-Turkish Convention of June 4 (see the Cyprus Convention 1878), in Croes, England pledged to resist Russia's military funds in the Armenian regions of Turkey, sought not to determine the question of reforms by the presence of Russian troops. In the end, the Berlin Congress adopted the English version of Article 16 of the San Stefan Treaty, which as article 61 entered the Berlin treatise in the following wording: "The brilliant port undertakes to implement, without further slowing, improve and reforms caused by local needs in areas of Armenians inhabited by Armenians, And ensure their safety from Circass and Kurds. It will periodically report the measures taken by it for this purpose, powers that will be observed for their application "(" Collection of Russia's treaties with other states. 1856-1917 ", 1952, p. 205). Thus, a more or less real guarantee of the implementation of Armenian reforms was eliminated (the presence of Russian troops in Armenian settlements) and it was replaced by unreal general guarantee Observations from the maintenance of the reforms. According to Berlin Treatise, the Armenian question from the domestic issue of the Ottoman Empire has become an international issue, becoming the subject of mercenary policies of imperialist states and world diplomacy, which had the fatal consequences for the Armenian people. Along with this, the Berlin Congress was a turning stage in the history of the Armenian issue and stimulated the Armenian liberation movement in Turkey. In Armenian socio-political circles, disappointed in European diplomacy, the conviction is that the liberation of Western Armenia from Turkish Iga is possible only by armed struggle.
48. Contreforms Alexander III
After the murder of Tsar Alexander 2, his son Alexander 3 entered the throne (1881-1894). Shocked by the violent death of his father, fearing the strengthening of revolutionary manifestations, at the beginning of his reign he hesitated in choosing a political course. But, having occurred under the influence of the initiators of the reactionary ideology, K.P. Pobedonosseva and D.A. Tolstoy, Alexander 3, gave political priorities to preservation of autocracy, insulation castling, traditions and the foundations of Russian society, dislike for liberal transformations.
An only pressure of the public could affect the politics of Alexander 3. However, after the brutal murder of Alexander 2, the expected revolutionary lift did not happen. Moreover, the killing of the king of the reformer, Society from the People, showing the meaninglessness of terror, strengthened police repressions finally changed the balance in public situation in favor of conservative forces.
Under these conditions, it was possible to turn to counterflows in the policy of Alexander 3. This clearly marked in Manifesto, published on April 29, 1881, in which the emperor declared his will to maintain the courts of autocracy and thus eliminated the hopes of democrats for the transformation of the regime in constitutional monarchy - We will not describe Alexander 3 reforms in the table, and instead we describe them in more detail.
Alexander III Replaced in the government of liberal figures on supporters of a rigid course. The concept of counter-reviews was developed by its main ideologue of K.N.Pobedonostsev. He argued that liberal reforms of the 60s led to shocks in society, and the people, remaining without a guardianship, became lazy and Dick; Calling back to the traditional basics of National Being.
To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of Zemsky self-government was changed. In the hands of the Zemsky bosses joined the judicial and administrative power. They had an unlimited power over the peasants.
In 1890, "Regulations on Zemstvo institutions" increased the role of the nobility in Zemstvo institutions and the control of the administration for them. The representative office of landowners in the deposits by introducing high property values \u200b\u200bincreased significantly.
Seeing the main threat to the existing system represented by the intelligentsia, the emperor to strengthen the positions of the faithful nobility and bureaucracy in 1881 issued "Regulations on measures to conservation state security and public peace ", which provided numerous repressive rights to the local administration (declare a state of emergency, send without trial, betray the military court, close educational establishments). This law was used up to reforms of 1917 and became a tool for combating revolutionary and liberal movement.
In 1892, a new "city situation" was published, which suffered independence of urban self-government bodies. The government has included them in general System public institutions, thereby putting controls.
An important direction of his policy Alexander Third considered the strengthening of the peasant community. In the 80s, the process of liberation of peasants from the community is outlined, which prevented their free movement and initiative. Alexander 3 by law 1893 banned the sale and pledge of peasant lands, minimizing all the successes of previous years.
In 1884, Alexander was undertaken by university counterformation, the purpose of which was to raise the obedient authorities of the intelligentsia. The new university charter sharply limited the autonomy of universities, putting them under the control of the trustees.
Under Alexandra 3, the development of factory legislation began, which restrained the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of struggle workers for their rights.
The results of Alexander's counterposses are contradictory: the country managed to achieve industrial lifting, to resist participation in wars, but at the same time social excitements and tensions increased.