Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), is a state in Central Europe. Borders with Denmark, Poland, Czech Republic, , Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. In the north, the natural border is formed by the North and Baltic Seas. Russian name comes from lat. Germany. (currency sign - €, bank code: EUR) - the official currency of 17 countries of the Eurozone.

The capital is the city of Berlin (the seat of the Bundestag and the government, some ministries are located in Bonn). The form of government is a parliamentary republic, the form of government is a symmetrical federation of 16 autonomous lands. Germany is a member of the European Union and NATO, is a member of the G8, and claims to be a permanent member of the UN Security Council. The Russian name of the state Germany comes from the Latin name Germania, which goes back to the writings of Latin authors of the 1st century AD and is formed from the ethnonym Germans (lat. Germanus). It was first used by Julius Caesar in his "Notes on the Gallic War" regarding the tribes living beyond the Rhine. The word itself probably has non-Latin roots and comes from the Celtic gair ("neighbor"). In German, the state is called Deutschland. The modern name comes from pragerms. Eudiskaz. The name Deutsch (derived from the Proto-German Þeodisk) originally meant "related to the people" and meant primarily the language. Land means "country". The modern form of writing the name of the state has been used since the 15th century.

In the USSR, the name Federal Republic of Germany was used in Russian. This form, for example, is used in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia. After the accession of the German Democratic Republic to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990, it was decided, by mutual agreement between the governments of Germany and Russia, not to decline the word Germany in the official name of the state. Correct: the Federal Republic of Germany (and not the Federal Republic of Germany).

Story

The first mention of the ancient Germans appeared in the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans. One of the first mentions of the Germans refers to the year 98. It was made by the Roman chronicler Tacitus (lat. Tacitus). The entire territory of modern Germany east of the Elbe (Slavic Laba) until the 10th century was inhabited by Slavic tribes. (see more details: Polabian Slavs). By the XII-XIV centuries, these lands gradually became part of various German state formations that made up the so-called Holy Roman Empire. As these territories were part of the German states, over several centuries, the local Slavs gradually, almost completely Germanized. This process dragged on until the late Middle Ages and the beginning of the new time, and in some places, with the last, not yet completely Germanized Slavic people of Germany - the Lusatians, continues to this day.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, the Frankish state was formed, which three centuries later, under Charlemagne, turned into an empire (800). Charles's empire covered the territories of a number of modern states, in particular Germany. However, the empire of Charlemagne did not last long - the grandchildren of this emperor divided it among themselves, as a result of which three kingdoms were formed - West Frankish (later France), East Frankish (later Germany) and the Middle Kingdom (soon split into Italy, Provence and Lorraine).

Traditionally, the founding date of the German state is considered to be February 2, 962: on this day, the East Frankish king Otto I was crowned in Rome and became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Despite the attempts of the emperors to unite the Holy Roman Empire, it broke up into numerous independent states and cities. After the Reformation and the Thirty Years' War, the emperor's power was still nominal.

This situation continued until 1806, when, under the pressure of Napoleon I, the existence of the Holy Roman Empire was terminated and its emperor began to bear only the title of emperor. . The number of German states was significantly reduced. The Congress of Vienna contributed to the further unification of the German states, as a result of which the German Confederation was formed from 38 German states under the leadership of Austria.

After the revolution of 1848, a conflict began to brew between the growing influence of Prussia and Austria. This led to the war of 1866, in which Prussia won and annexed a number of German principalities. The German Confederation collapsed.

In 1868, the North German Confederation was created, headed by the President - the King of Prussia. On December 10, 1870, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation renamed the North German Confederation into the German Empire (German das Deutsche Reich), the constitution of the North German Confederation into the constitution of the German Empire, and the President of the North German Confederation into the German Emperor (German der Deutsche Kaiser). Count Otto von Bismarck was appointed Chancellor of Germany.

In 1914, Germany entered the First World War, the loss of which led to the end of the monarchy and the proclamation of the republic.

In 1933, the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party, Adolf Hitler, was appointed Chancellor of Germany, under which Germany pursued an aggressive expansionist and revanchist policy, which in 1939 led to World War II.

After Germany was defeated in World War II in May 1945, its statehood was terminated, vast territories were separated from Germany, and the rest was divided into 4 zones of occupation: Soviet, American, British and French. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was established on the territories of the American, British and French zones of occupation, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on the territory of the Soviet zone of occupation.

On October 3, 1990, the German Democratic Republic and West Berlin were incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany. It has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation, which were established by the USSR in 1955 (with the GDR in 1949).

State structure

Berlin is the capital of Germany. Meanwhile, in the course of lengthy negotiations regarding the terms of transferring the capital from Bonn to Berlin, Bonn managed to keep most of the federal ministries on its territory, as well as whole line the main most important federal departments (for example, the Federal Accounts Chamber).

Germany is a democratic, social, legal state. It consists of 16 lands. The state structure is regulated by the Basic Law of Germany. The form of government in Germany is a parliamentary republic.

Germany - Democratic state: "All government comes from the people (Volke). It is carried out by the people through elections and voting, as well as through special bodies of legislation, executive power and justice.

The head of state is the federal president, who performs rather representative functions and appoints the federal chancellor. The Federal President of the Federal Republic of Germany takes the following oath: “I swear to devote my energies to the good of the German people (deutschen Volkes), to increase their wealth, protect it from damage, observe and protect the Basic Law and the laws of the Federation, conscientiously fulfill my duties and observe justice in relation to everyone . God help me.” The Federal Chancellor is the head of the German government. He directs the activities of the Federal Government. Therefore, the form of government in Germany is often also called chancellor democracy.

Germany has a federal structure. It means that political system The state is divided into two levels: the federal one, at which national decisions of international importance are made, and the regional one, at which the tasks of the federal lands are solved. Each level has its own executive, legislative and judicial authorities. Although the states have unequal representation in the Bundesrat, legally they have equal status, which characterizes the German federation as symmetrical.

The German Bundestag (parliament) and the Bundesrat (organ of representation of the states) carry out legislative and legislative functions at the federal level and are authorized by a two-thirds majority in each of the bodies to amend the constitution. At the regional level, lawmaking is carried out by the parliaments of the lands - Landtags and Burgerschafts (parliaments of the cities-lands of Hamburg and Bremen). They make laws that apply within the lands. Parliaments in all states except Bavaria are unicameral.

Executive power at the federal level is represented by the Federal Government, headed by the Chancellor. The head of the executive authorities at the level of the subjects of the federation is the prime minister (or mayor of the city-land). The federal and state administrations are led by ministers who are at the head of the administrative bodies.

The Federal Constitutional Court enforces the constitution. The supreme courts of justice also include the Federal Court of Justice in Karlsruhe, the Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig, the Federal Labor Court, the Federal Public Court and the Federal Financial Court in Munich. Most of the litigation is the responsibility of the Länder. Federal courts are mainly engaged in review cases and check the decisions of the courts of the Länder for formal legality.

German "hidden" federalism

Speaking about the form of government, the term "hidden" federal state is often applied to Germany. Although the Basic Law establishes the distribution of powers at the level of the federal states and the federation as a whole, it at the same time combines the advantages centralized state with the benefits of a federal state. For example, citizens most often resolve issues through the land authorities and local administrations, which carry out their activities on behalf of the lands (according to the principle of subsidiarity).

However, public life is regulated for the most part by federal laws. The point is that, according to the Basic Law, it is necessary to strive for the equalization of living conditions in all federal states of Germany, which are determined by the social and economic policy of the state. For example, the police is a federal agency with a single federal leadership(there is no police of the federal states, like the police of the states in ).

So, the social and economic spheres of public life are regulated mainly by federal laws. In this aspect, the German federal state is similar to the centralized one.

On the one hand, the land administrations execute the laws of the given federal land, which is typical for a federal state. On the other hand, they enforce most federal laws, which is not typical for a federal government.

Stages of reforming the federal system

After the adoption of the Basic Law in 1949, the German authorities repeatedly made attempts to improve the federal system. The first large-scale reform was carried out by the "grand coalition" government (CDU/CSU-SPD) under Chancellor KG. Kiesinger in 1966-1969. As a result of the reform, the interweaving of the interests of the lands and the federal center received a new dimension. In the financial sector, the principle of "cooperative federalism" was introduced, which will become one of the stumbling blocks at the present stage of the history of Germany.

Under the Schroeder government (1998-2005), the goal was to carry out a large-scale constitutional reform of federalism in order to simplify the political processes in the country, make them more transparent to the population and less dependent on momentary party calculations. The reform was designed to redistribute powers between the center and the subjects of the federation, clarify the legislative competence between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat, and ultimately increase the viability of the state as a whole.

The number of laws requiring the mandatory approval of the Bundesrat was planned to be reduced to 35-40% by removing laws on the principles of administration of all lands from the coordination mechanism with the Bundesrat. That is, in the future, the Länder will have to proceed from federal guidelines, which implies giving the Landtags greater responsibility.

In March 2003, the Federalism Convention (composed of the heads of state parliaments and the leaders of the factions of the parties represented in them) approved the "Lübeck Declaration", containing specific measures to modernize the federal system.

On October 17, 2003, the Commission on Federalism was created, which included the then Secretary General of the SPD F. Müntefering and the Chairman of the CSU and Prime Minister of Bavaria E. Stoiber.

On November 18, 2005, a coalition agreement between the CDU / CSU and the SPD (“Together for Germany - with courage and humanity”) was signed, which stipulated the proposals of these parties on the division of powers and responsibilities between the lands and the center.

The innovation package covers the following areas:

1. Education Now the current issues of education are within the competence of the Länder, and they will be directly transferred funds from the federal budget. This excludes misuse of the received funds.

2. Distribution of income. Federal laws cannot set tasks for cities and communities that require additional material expenses from local governments. If federal laws interfere with the competence of the Länder, these laws must necessarily obtain the consent of the Bundesrat.

3. High school. Completely relegated to the jurisdiction of the lands. The Federation may participate in the financing of scientific research, but only with the consent of the Länder.

4. Environmental protection The federation can develop framework legislation, but the Länder can make decisions deviating from it. In doing so, the EU environmental regulations must also be taken into account.

5. Budget Introduction of the EU-style Stability Pact. In connection with the problem of land debts, eventual debt sanctions will be 65% on the shoulders of the federation, and 35% on the shoulders of the lands.

6. Land legislation The jurisdiction of the Länder included housing law, issues of meetings, associations and the press, the penitentiary system, hunting legislation, opening hours of shops, rules for opening restaurants.

7. Combating terrorism The exclusive competence of the federation (Federal Office of the Criminal Police), along with nuclear energy, registration of citizens, regulation of the circulation of weapons and explosives.

8. Public service Competence of the Länder.

On December 15, 2006, a new stage of federalism reform started. The main issues unresolved at the 1st stage were: the reduction of land debts, distortions in financial relations between the federation and the lands and the lands themselves.

