56. Foreign policy ussr in post-war period. "Cold War".
In the post-war period, the USSR and the Western powers moved from cooperation to confrontation. The era of the "cold war" began - the ideological, political confrontation between the capitalist and socialist systems. The leaders of the Western powers tried to prevent the expansion of the USSR's sphere of influence in the countries of central and southeastern Europe. The USSR, in turn, sought to strengthen its position in these countries, helping to carry out transformations according to the Soviet model of "state socialism". The confrontation of systems was especially pronounced in the confrontation between the 2 superpowers - the USSR and the USA. It included such actions as: military-political pressure, threats and blackmail; the creation of military bases and blocs; ideological propaganda.
1946 - Churchill's Fulton speech, beginning of the Cold War.
1947 - Marshall Plan: providing urgent financial and economic assistance to European countries, subject to the removal of communists from governments - the countries of Eastern Europe abandoned this plan. In 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, formalizing the military alliance of the United States and 11 Western countries (NATO) . 1949 - the division of Germany into the GDR and the FRG (1961 - the Berlin Wall).
In 1946 - 1949. with the direct participation of the USSR in Albania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, China, communist governments came to power. Romania, Czechoslovakia, East Germany. One of the reasons for its creation was the Western countries' boycott of relations with the states of Eastern Europe. The refusal of the Yugoslav leader I. Broz Tito to submit to the plans of the USSR to unite Yugoslavia and Bulgaria into a Balkan federation led to a break in Soviet-Yugoslav relations.
In the face of a military threat in 1955, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia created a military alliance - the Warsaw Treaty Organization. In 1945, the United States tested atomic weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1949, the USSR tested the atomic bomb, 1955USSR tested a hydrogen bomb Korean War (1950-1953) - a conflict between parts of Korea, divided after WW 2 into two parts, the United States supported South Korea, the USSR and China supported the North. Result: Minor territorial concessions in favor of the Republic of Korea (South).
Results: the positions of the USSR on the world stage have strengthened, but the policy of confrontation between East and West has contributed to the growth of tension in the world.
57. Soviet society in 1953-1964 Political and economic transformations. After Stalin's death, Malenkov, Beria and Khrushchev became the most influential political figures in the leadership. The balance was extremely unstable, each of the contenders for power sought to seize it in his own way. Beria - through control over the bodies and troops of state security. Malenkov - declaring his desire to pursue a popular policy of improving the welfare of the people. Objectively, the situation was favorable for Khrushchev. For many years, Khrushchev treated Stalin with genuine adoration, taking everything he said as the highest truth. Stalin trusted Khrushchev, nominating him to positions of responsibility in Moscow and Ukraine. Being in high positions, Khrushchev was involved in Stalin's repressions, signed sentences, denounced "traitors". And now it was Khrushchev who took the initiative to unite the members of the leadership for an action against Beria. By cunning, by threats that he would not spare anyone, he got his way. In mid-June 1953, at one of the meetings chaired by Malenkov, Khrushchev made accusations against Beria of careerism and nationalism. In September 1953N. S. Khrushchev was elected First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, L. P. Beria is arrested,
The State Security Committee was created. On the initiative of N. S. Khrushchev and under his personal control, the Gulag was liquidated. Rehabilitation began: millions of innocently repressed people got the opportunity to return home. It was a great humanistic act, an important step in the process of de-Stalinization of Soviet society. Thaw. The 20th Congress of the CPSU (1956) - the liberalization of social and political life, the Central Committee of the CPSU adopted a resolution on overcoming the personality cult of Stalin and its consequences. Criticism of the personality cult of I. V. Stalin began in the press.
In the second half of the 50s: a reform of the justice system was carried out, new criminal legislation was approved. In 1957, Malenkov, Molotov, and Kaganovich were expelled from the party for speaking out against Khrushchev, and the cult of N. S. Khrushchev grew. In 1957, the autonomy of the Karachay, Balkar, Kalmyk, and Chechen peoples was restored. At the 22nd Congress of the CPSU in October 1961, a new program of the CPSU was approved, proclaiming the transition to "full-scale communist construction", Stalin was removed from the mausoleum. After Khrushchev's resignation, the exposure of Stalin's personality cult ended.
N. S. Khrushchev considered the rise of agriculture to be the main task: purchase prices for collective farm and rural products were increased. Financing of agriculture increased.
In 1956 introduced new system taxation (per unit of land area)
Since 1954, the development of virgin lands began (Southern Urals, Siberia, Kazakhstan)
The totality of economic measures made it possible to achieve success in the development of agricultural production. The growth of agricultural products amounted to 34%. The process of merging collective farms into state farms began.
Since 1964, collective farmers have received passports (powers of a citizen).
In 1959, a decision was made to grow corn in the USSR; it was planted even beyond the Arctic Circle. The result: the sown areas for rye and wheat were reduced, the yield of corn was low, the crisis, the drought of 1963. The result of ill-considered actions was the purchase of grain abroad. Thousands of large industrial enterprises were built in industry. New industries developed: radio engineering, rocket science.
Social politics: Purpose: to raise the standard of living of the population
1) pensions have been increased by 2 times 2) the minimum wage has increased, the issuance of state loans bonds has been stopped, housing construction has begun, in 10 years the housing stock has grown by 80%, mass migration from barracks, basements in an apartment.
Since 1960, the working week has been shortened by 2 hours on Saturdays and pre-holiday days.
