To become a transformative force, politics cannot be based on the arbitrary actions of politicians, it must be guided by laws. community development. “We can do as much as we know,” said F. Bacon. And in order to know what and how to do, it is necessary to develop a program of action and be skillfully guided by it.
Politics, by its nature, is a purposeful activity that uses appropriate means to achieve certain goals.
The policy objectives are divided into:
According to their meaning: general and private;
In order: nearest, intermediate, more distant, final;
By spheres of political activity: internal, external.
Setting goals is the beginning of the process, but for it to be carried out effectively, it is necessary to find means in politics, which should be a tool for achieving goals, turning them from ideas into real actions and results. In political life, such facilities such as: propaganda campaigns, criticism of political opponents, populist promises, intimidation of people, rallies, demonstrations, elections, referendums, demands for the implementation of ethical and legal norms, strikes and even armed actions.
There is a relationship between ends and means. The goal largely determines the means used, and the means, influencing the result achieved, determine whether the goal is realistic or utopian.
The art of politics consists in the ability to measure its ends and means, to use them in the best option. In politics, the principle “the end justifies the means” must be abandoned. The transition to honest politics, characteristic of a truly humane and democratic society, is a long and difficult process. It is achievable when the peoples themselves and the policies put forward by them change. V.I. Lenin noted that “honesty in politics is the result of strength, and deceit is the result of impotence.”
modern science cannot determine which means are the most effective and moral today. But it sets humanistic limits in the use of these means. This includes:
Inadmissibility of using political, informational and other types of terror;
The priority of peaceful means in the elimination of anti-people political regimes; the use of armed means only if all peaceful means have been exhausted and have not yielded results and this does not threaten civil war in the state;
Not using nuclear or other types of weapons of mass destruction to resolve controversial international issues.
Thus, political and moral relations are contradictory. The source of these contradictions is in the clash of different political movements, ideological currents, the government course and opposition to it, traditions and innovations. And in order for politics not to be a “dirty business,” all members of society must, one way or another, take an active part in it.
Policy structure. The policy structure includes various components: people, organizations, relationships, actions, programs, emotions, etc. But all the diversity is reduced to three main groups:
1) Objects of policy are elements of political reality on which political action is directed with the aim of changing, transforming or supporting them. These include: social communities, groups, nations, nationalities, citizens and their associations, on which the policy affects with certain goals.
2) The subjects of politics are the carriers of active, purposeful and reasonable action. These include: individuals, social groups, organizations, institutions, movements that are able to participate in political life, make political decisions and achieve their implementation, change social relations in accordance with their interests and goals.
3) Policy resources - these are the elements of material and spiritual reality involved in politics, which are used by the subjects of politics to influence the objects of politics in order to achieve their goals.
There are 3 groups of resources:
a) material and technical: technical and information means, finance, energy, food, etc.
b) human - this is the whole mass of people active in politics or supporting political actions, the level of their activity, the degree of involvement in political processes.
c) spiritual - this is the emotional mood of the participants in the political action, the degree of understanding and support by them of the program goals and guidelines of a particular policy.
driving force politics are the interests of the people. Without the interests of the people and the need to implement them, politics is dead. There are no eternal friends and eternal enemies in politics. There are eternal interests. The basis of interest is need.
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The specific content of political activity is: participation in the affairs of the state, determining the forms, tasks and directions of the state, the distribution of power, control over its activities, as well as other impact on political institutions.
M. Weber, speaking about the composition of political activity, emphasized, first of all, the activity of maintaining order in the country, i.e. "existing relations of domination" Weber M. Selected Works. M., 1990. - p. 661. .
If we talk about the institutions that make up the political system, then the activity of each of them has its own essential features and, above all, different goals and means to achieve them. Thus, the state is called upon to regulate, control the activities and behavior of its citizens and social groups within the framework of the implementation of generally binding norms, direct them to satisfy public interests and achieve common goals. The political activity of the party - with the generalization, substantiation and protection of the interests of certain social groups, their implementation in a specific policy of state power. Activity public organizations a form of participation of certain groups of citizens in the management of the community in which they live. On the whole, each political and social institution essentially represents a certain system of activities.