The essence of the problem is that all the lands must carry out federal tasks, but their possibilities for this are very different.

Therefore, the German Constitution (paragraph 2, article 107) states that “the law must ensure a commensurate equalization of differences in the financial capabilities of the lands; at the same time, the financial capabilities and needs of the communities should be taken into account ”For this, there was a procedure for equalizing the budgetary provision of the regions, that is, part of the funds of the“ rich lands ”are redistributed in favor of the“ poor ”, sometimes with infusions from the federal budget.

Formally, the federal state structure in Germany has two levels: the federation as a whole state and the states as members of this state. But in reality, there is also a "third", informal level of relations between the federation and the lands - "cooperative federalism"; that is, along with the horizontal self-coordination of the lands, the practice of vertical coordination along the federation-Land axis has developed: the participation of the federation in land financing. Within the framework of vertical coordination, commissions are created from representatives of the federation and the states.

The main problems of horizontal and vertical relations in Germany are related to the distribution of financial resources between rich and poor federal states and the implementation of the principle of "equivalence" of living conditions.

"Horizontal" alignment allows you to help underdeveloped regions by redistributing the income that the federation and the states receive jointly (corporate and income tax). This situation causes a lot of criticism, primarily from the liberals (FDP, O. Lambsdorf), who are in favor of reducing the "charitable" role of the state.

Politicians of other parties also agree with similar proposals. For example, the Prime Minister of Bavaria, Stoiber (CSU), calls for increased regionalization, and the Prime Minister of Baden-Württemberg, Teufel (CDU), calls for a reduction in the number of lands and an increase in legislative (legislative) terms.

Briefly, their ideas for reforming federalism can be formulated as follows:
Assignment to each level of its tax powers; the transition of all lands to the status of "solid financial units";
Reducing the "horizontal alignment" of land budgets;
Cancellation of mixed financing;
Reducing the legislative competence of the federation in favor of the lands by limiting the powers of the center to such areas as defense, law and order, human rights, foreign policy and "framework" regulation of environmental, economic and social policy issues;
Significant limitation of the Bundesrat's veto power. The general principles of administration in the Länder were removed from the topics of the bills requiring the mandatory approval of the Bundesrat.

The search for a more effective model of federalism is complicated in Germany by three factors: the aggravation of contradictions between poor and rich lands, the presence of competing projects of large political parties, and the needs of European federalism, which is forced to take into account both the experience of states with centralized government (England and France) and the experience of federations (Germany). )

Foreign policy

In foreign policy, the West-oriented German Chancellor K. Adenauer (1949-1963) acted in accordance with the slogan of the ideologist of South German liberalism K. von Rottek: "Freedom without unity is better than unity without freedom." German European Policy 1949-1963 how the relationship between ends and means is divided into two stages.

In its first phase (from 1949 to the mid-1950s), it was the means by which West Germany planned to rebuild its economy, create its own armed forces, and achieve recognition by world powers. Foreign policy was pursued for the sake of domestic.

At the second stage (from the mid-1950s to 1963), now domestic policy was carried out for the sake of foreign policy: Germany sought to become not just an independent, but also a strong state. European military policy of Germany in 1958-63. was based on rapprochement with France (Berlin-Paris axis) and the rejection of the plan of "multilateral nuclear forces" proposed by the United States. The signing of an agreement on German-French cooperation drew a line under the centuries-old confrontation between these states.

Adenauer recognized the international management of Ruhr industry established by the Petersberg Accords, considering this as the basis for future Western European integration. In 1950, Adenauer adopted the plan developed by R. Schuman to create the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). Adenauer also supported the idea of ​​creating a European Defense Community (EDC) proposed by W. Churchill.

In 1952, the Bonn Treaty was signed, which abolished the occupation statute and granted the Federal Republic of Germany state sovereignty.

On May 5, 1955, the Paris Agreements came into force, the most important of which was the agreement on Germany's entry into NATO. However, at that time, Germany's sovereignty could not be called complete: foreign troops remained on its territory, Germany was deprived of the right to possess many types of strategic weapons.

In 1959, a conference of four powers was held in Geneva: the USA, Great Britain, the USSR and France, which ended with the actual recognition of the existence of two German states: the FRG and the GDR.

One of the important priorities of Germany's foreign policy is to deepen the integration of the EU states. Germany plays a decisive role in the construction and organization of European structures. At the same time, from the very beginning, the goal was to dispel the post-war fear of the neighboring countries of Germany and to make redundant the restrictions imposed by the Soviet occupying forces. Since 1950, Germany has become a member of the Council of Europe, and in 1957 signed the Rome Agreements, which became the foundation for the creation of the European Union: Germany joined the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).

So, the important results of the European policy of Germany in 1949-63. became: the recognition of Germany's sovereignty and its status as an important European partner and the beginning of the formation of the foundations of Germany's economic power.

Germany has been a member of the Group of Ten since 1964.

During the Cold War, Germany's foreign policy was severely limited. One of its main tasks was the reunification of West Germany with East Germany. Military-politically, Germany was closely connected with the NATO bloc. American nuclear warheads were stationed in West Germany.

Modern Germany is rightfully considered a nodal center both between East and West, and between the Scandinavian and Mediterranean regions, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.

With the accession of the GDR to the FRG, the threat of using the GDR as a springboard for the deployment of foreign troops was eliminated, the risk of turning Germany into an object of the use of nuclear weapons, as well as the dangerous game of "third countries" on the contradictions between the GDR and the FRG, was eliminated.

Until recently, one of the most controversial was the question of the possibility of using German armed forces outside NATO's shared responsibility.

According to the constitution, Germany has no right to take part in wars of conquest. This limitation is the subject of ongoing controversy. Its armed forces stand to protect the sovereignty and integrity of Germany and the NATO countries.

Only recently has the Bundeswehr taken part in various activities aimed at maintaining peace. This became possible after the decision of the Constitutional Court, which allowed the use of the German Armed Forces for UN peacekeeping missions, and for each specific case, the consent of the Bundestag is required, which until now was given only with temporary restrictions. In this case, the use of weapons only for self-defense is allowed. All attempts by various parties to get the Constitutional Court to review this issue have so far been rejected. German troops took and are taking part in resolving the following conflict situations:
1992 - 1996: Operation SHARP GUARD using warships and reconnaissance aircraft in the Adriatic Sea against Yugoslavia;
1993 - 1995: UN Force Operation in Somalia UNOSOM II;
1999 - present: NATO war against Yugoslavia, operation KFOR;
2002 - present: NATO war in Afghanistan, operation ISAF;
2002 - present: Operation Enduring Freedom with the participation of the naval contingent in the coastal waters of East Africa and the Mediterranean Sea;
2003 - present: With AWACS reconnaissance aircraft, with the right to cross Iraqi airspace, but without the right of occupation.
2005 - present: Maintaining peace in Sudan as part of Operation UNMIS.
2006 - 2008: Participation in the armed mission of the EU to ensure elections in the Congo
2006 - present: Protection of the coastal waters of Lebanon in order to suppress the smuggling of weapons (as part of the UNIFIL mission)
2008 - present: Somali Coastal Patrol under Operation ATLANTA (Counter Piracy).

Administrative division

Germany is a state with a federal structure; consisting of 16 equal subjects - lands (Länder; see the lands of the Republic of Germany), three of them are cities (Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg).

1. Baden-Württemberg	Stuttgart
2. Free State of Bavaria	Munich
3. Berlin	Berlin
4. Brandenburg	Potsdam
5. Free Hanseatic City of Bremen	Bremen
6. Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg	Hamburg
7. Hesse	Wiesbaden
8. Mecklenburg - Vorpommern	Schwerin
9. Lower Saxony	Hanover
10. North Rhine-Westphalia	Dusseldorf
11. Rhineland-Palatinate	Mainz
12. Saarland	Saarbrücken
13. Free State of Saxony	Dresden
14. Saxony-Anhalt	Magdeburg
15. Schleswig-Holstein	Keel
16. Free State of Thuringia	Erfurt

Geography

The northern part of Germany is a low-lying plain formed during the ice age (North German Plain, the lowest point is the Neuendorf-Saxenbande in Wilstermarsh, 3.54 m below sea level). In the central part of the country, forested foothills adjoin the lowlands from the south, and the Alps begin to the south (the highest point in Germany is Mount Zugspitze, 2,968 meters). Rivers and lakes A large number of rivers flow through Germany, the largest of which are the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, Weser and Oder, the rivers are connected by canals, the most famous canal is the Kiel Canal, which connects the Baltic and North Seas. The Kiel Canal begins in the Bay of Kiel and ends at the mouth of the Elbe River. The largest lake in Germany is Lake Constance, with an area of ​​540 sq. km, and a depth of 250 meters. The weather is often changeable. In the middle of summer it can be warm and sunny, but the very next day it can get cold and rainy. Truly extreme natural events (severe droughts, tornadoes, storms, severe frost or heat waves) are relatively rare. This is also due to the fact that Germany is located in a temperate climate zone. Over the past few years, Germany, as well as throughout Europe, has experienced several large-scale floods, but taking into account long history Germany, these are rather rare natural phenomena. Many tend to see this as evidence of climate warming. In the summer of 2003, Germany was hit by a drought: the “summer of the century,” as the media dubbed it, was one of the hottest in decades. The consequences of the drought, among other things, were significant crop failures. Earthquakes with severe consequences in Germany have not occurred so far. This can be explained by the fact that Germany is located on the Eurasian plate. Since there are no boundaries between tectonic plates inside Germany, earthquakes are relatively rare. The average temperature in July is from +16 to +22 degrees Celsius. The average temperature in January is from +2 to -5 degrees Celsius. The average annual temperature is +5-+10 degrees Celsius.

topography of germany

Cities

The largest cities in Germany are Berlin, Hamburg, Munich and Cologne. The next most important is the fifth most populated city in Germany and the financial metropolis of Frankfurt am Main, Germany's largest airport. It is the third largest airport in Europe and the first in terms of revenue from air cargo. The Ruhr Basin is the region with the highest population density.

Economy

With a GDP of $2 trillion 811 billion (PPP), Germany was in fifth place in the world in 2009 (after the US, China, Japan and India). In addition, Germany occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of export volumes. Exported products are known all over the world under the trademark Made in Germany. In terms of living standards, the country ranks 10th in the world, according to the Human Development Index.
The share of Germany in world GDP is 3.968%
The share of Germany in the GDP of the EU countries is almost 30%
GDP per capita - about 35 thousand dollars
State budget deficit for 2006 - 1.7%
Government spending in Germany is up to 50% of the country's GDP.
SMEs in Germany account for approximately 70% of jobs and 57% of GDP generated.
In general, industry accounts for 38% of GDP, 2% for agriculture, and 60% for services.
The shadow sector of the economy is approximately 15% of GDP

According to official According to data, in 2011 the average number of unemployed was 3.0 million (7% of the German working-age population).