Education reform: universal 8-year education, 10-year education in the cities, and separate education in schools has been abolished. Created vocational schools (for those who completed 8 classes)
Public life has changed: the beginning of the space age: October 4, 1957 the first satellite, 1961 flight of Gagarin, Tereshkova, Leonov; opening of new theaters, magazines, research institutes
Foreign policy 1961 - the Berlin Wall was erected, 1962 - the Caribbean (Cuban) crisis. The Americans installed missiles in Turkey aimed at the USSR. The USSR agreed with Cuba on the deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba. The United States demanded that the missiles be removed from Cuba. As a result, the rockets were removed. Only direct negotiations between US President John F. Kennedy and N. S. Khrushchev helped prevent an international conflict (possible World War 3)
58. Trends in socio-economic and political development Soviet society in 1965-1985 With the resignation of N. S. Khrushchev, the process of liberalization of socio-political life was completed, the transformations he had begun were completed. Stagnation. Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev (1964-1982) became General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. A. N. Kosygin (1964-80), who previously headed the Ministry of Light and Textile Industry, was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers. At that time, two trends of further development were identified in the leadership of the country. Some of the leaders considered it necessary to continue the reformist course in the economy and the liberalization of social and political life, but within the framework of the existing system, others were in favor of a conservative path. As a result, a moderately conservative course was formed, in which tendencies to move away from de-Stalinization prevailed, the concept of "developed socialism" was developed as a long stage in improving socialism on the path to building communism. The idea of a communist perspective became more distant in time. In the development of socio-political life, 2 trends were clearly traced: democratic and anti-democratic. The powers of local Soviets were expanded, public associations from representatives of various categories of the population operated under them, but the ratio of the social composition of the Soviets was determined by the party.
In 1964, the industrial and rural party organizations merged, and censorship was tightened. 1965 - planning reform, management of industry and construction. Reasons: low rates economic development, crisis in agriculture. The purpose of the reform was to strengthen economic leverage, expand the independence of the self-supporting link of enterprises, and improve central planning.
It was proposed: 1) evaluation of the work of enterprises not by gross output, but by realized and received profits. 2) reducing the number of planned indicators from 20 to 53) strengthening the economic calculation of enterprises, maintaining at their disposal a greater share of the profits that should have been spent on material incentives for workers, housing construction, and technical renovation of production. By the beginning of the 70s, the reform gave good results: 1970 was the best in all post-war years, national income grew by 45%, industrial output by 30%, the Volga Automobile Plant was opened in Togliatti, mass production of the Zhiguli car began. A developed social society was built, improvement began. Gradually, the reform was abandoned, the reasons: opposition from Brezhnev and the party apparatus, distrust of the reform from the ministries, the beginning of the development of the oil and gas industry .; Rebellion against socialism in Czechoslovakia.
A new constitution was adopted in 1977. It contained an article declaring the CPSU "the leading and guiding force of Soviet society, the core of its political system." It is called the Constitution of developed socialism. Lack of publicity on important state issues. and public position Relatively comfortable living in the 70-80s of the USSR allowed oil dollars (dollars received as a result of oil exports) In 1978-1985, the pace of economic development decreased, in agriculture it was not possible to reverse the negative trend. Collective farm prices have risen. products. In 1982, a food program was adopted, which failed, in some regions cards were introduced.
In the economic field, there were the following problems: 1) the inefficiency of centralized planned management 2) the pressure of the Military-Industrial Complex on the entire national economy 3) the backlog in the scientific, technical and technological process 4) the tendency to slow down the growth of the main planned development indicators National economy 5) the residual principle of allocating funds for social needs 6) the inability of the country's leadership to assess the urgent changes and take adequate measures
AT public life The exposure of Stalin's personality cult was stopped. In 1965, at the celebration of 20 years of victory in the Second World War, Stalin was first called a great political figure, from that moment only positive things are said about Stalin - neo-Stalinism. A movement of dissidents arose - people who openly expressed their Political Views, which differed significantly from the communist ideology and practice that prevailed in society and the state, for which many of the dissidents were persecuted by the authorities.Yu. V. Andronov General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU1982 - Feb. 1984
KU Chernenko General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Feb. 1984 - Feb. 1985
Perestroika. Socio-political crisis and the collapse of the USSR (1985-1991)
MS Gorbachev, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU (March 1985 - August 1991), set about renewing socialism, wanted to combine socialism and democracy.
April 1985 - reform program, keyword "Acceleration". Everything had to be accelerated: the development of the means of production, social. sphere, the work of production, the work of party organs, as well as scientific and technological progress, the human factor. Task 1: the accelerated development of mechanical engineering, which provided the basis for the re-equipment of the entire national economy. Task 2: the program to give each family an apartment or a house (failed).
1985-1986 - the fight against violations of industrial discipline, corruption 1985-1988 - anti-alcohol company, increased mortality due to poisoning with underground alcohol.
April 1986 disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. The results of the acceleration policy: budget losses, exacerbation of the situation in the social. sphere. 1987 - the concept of acceleration is changed to perestroika (a broader concept, including perov.) Restructuring not only the economy, but also the reform of the political system, ideology. Purpose: to save socialism from certain shortcomings. New political thinking and glasnost are being introduced. NPM - recognition of the priority of universal human values over class ones, de-ideologization of interstate relations, disarmament, joint solution of global problems of our time. In 1987, an agreement was signed with the United States on the elimination of intermediate and shorter-range missiles. 1989 - reduction of strategic offensive weapons, withdrawal Soviet troops from Afghanistan. MS Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize. Glasnost is an open discussion of topical problems of our time.