The essence of political activity is revealed in the specifics of its object and structural elements: the subject, goals, means, conditions, knowledge, motivation and norms, and finally, the process of activity itself.
The direct object of political activity is political values, institutions, the political system as a whole and the social groups, parties, elites, and leaders behind them.
The sphere of political activity does not include society as a whole, not social class relations in all possible aspects, but only the relations of society, social groups, classes, strata, elites to the institutions of political power and the latter to society. Through these relationships, there are signals of activity to all other spheres of public life. Thus, political activity, as it were, is built on top of other types of social activity and serves as a means of managing them.
Political activity is always correlated with the action of other, moreover, collective, subjects and is oriented towards them, regardless of the fact that each political action or opposition bears the stamp of individuality.
Unlike other subjects of social action, the subject of political activity is characterized primarily by the fact that it always acts as an organized social force (organized social groups, classes, strata, national communities, etc.). The highest form of organization of political activity are political institutions, including the state, political parties. Zerkin D.P. Fundamentals of political science: a course of lectures. - 2nd ed., add. Rostov n / a: "Phoenix", 1999. - p. 334.
The specific subjects of political activity are diverse. We note, in particular, two types of them: group (class, national, territorial or regional, corporate, elite) and individual (any politically active person acting in unity with the group) subjects.
An analysis of the political structure of society makes it possible to identify varieties of group subjects (political groups) that have developed in a given socio-political situation.
The nature of the subject of political action sheds light on its direction, allows you to somehow predict its effectiveness and consequences.
An essential feature of political activity is its rationality, i.e. conscious focus on political interests, goals and values; interrelation of motives for choosing goals and means of practical actions, cognitive and evaluative activities. The rational moment, of course, is decisive in the subjective semantic content of political action, expressing the attitude of the subject to the institutions of power. However, political action is not limited to rationality. It leaves room for the irrational as a deviation from purposefulness.
Motivational base of political action - a complex system, in which, along with the rational side (focus on goals and values), there are psychological and emotional elements (thirst for power, fear, envy, etc.). therefore, the possibility of explaining political action at the intellectual level does not at all exclude the need to decipher its psycho-emotional aspect, and first of all - in the analysis of mass actions, but not least - in explaining the unpredictability of the behavior of political figures.
Continuing the characterization of the specifics of political activity, one cannot ignore such a feature as its focus on legitimacy. This property of activity acts as its social condition, and at the same time - a delimiting criterion for systemic and extra-systemic activity. The latter is most often illegitimate in the sense that it is not legitimized by the ruling system, and at the same time it can be legitimate in terms of recognition by the general public of conformity to tradition or illuminated charisma.
The legitimacy of political activity presupposes compliance with the established order. This is one more of its specific features. The order means the orientation of the subject of activity on the mandatory norms that are generally significant for this political society. The order is guaranteed by the possibility of legal coercion carried out by special groups of people, or by the application of sanctions of a political and social nature emanating from political groups and institutions of civil society (public condemnation, political assessment, exclusion from the elite, etc.).
The foregoing leads to an awareness of the variety of means of political activity: from direct physical violence, the use of which has a monopoly on the state power, to the use of public opinion. The fundamental importance of the correlation of ends and means in politics is well known. The setting “the end justifies the means” is typical for dictatorial regimes and their political carriers. The demands that the means correspond to the democratic, humane goals of politics are the norm of truly popular forces and those expressing their interests. political structures. Policy as a whole can be oriented towards ends or means, depending on the nature of the subject and the specific situation.
Political activity differs from other types of social activity also in that for a subject of any level it is somehow connected with contradictions between the general and private interests of social groups and is ultimately subordinate to the resolution of these contradictions. Objective contradictions of interests, conflicts that arise on this basis are a deep source and stimulus for political activity in all its forms and types, the main determinant. Without understanding these contradictions, it is impossible to understand the sieve of political processes.