Industry

Germany is an industrialized country. The main industries are mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, chemical, automotive and shipbuilding, coal mining.

Germany does not have large reserves of any minerals. A rare exception to this rule, which applies to the entire Central European region, is coal, both hard (Ruhr basin) and brown. Therefore, its economy is concentrated mainly on the industrial production and service sectors.

Germany is far from the last place in terms of volume and quality of watches and watch movements produced in the country. The center of the German watch industry is the small town of Glashütte. Most of the factories producing watches and mechanisms for them are concentrated here. Also an important link in the watch industry are manufacturers of interior clocks and mechanisms for them. The most famous of them: Hermle and Kieninger.

In Germany, the production of children's toys, goods and products for modeling is developed. The main companies in this industry are Auhagen GmbH, Gebr. Marklin & Cie. GmbH, Gebr. Fleischmann GmbH, PIKO Spielwaren GmbH.

Agriculture

Germany has highly productive agriculture. About 70% of the marketable output of agriculture comes from animal husbandry, the needs of which are largely subordinated to crop production: the area under fodder crops is much larger than under food crops. Large quantities of feed grains, especially maize, are imported.

Germany is a country of predominantly small family farms. In the period 1994-1997. the share of land plots of agricultural enterprises exceeding 50 hectares increased from 11.9 to 14.3%. Larger farms are located mainly in Schleswig-Holstein and in the east of Lower Saxony. Small farms predominate in Central and Southern Germany. At the same time, there was a sharp decline in the number of people employed in agriculture, from 24% of the total number of the economically active population in 1950 to 2.4% in 1997. income in other sectors of the economy.

In areas with high natural soil fertility, the main crops are wheat, barley, corn and sugar beets. The poorer soils of the North German lowlands and mid-altitude mountains are traditionally used for crops of rye, oats, potatoes and natural fodder crops. The traditional nature of German agriculture has been significantly altered by technological progress. Today, the so-called light soils are valued more because of their suitability for mechanical processing, using artificial fertilizers; for example, corn is now widely cultivated also in the North German Plain, where it is replacing the potato.

Of the total grain production in the European Union, Germany accounts for slightly more than 1/5, but it stands out mainly in the production of rye (3/4 of the harvest), oats (about 2/5) and barley (more than ¼). The areas of cultivation of sugar beet largely coincide with the areas of wheat crops.

Of the fodder grains, barley is the most important; some varieties of spring barley are grown specifically for use in the production of beer, which is considered the national drink in Germany (consumption per capita is about 145 liters per year). The world's largest hop-growing area Hallertau is located in Bavaria.

Of great importance is the cultivation of fodder root crops (fodder beets, etc.), corn for green fodder and silage, alfalfa, clover, and other fodder grasses. Of the oilseeds, rapeseed is the most important, the crops of which are more than 10 times higher than the crops of sunflower.

The warm climate of the river valleys, intermountain basins, and lowlands of southwestern Germany favors the cultivation of crops such as tobacco and vegetables; the latter are also grown in the area of ​​the Elbe marches below Hamburg and in the Spreewald region south of Berlin. Fruit plantations are especially characteristic of the mountain slopes of southern Germany, the lower reaches of the Elbe near Hamburg, the region of the Havel lakes near Potsdam and the vicinity of Halle.

Viticulture is superior in marketable products to fruit and vegetable growing combined. Vineyards are located mainly in the valleys of the Rhine, Moselle and other rivers in southern Germany, as well as in the Elbe valley near Dresden.

The valleys of the Upper Rhine, Main, Neckar and Lower Elbe are famous for their gardens.

Cattle breeding is the main branch of animal husbandry in Germany, it provides more than 2/5 of all marketable agricultural products, with milk accounting for the bulk (about ¼). The second place in importance is occupied by pig breeding. The country's self-sufficiency in milk and beef systematically exceeds 100%, but in pork it is less than 4/5.

Dairy and beef cattle breeding is most typical for well-moisturized coastal, alpine and pre-alpine regions rich in meadows and pastures, as well as for the periphery of urban agglomerations. Due to the rather cold winters, stall keeping of livestock is common. Pig breeding is developed everywhere, but especially in areas close to ports of entry of imported feed, areas of cultivation of sugar beets, potatoes and fodder root crops. In the agro-industrial complex, agriculture plays a subordinate role. 95% of livestock is slaughtered at industrial slaughterhouses, milk is processed at dairies, which are usually part of the systems of either industrial and industrial and commercial concerns, or owned on shares by cooperative associations of the farmers themselves.

Broiler production, production of eggs, veal, as well as pig breeding are concentrated in large livestock farms, the location of which is little dependent on natural factors.

In terms of agricultural production, grain production and livestock production, Germany is second only to France, and in terms of milk production it ranks first within the EU. The efficiency of agricultural production in Germany is significantly higher than the EU average. At the same time, Germany lags behind in the average yield of corn and sugar beets.

In competence government agencies in the field of agriculture includes: resolving issues of changing the agrarian structure, lending and financing of agriculture, and regulating the markets of agricultural products. The German government is providing financial assistance in the complex process of adaptation and integration of East German agriculture into the European Community. Assistance is also being provided in the transformation of former agricultural cooperatives into competitive firms, which is already bearing fruit: many sole proprietorships have made significant profits, in particular due to large cultivated areas.

In addition to food production in Germany, agriculture performs additional tasks, the importance of which is constantly growing. This is the preservation and protection of the natural foundations of life, the protection of attractive landscapes for residential areas, resettlement, economic location and recreation, the supply of agricultural raw materials to industry.

Infrastructure industries

Transport

The basis of the transport system is made up of railways, carrying about 2 billion passengers a year. Their length is more than 39 thousand km. Some roads are adapted for the movement of high-speed Intercity-Express trains. At the beginning of 2003, 53 million cars (including passenger cars) were registered in Germany. Motor roads of all classes make up more than 230 thousand km, autobahns - about 12 thousand km. The German merchant fleet has 2,200 modern ships.

Energy

Germany is the world's fifth largest energy consumer. In 2002, Germany was Europe's largest consumer of electricity at 512.9 terawatt-hours. Government policy involves the conservation of non-renewable sources and the use of energy from renewable sources such as solar energy, wind energy, biomass, hydropower and geothermal energy. Energy-saving technologies are also being developed. The German government plans that by 2050, half of the electricity demand will be covered by energy from renewable sources.

As of 2009, the following types of energy carriers dominated the structure of electricity consumption in Germany: brown coal (24.6% of net electricity consumption), nuclear energy (22.6%), hard coal (18.3%), renewable energy sources ( 15.6%) and gas (12.9%). In 2000, the government and the German nuclear industry announced the decommissioning of all nuclear power plants by 2021. In 2010, the government abandoned the previous cabinet's plans to shut down the country's nuclear power plants until 2021 and decided to extend the operation of nuclear power plants until the 2030s.

Population

The Federal Republic of Germany is only slightly larger in area than neighboring Poland, but twice as large in population. As of January 1, 2009, 82,002,356 inhabitants live in Germany.

As in many developed countries world, the birth rate in Germany is below the replacement level. Since 1972, the birth rate in Germany has been lower than the death rate. In 2008, 8 people were born per 1,000 inhabitants and 10 died.
Annual population growth for 2007 - 0.12%
Annual population growth for 2008 - -0.2%

The rural population is less than 10%, almost 90% of the German population lives in cities and urban areas adjacent to them.

The population of large cities (as of 2008): Berlin - 3424.7 thousand people; Hamburg - 1773.2 thousand people; Munich - 1315.4 thousand people; Cologne - 1000.3 thousand people; Frankfurt am Main - 670.6 thousand people

Immigration

In recent years, the number of immigrants has been growing rapidly. The number of immigrants from India, Syria, Egypt, Libya, Jordan, Israel, Brazil, Ukraine, Belarus, Congo, South Africa and other African and Maghreb countries, Indonesia, Malaysia, North Korea, Serbia, Mongolia is increasing. At the same time, the Germans themselves are migrating to Australia and Canada. Thus, the ratio of indigenous people to migrants has changed dramatically over the past decades. The proportion of immigrants from the traditional is large (the second largest ethnic group).

Population structure

The overwhelming majority are Germans (92%). Lusatian Serbs (60,000) live in the lands of Brandenburg and Saxony, and Danes (50,000) live in the northern regions of Schleswig-Holstein. There are 6.75 million foreign citizens in the country, of which 1.749 million are Turks, 930 thousand are citizens of the republics of the former Yugoslavia, 187.5 thousand are citizens of the Russian Federation and 129 thousand are citizens of Ukraine.

Since 1988, in Germany, from the post-Soviet states to permanent place 2.2 million migrants of German origin and 220,000 contingent refugees (including members of their families) arrived in residence, thus making up one of the largest Russian diasporas in the world.

The Muslim population in Germany is between 3.2 and 3.5 million, although this figure is sometimes disputed. According to some other data, 4.3 million Muslims live permanently in Germany, of which approximately 63.2 percent are of Turkish origin.

Languages

The official literary and business language is German. Along with this, the population uses Low, Middle and High German dialects (10 main and more than 50 local), which are also spoken by residents of the border regions of neighboring states; the dialects themselves are often very different from the literary language. There are mixed dialects. The recognized minority languages ​​include Danish, Frisian and Lusatian, as well as the regional language Low Saxon (Low German), which has been recognized by the EU since 1994.

According to estimates, about 6 million people in Germany speak Russian to some extent, including more than 3 million immigrants from the countries of the former USSR (and their descendants), mainly from Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine. Also in Germany they speak Turkish (2.1 million), the languages ​​of the peoples of the former Yugoslavia (720,000), Italian (612,000). Migrants who do not speak German often find themselves in an information vacuum and/or become dependent on sources of information.

Religion and worldview

Freedom of conscience and freedom of religion are guaranteed by the German constitution.

The majority of Germans are Christians, while Catholics make up 32.4%, Lutherans - 32.0%, Orthodox - 1.14%. A small part of believers belong to Christian denominations - Baptists, Methodists, believers of the New Apostolic Church - 0.46% and adherents of other religious movements.

Part of the believers are Muslims (from 3.8 million to 4.3 million or from 4.5% to 5.2%), Jehovah's Witnesses (about 164,000 or 0.2%) and members of the Jewish communities (about 100,000 or 0.12 %). About 31% of the German population, mainly in the territory of the former GDR, are atheists (70% there).

Germany was converted to Christianity during the time of the Franks. The Baptist of Germany is considered to be Saint Boniface, who was the Bishop of Mainz and converted a significant part of modern Germany to Christianity (he suffered martyrdom from the pagans in 754). At the beginning of the 16th century, the Church Reformation began in Germany and Switzerland, based on the teachings of Ulrich Zwingli and Martin Luther. As a result of the Reformation and the religious wars that accompanied it (the main of which was the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648), Germany was divided into Catholic and Protestant (Lutheran) regions. The main principle enshrined in the Augsburg Religious Peace (1555) was the principle of “cuius regio euius religio” (“whose power, that is the faith”), that is, the subjects of one or another feudal lord were obliged to accept his faith: Catholic or Protestant.