1987 – economic reform, the transition from administrative to economic methods of production management, the rights of enterprises were expanded, they could enter the foreign market. enterprises were given broad powers. The directive state plan was replaced by the state order. In 1988, a law on cooperation and individual labor activity was adopted. In the summer of 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the transition to a regulated market economy. The program assumed state control over the emerging private sector. But still, most of the problems were not resolved, which caused social protests. July 1988 - 19th party conference, reform watered. systems. political goal perestroika, the transfer of power from the CPSU to the Soviets was proclaimed. For the first time, they started talking about the creation of a legal state and civil society. In 1989, the Congress of People's Deputies was established, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR was formed - the highest legislative body, chairman M. S. Gorbachev. Deputies formed an interregional group headed by B. N. Yeltsin and A. Sobchak. The united camp of supporters of perestroika split into two streams: political and national radicalism.
The collapse of the USSR: The inability of the central government to cope with economic problems caused growing discontent in the republics: 1986 - demonstrations in Alma-Ata (Kazakhstan), armed clashes on the basis of interethnic conflicts became more frequent. Parade of sovereignties: 1988 - Estonia adopted a declaration of sovereignty, 1989 - Latvia, Lithuania, Azerbaijan, 1990 - Moldova. 06/12/90 I Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR adopted a declaration on the sovereignty of Russia, B. N. Yeltsin became the first president. Russia decided to be the first to move to the market.
The 3rd Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR (March 1990) called these decisions unilateral, having no political force. The congress passed a law on the order of exit union republics from the USSR, a form of presidential government was introduced, M.S. was elected the first president of the USSR. Gorbachev. The congress canceled Article 6 of the Constitution, which legislated the leading role of the CPSU in society and the state. A multi-party system is being formed under the slogan "no communism and socialism", all for liberalism. The CPSU recognized the expediency of the transition to a market economy with an extensive system of protection for the population.
The 4th Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR spoke in favor of preserving the USSR and transforming it into a democratic federal state. An all-Union referendum was held, 76.4% of the population said yes to the union. In May 1991, M. S. Gorbachev negotiated with the leaders of 9 union republics on a new union treaty, comprehensive changes began, this deepened the split in society: people feared that the economic crisis would intensify. 08/19/91 MS Gorbachev was removed from power, a state of emergency was introduced, the GKChP (State Committee for the State of Emergency) was created, their task was to restore the USSR. Troops were brought into Moscow, a curfew was established. Russian President Boris N. Yeltsin regarded these actions as an unconstitutional attempt by the state. coup undertaken by the elite of the old bureaucratic apparatus in order to stop the democratic renewal of society and return to totalitarianism. On August 22, 1991, members of the State Emergency Committee were arrested, and the activities of the CPSU were banned.
December 8, 1991. Belovezhskaya Pushcha: Leaders of RussiaB. N. Yeltsin, UkraineL. M. Kravchuk, BelarusS. S. Shushkevich announced the termination of the union treaty of 1922 and signed an agreement on the creation of the CIS, a union of independent states. On December 21, 8 more states joined the Almatek CIS, all the republics of the USSR began to be present in the CIS, except for Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Georgia.
USSR IN THE POST-WAR YEARS (1945–1953)
Foreign policy of the USSR and international relations in the post-war world. "Cold War"
Decisive contribution Soviet Union and its peoples in the victory of the anti-Hitler coalition over fascism led to major changes in the international arena.
The borders of the USSR expanded significantly, it included part East Prussia, renamed the Kaliningrad region, the southern part of about. Sakhalin and Kurile Islands and a number of other areas.
The world prestige of the USSR as one of the victorious countries in the fight against fascism increased, it was again perceived as a great power. The influence of our state in Eastern Europe and in China was predominant. In the second half of the 1940s. communist regimes were formed in these countries. This was largely due to the presence of Soviet troops on their territories and the large financial assistance from the USSR.
But gradually the contradictions between the former allies in World War II began to worsen. The parties did not trust each other. So, at one of the meetings with I.V. Stalin Marshal S.M. Budyonny declared it a big mistake that the Red Army stopped on the Elbe and did not move further into Western Europe, although militarily, in his opinion, this was not difficult.
The Americans were not far behind. In the autumn of 1945, a memorandum was drawn up in the US Joint Chiefs of Staff, which planned an atomic attack on 20 cities of the USSR "not only in the event of an upcoming Soviet attack, but also when the level of industrial and scientific development countries will give the opportunity to attack the United States ... "
“The Russians,” US President Harry Truman wrote on January 5, 1946, to Secretary of State D. Byrnes, “should show an iron fist and speak with strong language. I think we should not now make any compromises with them.”
The speech "Muscles of the World" by W. Churchill at Westminster College in the US city of Fulton on March 5, 1946, became the manifesto of the confrontation, where he called on Western countries to fight "the expansion of totalitarian communism."
In Moscow, this speech was perceived as a political challenge. March 14, 1946 I.V. Stalin sharply replied to W. Churchill in the newspaper Pravda, noting: "that, in fact, Mr. Churchill is now in the position of warmongers." The confrontation intensified even more, and the cold war broke out on both sides (diagram 233).
Scheme 233
Then the initiative to develop confrontational actions in line with " cold war"passes over to the United States. In February 1947, President G. Truman, in his annual message to the US Congress, proposed specific measures against the spread of Soviet influence, which included large-scale economic assistance to Europe, the formation of a military-political alliance under the leadership of the United States, and the deployment of American military bases along Soviet borders, as well as providing support to opposition movements in Eastern Europe.