The process of resolving these contradictions cannot be reduced to only standardized actions regulated by previously established norms, but includes an innovative, creative aspect. Thus, the need for innovation in functional activities to legitimize power is obvious. After all, we are talking about the acquisition of legitimacy by the authorities in various ways: with the help of clearly demonstrated efficiency, through increasing national prestige, through the development of new norms, through charisma, and so on. Lipset S. Political Sociology // American Sociology. M., 1972. - p. 203-219.
World practice has proven that the optimal condition for creative and progressive political activity and its true effectiveness is the system of values and regulatory norms that forms democracy and provides the greatest likelihood of achieving public goals by government institutions.
Finally, another specific aspect of political activity, no less significant than those noted earlier, is the ratio of the objective and subjective factors that determine it. In this issue, without denying the objective social determination, I would like to emphasize the significant influence on political activity of subjective, purely individual qualities. The public will embodied in political actions, the ideology that turns into a real practical social force through these actions, the political culture that transforms knowledge and values, various individual socio-psychological features of acting political subjects - all these elements of subjectivity together form the level of determination that under more or less identical social circumstances determines, if not the essence, then the components of the content of political activity.
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Politics, by its nature, is a purposeful activity that uses appropriate means to achieve certain goals. A goal in politics is an ideal, desirable outcome for which political activity is carried out. . The classification of goals in politics is carried out on the following grounds: 1) according to their meaning: general (achieving universal equality, prosperity, etc.) and private (forming a government of people's trust); 2) according to the content of the policy: social, economic, ideological, environmental, political-legal and others; 3) in order: nearest, intermediate, more distant, final (for a specific political process); 4) by spheres of political activity: internal (domestic) and external (international), etc. Means in politics are a tool for achieving goals, turning ideal aspirations into real actions and results. This is a set of opportunities to carry out politics and power and use them in the interests of society or any political forces. Often in political life such means as strikes, propaganda campaigns, armed actions, populist promises, criticism of political opponents, intimidation of people, rallies, demonstrations, elections, referendums, ethical and legal norms, traditions, etc. are used. They can be hard (extreme), aimed at getting the desired result quickly, without delay at intermediate stages, and soft (moderate), the use of which gives many intermediate results, takes more time and does not give rise to such sharp conflicts as the first type of means. Between ends and means there is interdependence, a kind of interaction. On the one hand, the goal largely determines the means used, and on the other hand, the means, influencing the result achieved, determine the realism or utopianism of the goal, correct its main parameters, up to the rejection of those ideals that have turned out to be unattainable today. The art of politics consists in the ability to measure its ends and means, in the ability to use in the best possible way certain means to achieve specific goals. However, far from any means are acceptable for the realization of political goals. Those goals that can be achieved only through clearly inhumane actions should be abandoned. It seems that the principle according to which the end justifies the means cannot be recognized as justified. LITERATURE Berdyaev H.A. The fate of Russia. M., 1990. S. 272-273. Gadzhiev K.S. Political science. M., 1995. S. 47-49. Demidov A.I., Fedoseev A.A. Fundamentals of political science. M., 1995. S. 190-193. ZerkinD.P. Fundamentals of political science: a course of lectures. Rostov n/D, 1996. P. 71. Maltsev V.A. Fundamentals of political science. M., 1997. S. 217-222. Plato. State // Plato. Cit.: In 3 T. M., 1971. V. 3. Part 1. P. 459. Political problems of the theory of the state. M., 1993. Political science / Ed. A.A. Radugin. M., 1996. Ch. 4. Political science: Course of lectures / Ed. N.P. Denisyuk et al. Minsk, 1997, pp. 66-77. Political science: encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1993. S. 389-390. Pugachev V.P., Solovyov A.I. Introduction to political science. M., 1997. Ch. 4.7.