Holidays

Many holidays have a long history based on ancient rites and religious holidays. A number of holidays are reflected in the calendars as a holiday and therefore a non-working day. All-German holidays include: New Year (January 1); Day of the Three Kings (Magi, in Orthodox tradition) (6th January); Labor Day (May 1); German Unity Day (October 3); St. Nicholas Day (December 6, see Nikolaustag); Christmas (December 25-26). In addition, each land and administrative unit with appropriate powers can also celebrate a local memorial day. These include Oktoberfest (Munich), Christkindlmarkt (Nuremberg), Rosenmontag (Düsseldorf, Cologne, Mainz, Nuremberg).

Trade unions in Germany

Among the European models of social partnership, one of the most successful and stable is the German one.

The formation of a social partnership system in Germany dates back to the end of the 19th century. An important role in Germany is played by the traditions of interaction between social partners, the experience of conflict-free problem solving, and high civic consciousness. By the middle of the 20th century, a system was developed that included unemployment insurance, government measures to promote employment, a negotiating mechanism between trade unions and employers' unions (tariff autonomy), and the like.

The "German" model provides for the conclusion of a large number of industry agreements, which practically neutralizes negotiations at the enterprise level. According to the Basic Law "The Federal Republic of Germany is a democratic and social state" and through the adoption of relevant laws, the state largely determines the framework conditions in the field of social and labor relations.

So, the State contributes to the creation of the necessary conditions for resolving conflicts, and legally extends collective agreements to "non-unified" employees.

Labor legislation in Germany is also at a high level of development. One of the features of German trade unions is that there is no primary trade union organization at German enterprises, but there is a representative of the trade union. He is a member of the works council of the enterprise. The production council of the enterprise establishes contacts between the administration and trade unions. In relations between employers and employees, these councils have no right to take sides. They cannot organize strikes, and are called upon to defend the interests of the company as a whole. There are such works councils in all sectors of the economy.

In Germany, 85% of all workers who are members of some trade union are members of the German Trade Union Association (DGB).

The Association of German Trade Unions is the largest (6.6 million members) and influential trade union organization in Germany, created back in 1949.

The association of German trade unions represents the interests of workers in the private and public sector, employees and officials. It consists of eight branch trade unions:
Industrial Union "Construction-Agriculture-Ecology" (IG Bauen-Agrar-Umwelt);
Industrial Trade Union "Mining, Chemical Industry, Energy" (IG Bergbau, Chemie, Energy);
Trade Union "Education and Science" (Gewerkschaft Erziehung und Wissenschaft);
Industrial Union "IG Metall" (IG Metall);
Trade Union "Food-Delicatessen-Restaurants" (Gewerkschaft Nahrung-Genuss-Gaststätten);
Police Union (Gewerkschaft der Polizei);
Trade Union of Railway Workers TRANSNET
United Service Workers Union (Verdi)

In its program, the Association of German Trade Unions adheres to the idea of ​​​​social solidarity, that is, it advocates a fair distribution of jobs and incomes, social subsidies, benefits, the development of accumulation funds, the fight against unemployment, equal chances for success regardless of origin, skin color and sex - the proportion of women in the SNP - 31.9%.

In the economy, the SNPs support the concept of a socially oriented market economy that meets the interests of established social structures.

The UNP is a member of the European Trade Union Confederation, the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, the Advisory Committee to the OECD and represents the German trade union movement in the EU, UN, IMF, WTO and ILO.

Their slogan is "Save the welfare state through reform." Other priorities include the development of infrastructure and public sector utilities, maintaining a high quality of life. Special Role in this, according to the UNP, belongs to the state: active state intervention serves as a guarantor of social order and justice.

The UNP opposes general privatization and deregulation and calls for a redistribution of responsibility for regulating markets between trade unions and the state. It is necessary to limit privatization so that citizens do not pay for the state's mistakes related to the sale of highly profitable business areas to private hands.

The public sector must also address environmental issues and set the norm in the economic and social spheres.

Particular emphasis is placed on the role of local self-government in public life as a form of citizen participation in politics. Creating an affordable housing market that takes into account the opportunities of people with low incomes is one of the main tasks of the state "social construction".

Key tasks of social policy:
Job Opportunity Guarantee
Prevention of poverty and related social exclusion
Integration of disabled people, prevention of their social and professional exclusion
development of affordable health care, family support, school education.
protection of the elderly, development of a system of social insurance funds (accumulation funds), increase in social payments (increase in federal pension subsidies), benefits, accumulation funds, fight against unemployment.

German Bureau of Officials and Tariff Union (DBB)
(Federal Chairman - Peter Hazen)

“Proximity is our strength,” says the German Confederation of Officials. The DBB represents the tariff-political interests of public sector and private sector employees. The trade union has more than 1.25 million members. This trade union is supported by 39 other trade unions and 16 state organizations.

The title of the union's recent program is "Challenging the Future - Creating Opportunities". The DBB says it puts "People First" and calls for a fight against job cuts. The trade union position itself as an association of reformers. “Reforms are not through cost savings… First of all, the rights of the people. Every individual matters." The DBB, like the UNP, advocates equal opportunities for all, especially in matters of gender equality (for example, the DBB has 320,000 women and 150,000 youth aged 16-27).

The DBB expresses its concern about the emerging deficit of public funding.

In 2003, the DBB Congress of the Union in Leipzig presented the program "Reformist model of the 21st century". It contains proposals for a long-term, citizen-friendly reconstruction of public administration.

DBB offers " new model career":
According to education and experience, everyone can take a proper post.
Flexible working hours
Reform of labor legislation on wages and working hours
Against slogans like "we will increase working hours, we will refuse public holidays"
Preservation of jobs for workers and employees
Protection of the income of the population in accordance with the economic situation in the country
Extending the working conditions of the West German states to the East German ones (high wages, social guarantees, fixed working week, etc.)
Organization of the work of employees in accordance with the job law that contributes to the success and productivity of labor
Performance related pay
Autonomy in negotiating wage increases and comprehensive labor contracts nationwide
High performance and humane management of recruited employees.

The union works closely with the EU on labor law issues. In 1991 DBB participated in the creation of the European Trade Union Confederation (8 million members).

German Christian Trade Union Association

This trade union represents the interests of religious workers and officials. The German Christian Trade Union Association (CGB) is the third largest trade union association in Germany. Under his leadership are 16 separate tariff negotiators in a wide variety of industries such as railways, hospitality or agriculture. The CGB advocates for the extension of Christian values ​​to working life. In its program, the CGB emphasizes that the CGB is a voluntary association of independent trade unions. The main priorities of the CGB:
Implementation of Christian social values ​​in work, economy, public life and society
Protection of socially vulnerable segments of the population, public unity.
Freedom of association/union in accordance with the Basic Law (workers can choose any representative to protect their interests)
Promoting trade union pluralism in Europe and Germany
Human rights and freedoms are the main value of the rule of law, against all types of extremism

The trade union also advocates the development of a social market economy model that combines the advantages of a competitive economy with social responsibility. The CGB encourages the development of social partnership between employees and employers. Personal performance is the basis for fair job evaluation. Particular attention should be paid to people with limited working capacity.

As far as Christian values ​​are concerned, Sunday should remain a day of rest as an important foundation for the Christian way of life.

The CGB advocates minimal government intervention in tariff autonomy. The task of a Christian-social tariff policy is to ensure a fair participation in social production for workers.

The family is the basis of society, it is necessary to intensify social policy to support the institution of the family.

Preservation and creation of jobs determine the tariff policy of the CGB. The CGB excludes political strikes as a means of defending the interests of workers, and advocates for the rights of workers to participate in the management of the enterprise and for a fair tax system "burdening all social groups according to their ability to pay."

The expansion of the European Community poses great challenges to Germany, primarily in economic and social policy. The CGB stands for the equalization of the living conditions of all EU countries, taking into account the characteristics of the Member States.

United Trade Union of Service Workers

It has over 2 million members. Employee representation was brought to life in 2001 by the merger of five separate trade unions from the economic sectors: financial services, municipal services, logistics, trade and media. Consists of 13 industry divisions and extensive network organizations.

The system of social protection of the population

The model of social protection that existed in Germany (called “corporate”, “continental”, “conservative” or “Bismarckian”) is considered one of the most effective among European countries. Germany was the first country to introduce a social insurance system. Back in the 1890s, under Bismarck, three laws were adopted that formed the basis of this system: the law on insurance for the sickness of persons in commercial work, the law on insurance against industrial accidents, and the law on disability and old-age insurance (1891).

At the beginning of the 20th century, the development of social insurance led to a reduction in the retirement age to 65 with 35 years of insurance experience. Early retirement pension (from the age of 60) was assigned to miners with many years of work experience.

The modern model of social protection in Germany was formed under the influence of the changes that took place in the country in the 50-60s of the XX century, and changed as a result of the coming to power of each new party.

The concept of the social market economy was developed to rebuild the German economy after World War II. Its political implementation is associated with the personalities of L. Erhard and A. Müller-Armak. The term "social market economy" was introduced by Müller-Armac. L. Erhard was the first Minister of Economics, and then became the Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. Under his leadership, the concept of a social market economy was developed and then implemented in Germany. The social task of the state was not the redistribution of social benefits, but the provision of framework conditions for the activities of individuals, encouraging their consciousness, independence and responsibility for their own well-being. The result of the implementation of these principles was an "economic miracle". According to L. Erhard, the state should provide social assistance in accordance with the moral principles of society (the most vulnerable and low-income segments of the population - the disabled, orphans, large families, pensioners), but support competition and fight dependency. After the resignation of Chancellor L. Erhard, Keynesian methods of economic stimulation were given priority in domestic policy; the state assumed the role of distributor of the national income.

During the rapid economic growth, due to a shortage of workers, guest workers from southeastern Europe were allowed to enter the country. In the mid-1970s, about 4 million people lived in the country (11% of the workforce). This was the reason for the increase in state social spending, which, after the oil crises, became a heavy burden on the state treasury. The state took measures to restrict immigration, which provoked an increase in taxes. Layoff protection and tariff autonomy laws were passed to restore economic stability. This led to the fact that only three major players remained on the market: the state, trade unions and employers. This weakened competition and made it possible for trade unions to demand higher wages, a reduction in the working week, etc. Another feature of this period can be the desire of the state to redistribute income not vertically (to reduce the differentiation of society), but horizontally (within the middle class).

The modern model of social protection in Germany has the main characteristics: the principle of professional solidarity, the principle of redistribution, the principle of assistance and the principle of self-government of insurance institutions.