An important milestone in American expansion was the program of economic assistance to countries affected by Nazi aggression, proclaimed on June 5, 1947 at Harvard University by US Secretary of State J. Marshall. The paradox was that the Soviet Union was not included in this plan, since it was believed that it had a positive foreign economic balance.
In addition, the examination of the "Marshall Plan", made for the top Soviet leadership by Academician E.S. Varga, stated that it was unprofitable for the Soviet Union, not so much economically as politically. Moscow defiantly refused to participate in the "Marshall Plan" and put pressure on the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, forcing them to do the same.
The Kremlin's original response to the "Marshall Plan" was the creation in September 1947 of the Information Bureau of the Communist Parties (Cominform) with the aim of strengthening control over the communist movement in the world and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Cominform focused only on the Soviet model of the formation of socialism, condemning the earlier concepts of "national paths to socialism." In 1947–1948 at the suggestion of the Soviet leadership in the countries of Eastern Europe, a series of revelations took place against a number of party and state leaders accused of sabotage and deviations from the agreed line of socialist construction.
In 1948, relations between the USSR and Yugoslavia sharply worsened. The head of this state I.B. Tito strove for leadership in the Balkans and put forward the idea of creating a Balkan federation under the leadership of Yugoslavia, due to his own ambitions and authority, he refused to act under the dictates of I.V. Stalin. Cominform in June 1948 issued a resolution on the situation in the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, accusing its leaders of departing from the Marxist-Leninist ideology. Further, the conflict deepened, which led to the rupture of all relations between the two countries.
Refusing to participate in the implementation of the "Marshall Plan", the countries of Eastern Europe, on the initiative of the Soviet Union, created in January 1949 their own international economic organization - the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). Its main tasks were material support for the countries of the pro-Soviet bloc, as well as their economic integration. All activities of the CMEA were based on planning and directive principles and were permeated with the recognition political leadership USSR in the socialist camp (diagram 234).
In the late 1940s - early 1960s. the confrontation between the USSR and the USA intensified in Europe and Asia.
As part of the implementation of the "Marshall Plan" on the initiative of the United States on April 4, 1949, a military-political alliance was created - the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which included the United States, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, Iceland. Later, Turkey and Greece (1952) and the FRG (1955) joined NATO.
An acute problem remained the confrontation in Germany occupied by the Allied forces, in which the country was being divided into two parts: western and eastern. In September 1949, from the western zones of occupation was formed federal Republic Germany, and in October of the same year in the Soviet zone - the German Democratic Republic.
Scheme 234
On the Far East in 1950–1953 The Korean War broke out between the North and South, which became almost an open military clash between the opposing blocs. The Soviet Union and China provided political, material and human assistance to North Korea, and the United States to South Korea. The war went on with varying success. As a result, none of the parties managed to achieve a decisive military advantage. In July 1953, peace was established in Korea, but the country remained split into two states, which have survived to this day.
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The results of the Second World War radically changed the balance of power in the world:
1) the USSR became one of the leading world powers, without which not a single issue of international life was now resolved;
2) at the same time, the dominance and power of the United States increased during the war years, which allowed the American administration already in the 40s. start moving away from the agreements of the war period.
All this led to the fact that a period of sharp cooling set in in Soviet-American relations, the beginning of the "cold war" was laid.
The Soviet Union was concerned about the US nuclear monopoly, their attempt to dictate in relations with other countries. At the same time, the United States was alarmed by the great growth of the prestige of the USSR in Europe and throughout the world.
The US administration in 1947 adopted the "Marshall Plan", the essence of which was to revive the Western European economy through the provision of financial assistance and the latest technologies from across the ocean. Such assistance was not provided to those regimes where the communist parties had influence. The desire of Western European countries and the United States to ensure political stability and military security resulted in the formation of the NATO bloc in 1949.
At the same time, the following activities were carried out in the countries of Eastern Europe:
1) in the countries occupied by the Soviet troops, a socio-political system developed, similar to the Stalinist model of state socialism;
2) the formation of friendly political regimes in Eastern Europe was the main goal of the foreign policy of the Soviet leadership in the first post-war years;
3) in 1945-1948. The USSR concluded bilateral agreements with Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania and Yugoslavia;
4) a military bloc of socialist states was created - the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD);
5) an economic association was created - the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA).
After World War II began collapse of the world colonial system. The USSR used it to establish its influence in a number of countries liberated from colonial dependence on almost all continents - in Asia, Africa, and later in Latin America. This was successfully facilitated by the international image of the Soviet Union and its opposition to the former colonial powers.
A bipolar world was formed, in which the camp of the capitalist countries led by the USA and the socialist camp led by the USSR were in a state of confrontation. The rivalry of countries, called the "cold war", manifested itself not only in the military-technical field, but also in the spheres of economy and culture.
Relations between the USA and the USSR became especially aggravated during the war in Korea (1950-1953). During the war, the USSR and China supported the pro-communist forces, and the United States - their opponents. As a result of the war, the country was divided into two states: North and South Korea.
FOREIGN POLICY OF THE USSR IN THE POST-WAR PERIOD. THE BEGINNING OF THE COLD WAR
USSR in the post-war world. The defeat of Germany and its satellites in the war radically changed the balance of power in the world. The USSR has become one of the leading world powers, without which, according to Molotov, not a single issue of international life should now be resolved.
However, during the war years, the power of the United States grew even more. Their gross national product rose by 70%, and the economic and human losses were minimal. Having become an international creditor during the war years, the United States got the opportunity to expand its influence on other countries and peoples. President Truman declared in 1945 that the victory in World War II "brought the American people to the task of ruling the world." The gradual departure of the American administration from the wartime agreements began.
All this led to the fact that instead of cooperation in Soviet-American relations, a period of mutual distrust and suspicion set in. The Soviet Union was worried about the US nuclear monopoly, attempts to dictate terms in relations with other countries. America saw a threat to its security in the growing influence of the USSR in the world. All this led to the start of the Cold War.
Beginning of the Cold War."Cooling" began almost with the last volleys of the war in Europe. Three days after the victory over Germany, the United States announced the cessation of supplies to the USSR military equipment and not only stopped its shipment, but also returned American ships with such supplies that were already off the coast of the Soviet Union.
After the successful testing of nuclear weapons by the Americans, Truman's position became even tougher. The United States gradually departed from the agreements already reached during the war years. In particular, it was decided not to divide the defeated Japan into zones of occupation (only American units were introduced into it). This alarmed Stalin, pushing him to increase his influence on those countries on whose territory Soviet troops were at that time. In turn, this led to an increase in the suspicion of leaders Western countries. It intensified even more in connection with the sharp increase in the number of communists in these countries (their number from 1939 to 1946 was Western Europe tripled).
Former Prime Minister of England W. Churchill accused the USSR of "limitless expansion of its power and its doctrines" in the world. Truman soon proclaimed a program of measures to "save" Europe from Soviet expansion (the "Truman Doctrine"). He offered to provide large-scale economic assistance to the countries of Europe (the conditions for providing this assistance were later set out in the "Marshall Plan"); create a military-political union of Western countries under the auspices of the United States (it was the NATO bloc created in 1949); deploy a network of American military bases along the borders of the USSR; to support internal opposition in the countries of Eastern Europe; use conventional weapons and nuclear weapons to blackmail the Soviet leadership. All this was supposed not only to prevent further expansion of the sphere of influence of the USSR (the doctrine of containment of socialism), but also to force the Soviet Union to withdraw into its former borders (the doctrine of the rejection of socialism).
Stalin announced these plans as a call to war against the USSR. Since the summer of 1947, Europe has been divided into allies of two superpowers - the USSR and the USA. The formation of economic and military-political structures of the East and West began.
Formation of the "socialist camp". VKP(b) and the communist movement. By this time, communist governments existed only in Yugoslavia, Albania and Bulgaria. However, since 1947 the process of their formation has been accelerated in other countries of "people's democracy": Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia. In the same year, a pro-Soviet regime was established in North Korea. In October 1949, the Communists came to power in China. The political dependence of these countries on the USSR was provided not so much by the military presence of Soviet troops (they were far from being in all countries of "people's democracy"), but by huge material assistance. For 1945-1952 the amount of only long-term concessional loans to these countries amounted to 15 billion rubles. (3 billion dollars).
In 1949, the economic foundations of the Soviet bloc were formalized. For this purpose, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was created. For military-political cooperation, a Coordinating Committee was first created, and then, already in 1955, the Warsaw Pact Organization.
After the war, the Communists were in power not only in the people's democracies, but also in a number of large Western countries. This reflected the great contribution that the left forces made to the defeat of fascism.
Since the summer of 1947, in the conditions of the emerging final break between the USSR and the West, Stalin tried to reunite the Communists organizationally different countries. Instead of the Comintern, which was abolished in 1943, the Cominform was formed in September 1947. He was given the task of "exchanging experience" between the communist parties. However, in the course of this "exchange" "studies" of entire parties began, which, from Stalin's point of view, did not act energetically enough against the United States and its allies. The communist parties of France, Italy and Yugoslavia were the first to receive such criticism.
Then the struggle against "opportunism" began in the ruling communist parties of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Albania. Most often, this concern for the "cleanliness of the ranks" resulted in a settling of scores, a struggle for power in the party leadership. As a result, this led to the death of thousands of communists in the countries of Eastern Europe.
All those leaders of the countries of the "socialist camp" who had their own opinion on the ways of building a new society were declared enemies. Only the leader of Yugoslavia, I. B. Tito, escaped this fate. However, relations between the USSR and Yugoslavia were severed. After that, none of the leaders of the countries of Eastern Europe spoke of "different paths" to socialism.
Korean War. The most serious clash between the USSR and the USA was the war in Korea. After the withdrawal of Soviet (in 1948) and American (in 1949) troops from Korea (which had been there since the end of World War II), the governments of both South and North Korea intensified preparations for the unification of the country by force.
On June 25, 1950, referring to the provocations of the South, the DPRK launched an offensive with a huge army. On the fourth day, the troops of the North occupied the capital of the southerners, Seoul. There was a threat of complete military defeat South Korea. Under these conditions, the United States, through the UN Security Council, passed a resolution condemning the aggression of the DPRK, and began to form a united military coalition. About 40 countries declared their desire to assist in the fight against the aggressor. Soon, the allied troops landed at the port of Chemulpo and began the liberation of South Korean territory. The success of the allies was unexpected for the northerners and quickly created a threat of defeat for their army. North Korea appealed to the USSR and China for help. Soon from the Soviet Union began to arrive modern views military equipment (including MiG-15 jet aircraft), military specialists arrive. Hundreds of thousands of volunteers moved from China to help. At the cost of heavy losses, the front line was leveled, and ground battles ceased.