The principle of professional solidarity

Insurance funds are being created, managed on an equal footing by employees and employers. These funds receive deductions from salaries in accordance with the “principle of insurance”. The system establishes a strong link between the level of social protection and the success and duration of employment. This model assumes the development of a system of social insurance benefits differentiated by types of labor activity. In contrast to the social-democratic model, the corporate model is based on the principle of personal responsibility of each member of society for their own destiny and the position of their loved ones. Therefore, here self-defense, self-sufficiency play a significant role.

The principle of redistribution

This principle applies to a small part of the low-income strata of society. Social assistance is provided regardless of previous contributions and is financed from tax revenues to the state budget. The right to receive such assistance belongs to persons who have special merits before the state, for example, civil servants or victims of war.

Assistance principle

This principle is an indispensable element of the social protection system, since the previous principles do not take into account all insurance risks. According to the principle of assistance, social assistance can be received by anyone in need of the amount necessary for him, if he does not have the opportunity to improve his financial situation on his own.

The principle of self-government of insurance institutions

The management of the social insurance system is carried out directly by interested persons-employers and employees, which ensures the most complete representation of the interests of both parties. There are three main actors involved in social protection at the regional and local levels: national or local business associations, trade unions and the state. It is interesting to note that the German social protection system is characterized by the division of institutions providing social insurance by areas of competence: organizations for pensions, sickness and accidents at work operate separately. Unemployment insurance is not included in the general system of social protection, but falls within the competence of the federal department for labor, that is, it is carried out within the framework of the policy of promoting employment of the population. The financing of the compulsory social insurance system (in addition to it, there is private, of course) is carried out according to a mixed system: from the contributions of insured workers and their employers (medical, pension and unemployment insurance) and from general tax revenues to the state budget. A special position is occupied only by accident insurance, which is financed by contributions from the employer. In the event of financial difficulties for social insurance bodies, the state acts as a guarantor of the fulfillment of their obligations, which indicates a special role of social protection bodies in maintaining stability and social justice.

At the present stage of history, the former model of socio-economic development of Germany is in crisis. The tax burden reaches 80% of the income of the population, there is a high level of unemployment, which is chronic, the distribution of income is inefficient and non-transparent, the quality of public services does not meet the requirements of the time. Due to the aging of the population (its growth in 2000 was only 0.29%), social security spending is steadily increasing. The high level of benefits for the unemployed generates dependency in society. Against the backdrop of falling economic growth rates, unemployment has become an acute problem in Germany (at the beginning of 2002, more than 4 million unemployed people were registered).

Large companies, skillfully using loopholes in the legislation to reduce taxes, often seek privileges for themselves. In the pension sector, the policy of the "contract of generations" was unofficially proclaimed, when pension contributions are made from the income of the working population. Given the aging of the German population, the tax burden is increasing sharply, and there are not enough funds for payments from the pension fund. Problems arise in relation to those segments of the population who do not have a permanent job and, accordingly, are not entitled to receive insurance benefits, while the level of state assistance is extremely low. Therefore, these categories are forced to rely on local charitable organizations and public assistance. Accordingly, the corporate model of social policy leads to the emergence of a "dual society".

culture

The culture of Germany includes the culture of both the modern Federal Republic of Germany and the peoples that make up modern Germany, before its unification: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, etc. A broader interpretation of "German culture" also includes the culture of Austria, which is politically independent of Germany, but inhabited by Germans and belongs to the same culture. German (Germanic) culture has been known since the 5th century. BC e.

Modern Germany is characterized by diversity and wide dissemination of culture. There is no centralization of cultural life and cultural values ​​in one or several cities - they are dispersed literally throughout the country: along with the famous Berlin, Munich, Weimar, Dresden or Cologne, there are many small, not so widely known, but culturally significant places: Rothenburg Obder -Tauber, Naumburg, Bayreuth, Celle, Wittenberg, Schleswig, etc. In 1999 there were 4570 museums, and their number is growing. They receive almost 100 million visits per year. The most famous museums are the Dresden Art Gallery, the Old and New Pinakotheks in Munich, the Deutsches Museum in Munich, the Historical Museum in Berlin and many others. There are also many palace museums (the most famous is Sanssouci in Potsdam) and castle museums.

Sport

Germany is a state where physical culture and sports have been widely developed on the basis of the sports traditions of the German nation. According to the German Olympic Sports Confederation (DOSB), in 2009, about 25-30% of the German population (24-27 million people) were members of various sports organizations. Every year the number of people involved in sports in the country increases by 5-6%. The German national football team is one of the strongest teams in the world. The Germans have 11 world championship medals: 3 gold, 4 silver, 4 bronze; 7 medals of the European championships: 3 gold, 1 silver, 3 bronze. The German national football team is one of the most successful national teams in the history of international tournaments. One of the most successful and famous Formula 1 drivers, seven-time world champion Michael Schumacher is German.

Education in Germany

Preschool education in Germany

Pre-school education is provided by institutions (mainly kindergartens (German: Kindergärten)), which work with children aged 3-6 until they usually start school. Children who have not reached the level appropriate for their age or are behind in development have the opportunity to catch up in preschool classes (German: Vorklassen) and kindergartens at schools (German: Schulkindergärten).

These institutions adjoin either the pre-school sector or the primary education sector, depending on the rules of the individual Länder. Attendance is usually optional, although in most Länder it is the responsibility of the authorities to make schooling compulsory for children of the appropriate age who are retarded.

The transition from primary education to one of the types of junior secondary, where pupils study before they have completed the entire course of compulsory education, depends on the legislation of individual states. The recommendations of the school in which the child studied is a kind of guideline in determining further professional orientation. This is agreed with the parents. The final decision, in principle, is made by the parents, but for certain types of schools it also depends on the student's abilities in the area in which the school specializes, where the parents want to send the child, and / or on the decision made by the school management.

School education

School education in Germany is free and universal. A 9 year education is required. In general, the school education system is designed for 12-13 years. To date, there are about 50 thousand schools in Germany, in which more than 12.5 million students study. The school system is divided into three levels: primary, secondary I and secondary II.

All children who have reached the age of six begin their education in primary school (Grundschule). Education in primary school lasts four years (four classes), the load is from 20 to 30 hours a week. In 2008, there were approximately 3 million students in primary school.

Secondary education

Education of the second stage (secondary I) continues until the 10th grade.

After elementary school, children are divided, mainly by ability, into three different groups.

The weakest students are sent for further education in the so-called "main school" (German: Hauptschule), where they study for 5 years. The main goal of this school is to prepare for low-skilled professional activities. This is where basic education comes in. The average workload is 30-33 hours per week. After graduating from the main school, a young German can start working or continue his studies in the vocational education system. Students with average results go to a "real school" (German: Realschule) and study there for 6 years. After graduating from a real school, you can get a job, and the most capable can continue their education in the 11th and 12th grades of the gymnasium.

In the gymnasium, the student receives a classical education. After graduating from the gymnasium, a matriculation certificate is given, giving the right to enter the university.

Secondary education of the second stage (secondary II) is carried out only in the gymnasium in the 11th and 12th grades. Students in the thirteenth grade of the gymnasium are considered applicants. In the thirteenth grade of the gymnasium, students are preparing to study at higher educational institutions. At the end of the thirteenth grade of the gymnasium, students take exams in basic school subjects (German: Abitur). The level of education in the 12th and 13th grades and the level of final exams in the gymnasium is very high and, according to the UNESCO ISCED International Classification of Education Standards, corresponds to the level of 1-2 courses of higher educational institutions of countries with a ten-year or eleven-year school education system (for example, Russia). The average score of all entrance exams is the most important criterion for obtaining a place to study at a higher education institution. Entrance exams for higher schools Germany are not held. Admission is carried out in accordance with the average mark in the certificate, as well as taking into account some social factors. If there are more applicants for study at a higher educational institution than there are places, then the best ones are accepted, and the rest are enrolled in the queue; they can get a place to study next year.

Secondary education in Germany is represented by vocational schools, special vocational schools and higher specialized schools.

Germany is subject to constant criticism from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development for its education policy. The government has not yet taken measures to eliminate the identified problems in the education system. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Germany's spending on education is below average. At the same time, there is an imbalance in the financing of educational institutions. While the cost of primary school is relatively low, a lot of money is invested in higher education institutions. According to experts, Germany may suffer losses in the future if educational reform is not carried out.

Higher education

German system higher education different types of universities. In total, there are 383 universities in Germany, of which 103 are universities and 176 universities of applied sciences. Getting the first higher education in almost all universities until recently was free for both Germans and foreigners. Since 2007, students of some universities are required to pay approximately 500 euros per semester plus the regular fee (which has existed for much longer and everywhere), about 150 euros, which includes a ticket, use of libraries, etc. [source not specified 865 days] In the Western federal states under the control of the CDU party, students who exceed the prescribed study period by several semesters are usually required to pay tuition fees. These reforms in the education system are regulated by the relevant law. The number of students is almost 2 million, of which 48% are women, 250,000 are foreign students. The teaching staff is about 110 thousand people. Approximately 69,000 Germans study abroad. Until 2010, in the course of the Bologna process, German universities must restructure their curricula according to a new model.

A significant number of universities are state-owned and are subsidized by the government. There are relatively few private universities - 69.

When entering a university, entrance exams are not provided, and the most important thing for an applicant is to successfully pass the final exams at a school or gymnasium. When enrolling in prestigious specialties, the average score of the applicant's school certificate is of decisive importance.

The distribution of places for prestigious specialties at universities is not carried out by universities, but by a special department - "Zentralstelle für die Vergabe von Studienplätzen". In addition to the average score, ZVS also takes into account social and personal reasons, such as disability, marital status, etc. If the average score is insufficient, then the applicant is put on a waiting list. After several semesters of waiting, he is granted a place at the university.

Those wishing to study at institutes (Fachhochschule) apply directly there. There is also a selection based on certificates.

Parents of all students under the age of 25 in Germany are entitled to receive so-called "children's money" (Kindergeld) in the amount of 184 euros. Students, taking into account their own income and the income of their parents, can receive a student loan (“BaFöG”). Half of this loan must then be returned to the state.

In addition to the usual scholarship, in Germany there are many scholarships assigned by various foundations - there are party foundations and the German People's Foundation, foundations of churches, state governments, departments of the German government, as well as small regional organizations. Scholarships are usually designed for a certain category of students, for example, especially gifted ones. Scholarships are available for both German students and students from other countries. The main organization issuing scholarships for foreigners is the German Academic Exchange Service. The next major foundations: the Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, the Friedrich Erbert Stiftung, the NaFög (Each Lands Foundation) grant scholarships only for the writing of a Dissertation (Promotionsstudium).

The science

Scientific research in Germany is carried out in universities and scientific associations, as well as in corporate research centers. Scientific research at universities is financed from the federal budget, from the state budget and from funds allocated by enterprises. per year for Scientific research 9.2 billion euros are spent on universities.