The Korean War claimed the lives of 9 million Koreans, up to 1 million Chinese, 54 thousand Americans, many Soviet soldiers and officers. She showed that the "cold war" can easily develop into a "hot" one. This was understood not only in Washington, but also in Moscow. After General Eisenhower's victory in the 1952 presidential election, both sides began to search for a way out of the impasse in international relations.
What you need to know about this topic:
Socio-economic and political development Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Nicholas II.
Domestic politics tsarism. Nicholas II. Strengthening repression. "Police socialism".
Russo-Japanese War. Reasons, course, results.
Revolution of 1905 - 1907 The nature, driving forces and features of the Russian revolution of 1905-1907. stages of the revolution. The reasons for the defeat and the significance of the revolution.
Elections to the State Duma. I State Duma. The agrarian question in the Duma. Dispersal of the Duma. II State Duma. Coup d'état June 3, 1907
Third June political system. Electoral law June 3, 1907 III State Duma. The alignment of political forces in the Duma. Duma activity. government terror. The decline of the labor movement in 1907-1910
Stolypinskaya agrarian reform.
IV State Duma. Party composition and Duma factions. Duma activity.
The political crisis in Russia on the eve of the war. The labor movement in the summer of 1914 Crisis of the top.
The international position of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
Beginning of the First World War. Origin and nature of war. Russia's entry into the war. Attitude towards the war of parties and classes.
The course of hostilities. Strategic forces and plans of the parties. Results of the war. The role of the Eastern Front in the First World War.
The Russian economy during the First World War.
Workers' and peasants' movement in 1915-1916. revolutionary movement in the army and navy. Growing anti-war sentiment. Formation of the bourgeois opposition.
Russian culture of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country in January-February 1917. The beginning, prerequisites and nature of the revolution. Uprising in Petrograd. Formation of the Petrograd Soviet. Provisional Committee State Duma. Order N I. Formation of the Provisional Government. Abdication of Nicholas II. Causes of dual power and its essence. February coup in Moscow, at the front, in the provinces.
From February to October. The policy of the Provisional Government regarding war and peace, on agrarian, national, labor issues. Relations between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. The arrival of V.I. Lenin in Petrograd.
Political parties(Kadets, Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, Bolsheviks): political programs, influence among the masses.
Crises of the Provisional Government. An attempted military coup in the country. Growth of revolutionary sentiment among the masses. Bolshevization of the capital Soviets.
Preparation and conduct of an armed uprising in Petrograd.
II All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Decisions about power, peace, land. Formation of public authorities and management. Composition of the first Soviet government.
The victory of the armed uprising in Moscow. Government agreement with the Left SRs. Elections in constituent Assembly, its convocation and dissolution.
The first socio-economic transformations in the field of industry, agriculture, finance, labor and women's issues. Church and State.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, its terms and significance.
Economic tasks of the Soviet government in the spring of 1918. Aggravation of the food issue. The introduction of food dictatorship. Working squads. Comedy.
The revolt of the left SRs and the collapse of the two-party system in Russia.
First Soviet Constitution.
Reasons for intervention and civil war. The course of hostilities. Human and material losses of the period of the civil war and military intervention.
The internal policy of the Soviet leadership during the war. "War Communism". GOELRO plan.
Politics new government regarding culture.
Foreign policy. Treaties with border countries. Participation of Russia in the Genoa, Hague, Moscow and Lausanne conferences. Diplomatic recognition of the USSR by the main capitalist countries.
Domestic policy. Socio-economic and political crisis of the early 20s. Famine of 1921-1922 Transition to new economic policy. The essence of the NEP. NEP in the field of agriculture, trade, industry. financial reform. Economic recovery. Crises during the NEP and its curtailment.
Projects for the creation of the USSR. I Congress of Soviets of the USSR. The first government and the Constitution of the USSR.
Illness and death of V.I. Lenin. Intraparty struggle. The beginning of the formation of Stalin's regime of power.
Industrialization and collectivization. Development and implementation of the first five-year plans. Socialist competition - purpose, forms, leaders.
Formation and strengthening of the state system of economic management.
The course towards complete collectivization. Dispossession.
Results of industrialization and collectivization.
Political, national-state development in the 30s. Intraparty struggle. Political repression. Formation of the nomenklatura as a layer of managers. Stalinist regime and the constitution of the USSR in 1936
Soviet culture in the 20-30s.
Foreign policy of the second half of the 20s - mid-30s.
Domestic policy. The growth of military production. Extraordinary measures in the field of labor legislation. Measures to solve the grain problem. Armed forces. Growth of the Red Army. military reform. Repressions against the command personnel of the Red Army and the Red Army.
Foreign policy. Non-aggression pact and treaty of friendship and borders between the USSR and Germany. The entry of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus into the USSR. Soviet-Finnish War. The inclusion of the Baltic republics and other territories in the USSR.
Periodization of the Great Patriotic War. The initial stage of the war. Turning the country into a military camp. Military defeats 1941-1942 and their reasons. Major military events Surrender Nazi Germany. Participation of the USSR in the war with Japan.
Soviet rear during the war.
Deportation of peoples.
Partisan struggle.
Human and material losses during the war.
Creation of the anti-Hitler coalition. Declaration of the United Nations. The problem of the second front. Conferences of the "Big Three". Problems of post-war peace settlement and all-round cooperation. USSR and UN.
Beginning of the Cold War. The contribution of the USSR to the creation of the "socialist camp". CMEA formation.
Domestic policy of the USSR in the mid-1940s - early 1950s. Restoration of the national economy.
Socio-political life. Politics in the field of science and culture. Continued repression. "Leningrad business". Campaign against cosmopolitanism. "Doctors' Case".
Socio-economic development of Soviet society in the mid-50s - the first half of the 60s.
Socio-political development: XX Congress of the CPSU and the condemnation of Stalin's personality cult. Rehabilitation of victims of repressions and deportations. Intra-party struggle in the second half of the 1950s.
Foreign policy: the creation of the ATS. The entry of Soviet troops into Hungary. Exacerbation of Soviet-Chinese relations. The split of the "socialist camp". Soviet-American relations and Caribbean crisis. USSR and third world countries. Reducing the strength of the armed forces of the USSR. Moscow Treaty on the Limitation of Nuclear Tests.
USSR in the mid-60s - the first half of the 80s.
Socio-economic development: economic reform 1965
Growing difficulties of economic development. Decline in the rate of socio-economic growth.
USSR Constitution 1977
Socio-political life of the USSR in the 1970s - early 1980s.
Foreign Policy: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Consolidation of post-war borders in Europe. Moscow treaty with Germany. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). Soviet-American treaties of the 70s. Soviet-Chinese relations. The entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan. Exacerbation of international tension and the USSR. Strengthening of the Soviet-American confrontation in the early 80s.
USSR in 1985-1991
Domestic policy: an attempt to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country. An attempt to reform the political system of Soviet society. Congresses of People's Deputies. Election of the President of the USSR. Multi-party system. Exacerbation of the political crisis.
Aggravation national question. Attempts to reform the national-state structure of the USSR. Declaration on State Sovereignty of the RSFSR. "Novogarevsky process". The collapse of the USSR.
Foreign policy: Soviet-American relations and the problem of disarmament. Treaties with leading capitalist countries. The withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. Changing relations with the countries of the socialist community. Disintegration of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact.
Russian Federation in 1992-2000
Domestic policy: "Shock therapy" in the economy: price liberalization, stages of privatization of commercial and industrial enterprises. Fall in production. Increased social tension. Growth and slowdown in financial inflation. The escalation of the struggle between the executive and legislature. Dissolution Supreme Council and the Congress of People's Deputies. October events of 1993. Abolition of local bodies of Soviet power. Elections in Federal Assembly. The Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993 Formation of the presidential republic. Aggravation and overcoming national conflicts in the North Caucasus.
Parliamentary elections 1995 Presidential elections 1996 Power and opposition. An attempt to return to the course of liberal reforms (spring 1997) and its failure. The financial crisis of August 1998: causes, economic and political consequences. "Second Chechen War". Parliamentary elections in 1999 and early presidential elections in 2000 Foreign policy: Russia in the CIS. The participation of Russian troops in the "hot spots" of the near abroad: Moldova, Georgia, Tajikistan. Russia's relations with countries far abroad. The withdrawal of Russian troops from Europe and neighboring countries. Russian-American agreements. Russia and NATO. Russia and the Council of Europe. Yugoslav crises (1999-2000) and Russia's position.
- Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. History of the state and peoples of Russia. XX century.
Foreign policy of the USSR in the post-war period. From Cold War to Detente (1945-1985)
Victory in the Great Patriotic war, a decisive role in World War II significantly strengthened the authority of the USSR, its influence in the international arena. The USSR became one of the founders of the United Nations, a permanent member of the Security Council. The clash of the foreign policy interests of the USSR, on the one hand, and its partners in the anti-Hitler coalition (USA, Great Britain), on the other, was, in essence, inevitable. The Soviet leadership sought to use the victory with maximum benefit to create its own sphere of influence in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, which were liberated by the Red Army (Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Albania, etc.). The United States and Great Britain regarded these actions as a threat to their national interest, an attempt to impose a communist model on these countries. In 1946, former British Prime Minister W. Churchill made a speech in the American city of Fulton, calling for the containment of Soviet expansion by the combined efforts of the Anglo-Saxon world ("the doctrine of containment"). In 1947, US President G. Truman proposed the formation of a military-political alliance of Western countries, the creation of a network of military bases on the borders of the USSR, and the launch of an economic assistance program. European countries that suffered from fascist Germany ("Truman Doctrine"). The reaction of the USSR was quite predictable. The rupture of relations between the former allies became a reality already in 1947. The era of the Cold War began.
In 1946-1949. with the direct participation of the USSR in Albania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, China, communist governments came to power. The Soviet leadership made no secret of its intention to direct the domestic and foreign policy of these countries. The refusal of the Yugoslav leader I. Broz Tito to submit to the plans of the USSR to unite Yugoslavia and Bulgaria into a Balkan federation led to a break in Soviet-Yugoslav relations. Moreover, in the communist parties of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and others, campaigns were held to expose "Yugoslav spies." Needless to say, the rejection of the Soviet model for the leadership of the countries of the socialist camp was simply impossible. The USSR forced them to refuse financial assistance offered by the United States in accordance with the Marshall Plan, and in 1949 achieved the creation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which coordinated economic relations within the socialist bloc. Within the framework of the CMEA, the USSR throughout all subsequent years provided very substantial economic assistance to the allied countries.