Scientific research in Germany is also carried out by four large scientific associations: the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Society, the Fraunhofer Society and the Leibniz Society.

The Max Planck Society has about 13 thousand employees, including 5 thousand scientists, the annual budget of the society is 1.4 billion euros.
The Helmholtz Society has about 26.5 thousand employees, including 8 thousand scientists, the annual budget is 2.35 billion euros.
The Fraunhofer Society has about 12.5 thousand employees, the budget is 1.2 billion euros.
The Leibniz Society has 13,700 employees and a budget of 1.1 billion euros.

Large German and foreign companies also maintain research centers in Germany.

media

Newspapers and magazines

The German newspaper market is characterized by a small number of national newspapers and a well-developed local press. The reason for this development of the press market was that the modern German media landscape is rooted in the post-war years, when the Western allies, having closed all the media that existed in Nazi Germany, began to create their own media system, naturally focusing on media development within their own occupation zones. That is why there are relatively few nationwide newspapers in Germany, and most of them appeared after 1949, that is, after the end of the formal occupation status of West Germany and the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany. Conventionally, the German press can be divided into three categories:
national newspapers (distributed throughout Germany);
supra-regional newspapers (überregionale Zeitungen) - distributed in more than one region, but not throughout the country;
local press - newspapers of one region, one district, city, and so on.

Separately, it must be emphasized that many small local newspapers are included in the “publishing chains”: since a small newspaper with a circulation of several hundred or thousands of copies, of course, cannot afford to buy nice photos, neither send a correspondent on business trips, nor subscribe to news feeds, she enters into an associated relationship with a certain publishing concern. This concern provides dozens of local newspapers with unified content - articles on domestic and foreign policy, sports reviews, etc., leaving only local news at the discretion of the editors. In this way, the local newspaper survives economically and readers can continue to buy the newspaper they are used to. Meanwhile, in this case, of course, we cannot talk about an independent publication, and German media researchers prefer to talk about "editorial publications" (German: redaktionelle Ausgabe) and "journalistic units" (German: publizistische Einheit).

National dailies:
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, FAZ (Frankfurt General Newspaper) is a liberal-conservative and the most widely read newspaper in Germany, to the left than "Welt", but to the right than "taz". Published in Frankfurt am Main. Circulation: 387,064 copies.
"Süddeutsche Zeitung", SZ (South German newspaper) - a serious newspaper, left, closer to the "FAZ", a liberal direction, published in Munich. / Concern Süddeutscher Verlag /. Despite its name, it is a national newspaper. Circulation: 444,000 copies.
The Frankfurter Rundschau (Frankfurt Review) is a newspaper close to the Social Democrats. Circulation: 150,000 copies.
Die Welt (Peace) is a right-wing, most conservative newspaper owned by the largest German publishing concern Springer-Verlag, which specializes in the production of mass periodicals. Circulation: 264,273 copies.
"Bild" (Picture) - tabloid newspaper, the most popular "yellow" newspaper, the flagship of the Springer-Verlag publishing house, the most circulated newspaper in Germany. Unlike all other national newspapers, the vast majority of Bild's circulation is retail, not subscription. Circulation: 3,445,000 copies.
Handelsblatt (Trade Newspaper) is Germany's leading financial newspaper. Published since 1946. Circulation: 148,000 copies.
Financial Times Deutschland (Financial Times Germany) is a financial and political newspaper that has been published since 2000. Circulation: 100,000 copies.
Die Tageszeitung (Daily) is a far-left, independent of concerns and political forces, founded in 1978 as a mouthpiece for the radical left movement. Today it has rather a left-liberal orientation. In addition to the Berlin edition, there are several regional editions. Known for her provocative, anti-war and anti-nationalist articles. Circulation: 60,000 copies. Published in Berlin.
"Junge Welt" (Young World) is a small-circulation left-wing newspaper. It was created as the mouthpiece of the youth organization of the GDR, the Union of Free German Youth. Circulation: below 20,000 copies.
"Express" Tale newspaper: Cologne-Bonn /M. DuMont & Schauberg Verlag/.

Supra-regional dailies:
The Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, WAZ (West German General Newspaper) is a conservative publication distributed in North Rhine-Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate, the parent newspaper of the WAZ-Gruppe publishing group.
Neues Deutschland (New Germany) is the former mouthpiece of the SED, the ruling party of the GDR. Today, she is close to her successor, the Left Party. Popular mainly in the eastern lands. Circulation: 45,000 copies.

Other German daily newspapers:
"Sächsische Zeitung" (Saxon newspaper) - the largest newspaper in East Germany, with an editorial office in Dresden, the flagship publication of the newspaper group Sächsische Zeitung
"Berliner Zeitung" (Berlin newspaper)
"Tagesspiegel" (Mirror of the Day)
"Stuttgarter Zeitung" (Stuttgart newspaper)

etc.

Weekly socio-political magazines:
"Der Spiegel" (The Mirror) left-wing weekly, criticism, analysis - Hamburg / Bertelsmann AG concern /
"Focus" (Focus) left-wing weekly, Munich / Hubert Burda Media concern
"Stern" (Star)

Weekly Newspapers:
Die Zeit (Time) is the most influential liberal weekly newspaper. Circulation: 480.000 copies
Freitag (Friday) is a small-circulation newspaper that finds its readers among the left-wing intellectuals. Circulation: 13.000 copies.
"Junge Freiheit" (Young Freedom) is a small-circulation newspaper of a national conservative orientation. Circulation: 16,000 copies (according to own instructions).

Russian-language newspapers and magazines:
Russian-language press of Germany - Library online.
Review of the "Russian" press of Germany (Article).
"We are in Hamburg." The main content of the editorial part is articles on the history of Hamburg and its famous people, museums, the Hanseatic traditions of the metropolis on the Elbe, economic and other aspects of life in the areas of modern Hamburg, and cities in Northern Germany. Distributed for free. Circulation 10,000 copies.

Also in Germany, local versions of international magazines such as Cosmopolitan, Glamour, Maxim, Newsweek, Businessweek, etc. are published.

Television and radio

Today, the system of German audiovisual media is called the "dual" system. This means that there are only two forms of media ownership in Germany:
a) public-legal form of ownership;
b) private ownership.

The public legal form of ownership dates back to the post-war period, when, as part of the denazification policy, all the media that existed in Nazi Germany were closed down by the Western allies, and the press and radio, completely controlled by the occupying military authorities, were created to ensure information broadcasting. Between 1945 and 1949 the radio stations established by the Allies were gradually transferred to the management of German personnel, but the question arose before the occupying authorities how these companies should be managed. The Allies immediately rejected the idea of ​​transferring the media to the hands of the German state (the government of the Federal Republic of Germany, as well as the local governments of the federal states are still forbidden to have any media), but the idea of ​​transferring radio stations to private hands was also rejected (despite the fact that newspapers, created by the allies were transferred to private editors). As the main form of ownership, the allies chose the public-legal form of ownership.

This form of ownership is typical for the British BBC and means that the company is not owned by either private persons or the state, but is in the "community ownership". The strategic management of the company is carried out by a special supervisory board, formed from representatives of large parties, significant public organizations, churches, trade unions, etc., which should ensure the most balanced program policy. The Supervisory Board appoints a management board, which is engaged in "tactical planning" of the company's actions and appoints an intendant - the general director of the company, who directly manages the company. Such a complex system management, borrowed from the same BBC, was also designed to ensure the democratic development of the German media. The first public law company in West Germany was NWDR (Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk), broadcasting in the British occupation zone and created by the Englishman Hugh Carlton Green, a BBC employee who later received the post of BBC CEO. Also, the public-legal form of ownership was chosen by the Americans and the French - for their occupation zones.

Broadcasting

Public law broadcasting remained the only broadcast in Germany until the late 1980s, when legislation was amended to allow the creation of private radio and television companies. Private companies subsist by advertising and producing their own films and shows, which they can sell to third parties. Public law companies can only place a limited amount of advertising in their broadcasts (in particular, advertising on public law channels is completely prohibited on weekends and holidays, and on weekdays it is prohibited after 8 pm), but they receive the so-called. "subscription fee" (Gebühren) from all German citizens who have a TV or radio at home. The subscription fee for a TV station is about 17 euros per month, for a radio receiver - about 9 euros per month. All Germans who have a TV or radio are required to pay a subscription fee, regardless of whether they watch broadcasts of public legal channels - this causes fierce discussions in German society. The largest public law company in Germany and the largest television and radio company in Europe is the public law television and radio company ARD (Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland - the Commonwealth of Public Law Television and Radio Companies of the Federal Republic of Germany).

Within the framework of ARD, the first German television channel is broadcast: ARD Das Erste, about a dozen local television channels produced respectively by members of the Commonwealth, local public broadcasters and radio broadcasters, as well as over fifty local radio programs.

The members of the ARD are (in alphabetical order):
Bayerischer Rundfunk (BR)
Hessischer Rundfunk (HR)
Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk (MDR)
Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR)
Radio Berlin-Brandenburg (RBB)
Radio Bremen (RB)
Südwestfunk (SWR)
Saarländischer Rundfunk (SR)
Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR)

ARD also broadcasts radio and television Deutsche Welle - Deutsche Welle. Deutsche Welle performs the functions of foreign broadcasting, therefore, for its creation, ARD receives a separate budget, subsidized by the federal government. Deutsche Welle is presented on television (DW-TV) and radio (DW-Radio), as well as on the DW-WORLD Internet. Broadcasting is carried out in 30 languages. Radio programs and a website are published in Russian.

The second public-legal television channel in Germany is ZDF - Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (Second German Television), headquartered in Mainz. The history of the creation of the ZDF goes back to the 1950s, when Federal Chancellor Konrad Adenauer tried to bring the media under state control. One of the directions of the federal government's offensive against the media was an attempt to create a state second channel. Faced with serious opposition from both the ARD functionaries, who did not want to tolerate state competitors, and the governments of the federal states, who did not want to strengthen the federal center, Adenauer tried to realize his project until the early 1960s, when in 1962 the verdict of the federal constitutional court recognized the very possibility of creating a state-owned television was illegal and banned the federal center from any attempts to create such media. As an alternative, a second, also public-legal channel, ZDF, was created, which differed from ARD in that ARD was a decentralized structure, a commonwealth of many local companies, and ZDF was originally created as a vertically organized, centralized project.

The following private channels also broadcast in Germany:

RTL, RTL2, Super RTL, Sat1, Pro7, Kabel1, VOX, Eurosport, DSF, MTV, VIVA, VIVA PLUS

news channels: n-tv, N24, EuroNews

other German TV channels:
KinderKanal (KiKa) is a joint project of ARD and ZDF
Phoenix (a political information channel, almost all of whose content is made up of live broadcasts from political events, lengthy speeches by politicians, etc.)
ARTE (French-German cultural and information channel, created on the German side with the participation of ARD and ZDF)
3Sat is a joint German-language channel broadcasting in the territories of Germany, Austria and Switzerland.
R1 - Russian-language channel. broadcasting Russian programs.