In the same year, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formalized, and the USSR announced the successful testing of nuclear weapons. Fearing a global conflict, the USSR and the USA measured their strength in local clashes. The most acute was their rivalry in Korea (1950-1953), which ended with the split of this country, and in Germany, where in May 1949 the FRG was proclaimed, created on the basis of the British, American and French zones of occupation, and in October - the GDR, which entered into the sphere of Soviet influence.
"Cold War" in 1947-1953. more than once brought the world to the threshold of a real ("hot") war. Both sides showed stubbornness, refused serious compromises, developed military mobilization plans in the event of a global conflict, including the possibility of inflicting a nuclear strike on the enemy first. The Congress of the CPSU (1956) approved the new foreign policy doctrine of the USSR. The most important innovations were: the promotion of the principle of peaceful coexistence with the capitalist countries and the conclusion that it is possible to prevent a world war; recognition of the plurality of paths to socialism; assessment of the countries of the so-called "Third World" as natural allies of the USSR in the struggle for world peace. Accordingly, in the foreign policy of the USSR in 1953-1964. three areas were prioritized: relations with capitalist countries; relations with allies in the socialist camp; relations with the countries of the "third world", primarily members of the non-aligned movement (India, Egypt, etc.).
Relations with the capitalist countries developed contradictorily. On the one hand, it was possible to somewhat reduce the level of confrontation. In 1955, a state treaty was signed with Austria, the state of war with Germany was terminated, in 1956 - with Japan. In 1959, the first visit of a Soviet leader to the United States took place. N. S. Khrushchev was received by President D. Eisenhower. On the other hand, both sides actively developed the arms program. In 1953, the USSR announced the creation hydrogen bomb, in 1957 he successfully tested the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile. The launch of a Soviet satellite in October 1957 in this sense literally shocked the Americans, who realized that henceforth their cities were within the reach of Soviet missiles. Early 60s. turned out to be especially stressful. First, the flight of an American spy plane over the territory of the USSR was interrupted in the Yekaterinburg region by an accurate missile hit. Then the Berlin crisis, caused by the construction, by decision of the GDR and the Warsaw Pact countries, of a wall that separated eastern part Berlin from Western (1961). Finally, in 1962, the so-called Cuban Missile Crisis occurred, bringing the world to the brink of war. The USSR deployed medium-range nuclear missiles in Cuba, the US responded by threatening to invade the "island of freedom." A compromise between Khrushchev and US President John F. Kennedy was reached literally at the last moment. The missiles were removed from Cuba, the United States, in turn, guaranteed its safety and dismantled the missiles aimed at the USSR in Turkey.
Relations with the countries of the socialist camp did not develop easily either. In 1955, a military-political union of countries participating in the Warsaw Pact (USSR, Poland, Hungary, Romania, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Albania) was created, which pledged to coordinate their defense policy and develop a unified military strategy. NATO's counterweight has finally arrived. Having settled its contradictions with Yugoslavia, the USSR declared its readiness to take into account the national peculiarities of the socialist countries. But already in 1956, the Soviet leadership backpedaled. The anti-communist uprising in Budapest was crushed with the help of the Soviet armed forces. Since that time, the USSR returned to an extremely tough policy towards the socialist countries, demanding from them a firm commitment to the Soviet model of socialism. Meanwhile, criticism of Stalin's personality cult was not supported by the leadership of China and Albania. The Chinese Communist Party claimed leadership in the world communist movement. The conflict went so far that China put forward territorial claims against the USSR, and in 1969 provoked military clashes in the area of Damansky Island.
In 1964-1985. in relations with the socialist countries, the USSR adhered to the so-called "Brezhnev doctrine": to preserve the socialist camp with all its might, strengthening the leading role of the USSR in it as much as possible and actually limiting the sovereignty of the allies. The Brezhnev Doctrine was first used when the troops of the five Warsaw Pact countries entered Czechoslovakia in August 1968 to suppress recognized anti-socialist processes. But it was not possible to fully implement this doctrine. A special position was occupied by China, Yugoslavia, Albania, Romania. In the early 1980s the speeches of the Solidarity trade union in Poland almost forced the Soviet leadership to take advantage of the Prague experience. Fortunately, this was avoided, but the growing crisis in the socialist world was obvious to everyone.
The second half of the 60s - 70s. - the time of detente in relations between the USSR and the capitalist countries. It was initiated by French President Charles de Gaulle. In 1970 L.I. Brezhnev and German Chancellor W. Brandt signed an agreement recognizing post-war borders in Europe. In 1972, the FRG signed similar agreements with Poland and Czechoslovakia. In the first half of the 70s. The USSR and the USA signed a number of agreements to limit the arms race. Finally, in 1975 in Helsinki, 33 European states, as well as the United States and Canada, signed the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe on the principles of interstate relations: respect for sovereignty and integrity, non-interference in internal affairs, respect for human rights, etc.
The discharge was a controversial phenomenon. It became possible not least because by 1969 the USSR had achieved military-strategic parity (equality) with the United States. The superpowers continued to arm. The arms race was rapidly intensifying. The USSR and the USA confronted each other in regional conflicts in which they supported forces fighting against each other (in the Middle East, Vietnam, Ethiopia, Angola, etc.). In 1979, the USSR brought a limited military contingent into Afghanistan. The discharge did not pass this test. New frosts have arrived. The Cold War has resumed. Mutual accusations, notes of protest, disputes and diplomatic scandals became integral elements of the system of international relations in the first half of the 1980s. Relations between the USSR and the USA, the Department of Internal Affairs and NATO came to a standstill.