Military establishment

On November 10, 2004, German Defense Minister Peter Struck announced plans to reform the armed forces, according to which the number of military personnel and civilians employed in servicing parts of the Bundeswehr will be reduced by a third (35 thousand military personnel and 49 thousand civilians will be fired), and 105 permanent military garrisons on German territory will be disbanded.

Along with the reduction, reforms will be carried out in the system of recruiting the army and the basic principles of its application.

On July 1, 2011, the mandatory military conscription into the German army was discontinued. Thus, the Bundeswehr moved to a fully professional army.

The reform of the principles of the use of the army means the reduction of the Bundeswehr's strongholds from a total of 600 to 400. First of all, this will affect the bases of the ground forces in the country. The Ministry of Defense sees no point in keeping heavily armed units within German borders. Since the whole world is now considered the area of ​​​​possible operations of the Bundeswehr, it was decided that it would be more correct to maintain military bases outside of Germany, on the territory of NATO countries in Eastern Europe, where the main NATO strike groups will soon be redeployed.

At the same time, the terminology is changing - it is supposed to place here not “military bases”, but “rapid deployment strongholds” and “security cooperation zones”, that is, bridgeheads that will become the basis for “rapid deployment of armed forces against terrorists and hostile states”.

Germany is one of the most active NATO countries, providing the military-political alliance during all peacekeeping operations (Afghanistan, Serbia, Macedonia, Kosovo, Somalia, and so on) with a significant proportion of personnel. German troops were also part of the UN multinational force in Central and West Africa.

Since 2000, the foreign operations of the Bundeswehr annually cost the country's budget about 1.5 billion euros.

In the course of the reform, by 2010, German troops will be divided into 3 types:
rapid reaction forces (55 thousand people), which are intended for combat operations anywhere in the world;
peacekeeping contingent (90 thousand);
base forces (170 thousand), stationed in Germany and consisting of command and control units, logistics and support services.

Another 10,000 servicemen will make up an emergency reserve stock under the direct control of the Chief Inspector of the Bundeswehr. Each of the three corps will include units of the ground, air force, naval forces, joint support forces and medical and sanitary service.

In connection with the above, heavy armored vehicles and artillery systems will no longer be purchased for the armament of the army. This is due to the increased mobility requirements for the rapid reaction forces. At the same time, Germany will buy 180 Eurofighter Typhoon multi-role combat aircraft.

From scratch!
Lesson #2-4-2!

After studying the material in this lesson, you will be able to:

• understand the information in the text
• control yourself by exercising
• memorize some words and phrases

Federal Republic of Germany
Brief geographical outline

The Federal Republic of Germany is located in Central Europe. It borders in the east with Poland, in the south with the Czech Republic, Austria and Switzerland, in the west with France, Luxembourg, Belgium and Holland, in the north with Denmark; the natural boundary in the north is formed by the North Sea (die Nordsee) and the Baltic Sea (die Ostsee). The Federal Republic of Germany covers an area of ​​357,000 km2. Three large zones are distinguished in the landscape of Germany: the Central European Plain in the north, medium-altitude mountains, including the Rhine slate mountains (das Rheinische Schieferergebirge) with separate ranges - Taunus (der Taunus), Hunsrück (der Hunsrück), Eifel (die Eifel) - Black Forest (der Schwarzwald), the Bohemian Forest (der Böhmerwald), the Bavarian Forest (der Bayrische Wald), the Thuringian Forest (der Thüringer Wald), the Ore Mountains (das Erzgebirge) and the Harz (der Harz) in the middle part and the Alpine Plateau (das Alpen-vorland) with the Alps (die Alpen) in the south. The highest mountain - Zugspitze (die Zugspitze) - 2962 m. Most of the rivers flow into the North Sea: Rhine (der Rhein) - the largest river in Germany with tributaries Neckar (der Neckar), Main (der Main), Mosel (der Mosel) and Ruhr (die Ruhr), the Elbe (die Elbe) with tributaries of the Saale (die Saale) and Havel (die Havel) and the tributary of the Havel Spree (die Spree), on which Berlin, Weser (die Weser) and Ems (die Ems) are located. Oder (die Oder) with a tributary of the Neisse (die Neiße) - the border with Poland. The Danube (die Donau) flows from west to east, flowing into the Black Sea. The largest lakes are Lake Constance (der Bodensee), located between Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and Müritz (die Müritz) on the Mecklenburg Plateau. The most famous islands are Rügen, Sylt and Norderney. The canal system is highly developed. Germany belongs to countries with a temperate climate. In the northern part, under the influence of the Atlantic, the climate is maritime with moderate heat and mild winters. In the southeast, the climate is more continental with hot summers and cold winters. Characteristic of the weather is the frequent change of warm moist air dry and hot (cold in winter) anticyclone. The average annual temperature is +9°, in January from +1.5° in the north to -6° in the south, in July +17°-20°. Germany has a population of 80 million (including 4.5 million foreigners, mostly foreign workers). About one third of the population lives in cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants. The population density of 247 people per km 2 varies in individual areas. The highest population density is in the Ruhr industrial region, in the area of ​​Frankfurt am Main, as well as Stuttgart, Hamburg and Bremen. Cities with more than one million inhabitants include Berlin, Hamburg and Munich.

Germany is a federal state and consists of 16 lands (Länder): Schleswig - Holstein (Schleswig - Holstein), Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen), Mecklenburg - Western Pomerania (Mecklenburg - Vorpommern), North Rhine - Westphalia (Nordrhein - Westfalen), Saxony - Anhalt (Sachsen - Anhalt), Brandenburg (Brandenburg), Rhineland - Palatinate (Rheinland - Pfalz), Hesse (Hessen), Thuringia (Thüringen), Saxony (Sachsen), Baden - Württemberg (Baden - Würtemberg), Bavaria (Bayern), as well as three cities on the rights of the states - Berlin (Berlin), Hamburg (Hamburg) and Bremen (Bremen). 11 lands were part of the Federal Republic of Germany before the unification of Germany, 5 lands were formed on the territory of the former GDR: Mecklenburg - Vorpommern, Saxony - Anhalt, Thuringia, Brandenburg and Saxony. Each land has its own parliament, its own government and autonomously decides a number of political and other issues. The Federal Republic of Germany has a significant reserve of hard and brown coal, potash salts and iron ore; oil reserves are negligible. The Federal Republic of Germany is one of the largest industrial countries and ranks third in the world, after the USA and Japan. The economic system of Germany is a capitalist system of commodity-money relations with a social orientation, the basis of which is free competition. The role of the state is reduced to determining the order of development of the economy, establishing the general framework within which the market economy develops. The question of how much and what kind of goods should be produced and who gets how much of them is decided by the market. The state almost completely refuses direct intervention in questions of pricing and wages.

The main industries are: coal mining, metallurgical, chemical, mechanical engineering, automotive and vehicle manufacturing, electrical and electronic industries, light industry. More than 1 million people are employed in mechanical engineering; it accounts for more than 10% of the total turnover of the entire industry. In terms of car production, Germany ranks third in the world after Japan and America. In 1986, Germany produced 4.3 million cars and 300,000 trucks and buses. Almost 60% of cars are exported. Electrical engineering is one of the leading industries. The field of electronic computing technology plays a key role as an area of ​​investment in industry and all economic development.

Germany is not only a highly developed industrial country, but also has a productive agriculture that covers three-quarters of the country's needs for agricultural products. As a result of structural changes, only 7% of the able-bodied population is now employed in agriculture. The bulk of farms are small farms; about half of all households have 110 hectares of land or less. The main products are: cereals (including fodder), potatoes, sugar beets, vegetables, fruits, grapes. Animal husbandry is widely developed.

(The material is based on the book "Tatsachen über Deutschland".
Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag, Gütersloh 1989)

LANDS OF GERMANY

1. Answer the following questions on the content of what you have read.

1. What state does Germany border on in the north? 2. Is Bonn one of the cities with more than 1 million inhabitants? 3. What zones are distinguished in the landscape of Germany? 4. What is the administrative division of Germany? 5. Is Germany rich in minerals? 6. What is the highest mountain in Germany? 7. Do all rivers in Germany flow north? 8. What is the climate of Germany?

2. Determine if the following statements are correct (tick if "yes").

The territory of the country is 356.9 thousand km2.

Germany is a highly developed industrial state. In terms of volume (1992) and industrial production, the country ranks first in and third among the leaders (after the USA and). Germany accounts for about 7.8% of the world's gross domestic product and 28% of the countries' gross domestic product. Monopolies play a decisive role. relies mainly on coal-fired thermal power plants, a significant part of the electricity is generated by nuclear power plants operating on domestic uranium ores(the share of nuclear power is 11%). The main part of iron, steel and rolled metal is produced at the factories of the Ruhr. However, in recent years, the transition to imported raw materials leads to an orientation towards cities - seaports. Non-ferrous metallurgy of the country uses mainly imported raw materials. is the leading industry. In the production of passenger cars, Germany overtakes many countries of the world, second only to the USA and Japan. The activities of many machine-building monopolies in the FRG go far beyond its borders. Volkswagen is one of the largest companies in Germany, owns car factories in a number of countries and sells cars in more than a hundred countries around the world. Mercedes cars are also world famous. In addition to the production of passenger cars, German engineering is characterized by the production of engines, locomotives, machine tools, military equipment, and industrial equipment.

Ranks second after . Germany is the most “chemicalized” country, not only, but of the whole world. It specializes in the production of dyes and plastics. The most important area of ​​the industry is the Ruhr, where this industry is associated with coal processing. In the same place, in the Ruhr, petrochemistry grew, crowding out coal chemistry. , which has lost many markets in , is going through hard times.

Characterized by high performance and marketability. It almost completely provides the inhabitants of the country with food, only tropical goods are imported. The main type of enterprise is a farm. The main branch of agriculture is dairy and dairy-meat cattle breeding: 32% of all is occupied by pastures. In addition to cattle breeding, pig and poultry breeding are developed in the country. The main crop is wheat, which gives high yields. Of industrial crops, sugar beets predominate. In terms of hop harvesting, Germany ranks 1st in the world. It also ranks first in beer consumption per capita (160 liters per year).

Germany is a country of highly developed transport. This is especially true for road transport. Great role and. The largest port of the country -. The share of cargo turnover is small. Navigation is carried out on the river Rhine.

The tourism industry brings in a lot of income. The country exports cars, industrial equipment, machine tools, electrical engineering, optics, ships, plastics, organic synthesis products, black and white products, clothes, and shoes.

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Useful data for tourists about Germany, cities and resorts of the country. As well as information about the population, the currency of Germany, the cuisine, the features of visa and customs restrictions in Germany.

Geography of Germany

Germany is a state in Central Europe bordering Denmark, Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. It is washed by the North and Baltic seas.

The territory of Germany is divided into three large areas, largely due to the nature of the relief: the North German Plain - in the north, the mountains of Central Germany - in the center and the Alps - in the south.

Most of the south-west of Germany is occupied by the Jura mountains and the vast forest of the Schwarzwald (Black Forest). In the extreme south are the Bavarian Alps, where highest point Germany - Mount Zugspitze (2962 m).

The main river is the Rhine, among the numerous tributaries of which are the Main, Ruhr, Mosel, Neckar, Lahn. The other two rivers are the Danube in the south of the country and the Elbe with a tributary of the Neisse in eastern Germany. There are few large lakes in Germany. The largest is Lake Constance, partly lying in Austria and Switzerland.

State

State structure

Federal Republic. The head of state is the federal president. The head of government is the federal chancellor.

Language

State language: German

English and French are also used.

Religion

Protestants (mostly Lutherans) - 36%, Catholics - 35%, Muslims - 2%, Jews.

Currency

International name: EUR

History of Germany

The first inhabitants of Germany bore little resemblance to its modern inhabitants. It took a long 500 thousand years before the Germans themselves came here in the 1st millennium BC. However, they did not linger here for a long time and in the 1st century BC rushed to the south. The weakening of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD contributed to their settlement almost throughout Europe. At the same time, the first German states began to take shape. One of them was the Frankish kingdom. Its rulers during the 6th-8th centuries completed the unification of the Germanic tribes, and in 800 Charlemagne proclaimed the creation of an empire. In 843, it broke up into independent states. In the eastern part, the German kingdom proper developed. His main foreign policy task was the revival of the lost empire of Charles. In 962, German troops managed to take Rome, and the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" appeared on the map of Europe. Its heyday came in the XII-XIII centuries.

The extraordinary strengthening of large feudal lords helped accelerate the decentralization of the country, which had ceased to be a single political body already in the 13th century. The capitalist economy developed rapidly in the southwestern regions. In the 16th century, this region became the main center of Protestantism and actively supported the preaching of Martin Luther. Thus, the socio-economic split deepened at the expense of the religious one and for several centuries delayed the political unification of the country and its economic development. The attempt of the Austrian emperors in the 18th century to suppress the separatism of the free regions did not lead to positive results, but in this century another unifying center was clearly identified - Prussia. From the middle of the 19th century, it gathered disparate principalities into a single whole, and after victories in the Franco-Prussian War over Austria and France, which held back centralization, in 1871 announced the creation of an all-German Reich-Empire with its capital in Berlin.

As long as the leading international positions in the economy were in the hands of England, France, Russia and the United States, Germany could not count on European domination. The result of these contradictions was the First World War. The victory of France and England slowed down the development of Germany, transferred it to a secondary position in world politics and thus gave rise to the growth of the national-revanchist aspirations of the German people. On the wave of such sentiments, in 1933, the Nazis, led by A. Hitler, came to power in Berlin, who unleashed the Second World War. Participation in the anti-Hitler coalition of the USSR led in 1949 to the split of Germany into the FRG and the GDR. A pro-Soviet regime was established in the GDR, hindering unification. With the collapse of the USSR in the late 80s and early 90s, the reunification of the country became possible.

The first inhabitants of Germany bore little resemblance to its modern inhabitants. It took a long 500 thousand years before the Germans themselves came here in the 1st millennium BC. However, they did not linger here for a long time and in the 1st century BC rushed to the south. The weakening of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD contributed to their settlement almost throughout Europe. At the same time, the first German states began to take shape. One of them was the Frankish kingdom. Its rulers during the 6th-8th centuries completed the unification of the Germanic tribes, and in 800 Charlemagne proclaimed the creation of an empire. In 843, it broke up into independent states. In the eastern part, the German kingdom proper developed. His main foreign policy task was the revival of the lost empire of Charles. In 962, German troops managed to take Rome, and the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" appeared on the map of Europe. Its heyday came in the XII-XIII centuries. ...

Popular Attractions

Tourism in Germany

Where to stay

Today, finding and booking a hotel room in Germany will not be a problem. In both large and small tourist towns, you will be offered a wide range of accommodation options. The cost depends on the level of the hotel and its location relative to tourist attractions. The gradation of hotels in Germany is the same as in other European countries - according to the number of stars. However, it is worth considering that the stars indicate the number of services offered rather than the level of service. Therefore, if you decide to stay in a small hotel with one star, this does not mean that you have made the wrong choice. It just won't have an elevator, swimming pool, gym, etc. But the service in Germany is always at a high level. In Germany, there are hotels of world chains that offer a high level of comfort and appropriate prices.

Among tourists who prefer home comfort, boarding houses and guesthouses are very popular. They are usually a restaurant on the ground floor and rented rooms on the upper floors of the same building. You can choose from a small family-style guesthouse with a quite ascetic interior and low cost, as well as luxurious, carefully restored rooms in traditional village or city houses.

In every big city, as well as in many small settlements, you can find youth hotels that offer affordable prices for accommodation, minimal amenities, but at the same time comfort and cleanliness. Please note that only active members of the Youth Hostel Association are entitled to stay in such a hotel.

There are about 2 thousand campsites in Germany, so it will not be difficult for lovers of recreation on wheels to find a place to spend the night. The campsite has a kitchen, showers, toilets and other amenities.

Accommodation in rural houses will become cheap and colorful. Farmers will offer you not only accommodation, but also organic products, the opportunity to participate in agricultural work.

For those who prefer outdoor activities, mountain shelters and camp sites in Germany offer a high level of service and quite reasonable prices. Fans of family holidays or holidays with friends will find apartments very convenient for accommodation.

German cuisine is distinguished by a wide variety of dishes from various vegetables, pork, poultry, game, veal, beef and fish. A lot of vegetables are consumed, especially in boiled form, as a side dish - cauliflower, bean pods, carrots, red cabbage, etc....

Tips

Tips are approximately 10% of the bill.

Visa

Office Hours

The day off for museums is usually Monday. On the rest of the week, the standard opening hours of museums are from 9 am to 6 pm. A lunch break is possible. On Tuesday and Wednesday, many museums are open until late.

Standard store hours are from 9 or 9.15 to 18.30 on weekdays and until 14.00 on Saturday. Large department stores may be open longer. On Thursday evenings, many shops are open until 20.30.

On weekdays, banks are usually open from 8.30 or 9 am to 2 or 3 pm (on Thursday - until 5 or 6 pm) with an hour break for lunch.

Purchases

All goods in Germany are subject to value added tax (19% of the price of goods). Tourists are exempt from it. The return procedure is as follows: in the store you need to take a “tax free check” certificate. When leaving the country, at the airport or railway station, you must present the goods, a certificate and a foreign passport with a short-term visa to the cash desk "Kundendienst" (customer service) or at the counter with the inscription "tax free tov tourists". In this case, the tourist receives an amount equal to the value added tax.

Emergency Phones

Ambulance (24/7) - 112 (free of charge)
Fire department - 112 (free)
Police - 110 (free)

Questions and opinions about Germany

Dresden - Q&A

Nuremberg - Q&A

What is remarkable about this country? What is the area of ​​Germany? And what are the Germans interested in? You will find answers to all these questions in our article.

Territory of Germany: area and geographical location

The country of beer, football and pedantry is located in the center of Europe, within the hilly Central European Plain. It borders on nine other states, and in the north its territory is washed by the cool waters of the Baltic and North Seas.

What are the figures for the population and area of ​​Germany? It is worth mentioning right away that the country is among the leaders in Europe in these two indicators.

The total area of ​​Germany is 357 thousand square kilometers. Almost all of its territory is favorable for the life and economic activity of people (except for the high-mountainous regions in the southeast). The climate here is temperate, its humidity decreases with advancement to the east and southeast.

The total length of the state borders of Germany is 3785 km. The longest border is with Austria, and the shortest is with Denmark.

Population and economy: common features

Hitler's Germany, which lost in World War II, was divided into two parts: Western (FRG) and Eastern (GDR). The Germans lived in this position for 40 years, until November 9, 1989, when the famous Berlin Wall fell. Curiously, the area of ​​western Germany was almost three times larger than the area of ​​its eastern part.

Today there are about 85 million people. Every year, demographers record, albeit insignificant, but still population growth - about 0.1%. Germany occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of urbanization. Only 7% of its inhabitants live in rural areas. The largest cities in the country are Hamburg, Munich, Berlin, Cologne and Farnkfurt am Main.

Modern Germany is an economically developed and powerful state, one of the five leading countries in terms of GDP. The foundation of the national economy is made up of four industries: engineering, chemical, electrical engineering and coal mining. Germany maintains its leading position in the world in car exports.

5 surprising facts about Germany

Tourists and guests of this European country, as a rule, are most impressed and amazed by the following:

1. The country is clean and well-groomed. A typical German town square is a polished area with no litter, cigarette butts or spit. In this country, it is not even customary to take off your shoes in the house - it is so clean and tidy on the streets of German cities.
2. German and English are very closely intertwined in Germany. There is even a special philological term: "Denglish". Das ist unbelievable! - such phrases are very popular in colloquial speech among the Germans.
3. Sunday in Germany is really a holy day. "Holy" in terms of rest and relaxation. On this day, most German boutiques, shopping centers and even restaurants are closed.
4. German schools have a very unusual (for a Russian person) grading system: the highest score is “one”, and the worst score is “6”.
5. By and large, in Germany you can not work at all, but live on social assistance from the state. But the Germans are ashamed not to work. They also don't like to change jobs.

A little about the mentality of the Germans

Hardworking, punctual, disciplined... That's how most people speak of the Germans. To complete our article in an interesting and effective way, we bring to your attention 10 interesting facts about the mentality of modern Germans:

• the Germans are very sensitive to laws and regulations, they say that in this country you can safely walk along pedestrian crossings with your eyes closed;
• in Germany, even wealthy and adult people often live in rented houses or apartments;
• German humor is very different from American or, say, Russian;
• it is incredibly difficult for Germans to pronounce the sound "y";
• dinner in Germany is very often replaced by ordinary sandwiches (with ham, cheese or vegetables); the evening meal here is called Abendbrot (“evening bread”);
• oddly enough, but the most popular street dish in this country is doner kebab;
• the Germans are a very athletic nation, they are most willing to go in for running, swimming and cycling, they actively play football, bowling and handball;
• average age of first child birth for German women: 29-32;
• in Germany it is very difficult to meet a German woman in heels;
• the Germans practically do not cook the soups we are used to, but they eat bread with great pleasure (and in all its possible manifestations and forms).

Conclusion

357,021 is the area of ​​Germany in sq. km. The country is located in the central part of Europe and has wide access to the sea. Today it is a powerful and fairly developed state. Germany is one of the main players in the EU, it is part of the "Big Seven" (G7) and boasts a very high standard of living for its citizens.