In political science - political science - there are different approaches to understanding politics. One of them is to consider politics as one of the four main areas of society. The sphere of politics includes both political consciousness and political organizations (government, parliament, parties, etc.), and the tasks that various social groups seek to solve using power, and the political process, going through conflicts and cooperation, including measures to maintaining stability in society and reform. You got acquainted with the characteristics of the political sphere in the social science course of the basic school. Second approach based on the understanding of politics as a special type of social relations between individuals, small groups and large communities, i.e., relations associated with power, the state, managing the affairs of society. (You will study this material in grade 11.) Finally, third approach consists in considering politics as one of the types of activity, i.e., the activity of its subjects - participants in political life.
All three approaches give a multidimensional view of one object - politics. And in this paragraph, politics is considered in the light of the third approach.
POLITICS AS ACTIVITY
Science offers different definitions political activity. We present two of them.
1. Politics is activity government agencies, political parties, social movements in the sphere of relations between large social groups, primarily classes, nations and states, aimed at integrating their efforts in order to strengthen political power or win it by specific methods.
2. Politics is a special kind of activity associated with the participation of social groups, parties, movements, individuals in the affairs of society and the state, their leadership or influence on this leadership.
Think about these definitions, compare them. In them you can see, firstly, the active nature of politics; secondly, a special role in this activity of large social groups, as well as parties and states; thirdly, the connection of their activities with the conquest, retention and use of state power.
Political activity includes public administration, that is, such an impact on society, on certain aspects of social development, in which the requirements of the authorities are supported by the force of law and special public institutions, including law enforcement (police, army, state security agencies). It also covers the influence of political parties on the course of public processes and government decision making. Parties and other political associations, on the one hand, are associated with various social groups, rely on their support, and on the other hand, they express the interests and aspirations of these groups, put pressure on the government or participate in the development of government decisions.
Political activity is also manifested in various forms of participation of the broad masses of the people in the political life of society. In the course of political activity, its participants enter into specific relationships with each other. It can be cooperation, union, mutual support, and confrontation, conflict, struggle.
Subjects politicians are, firstly, large social communities, which include social groups and strata, classes, nations, estates, etc.; secondly, political organizations and associations (states, parties, mass movements); thirdly, political elites are relatively small groups concentrating power in their hands; fourth, personalities, and above all political leaders.
Let's turn to the question of objects politicians. You know that internal politics and external politics are different. What is the object of each of them? It is not difficult to understand that domestic policy has as its object society in one's own country, while foreign policy has global community, international relations, i.e. relations with other countries. Depending on the objects to which domestic policy is directed, there are economic, social, national, demographic, youth, environmental, cultural, personnel policy. In turn, in economic policy allocate scientific and technical, structural, agricultural, investment, financial, foreign economic. (You can probably name the objects of each of these policies yourself.)
From the consideration of the objects of political activity, we can conclude that politics affects the whole society, on all aspects of its life. From this follows the conclusion about the great importance of political activity in the development of society.
GOALS AND MEANS OF POLITICAL ACTIVITIES
Political activity, like any other, involves the definition of its goals. They are divided into long-term (they are called strategic) and current goals. Goals can be relevant, priority and irrelevant, real and unrealistic. How relevant, on the one hand, and how realistic, on the other hand, this or that goal can be answered only through a complete and accurate analysis of the main trends in social development, urgent social needs, the alignment of political forces, and the interests of various social groups.
Of particular importance is the question of the availability of funds with which to achieve the intended goals. In relation to political activity, this issue was considered by the outstanding Renaissance thinker Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527). “It is superfluous to say,” he wrote, “how laudable in the state is fidelity to a given word, straightforwardness and unswerving honesty. However, we know from experience that in our time great things were only possible for those who did not try to keep their word and were able to fool whomever they needed; such sovereigns ultimately succeeded much more than those who staked on honesty ... It should be understood that a sovereign, especially a new one, cannot do everything for which people are considered good, since in order to preserve the state, he is often forced to go against his word, against mercy, kindness and piety. Therefore, in his soul, he must always be ready to change direction if events take a different turn or the wind of fortune blows in the other direction, that is, as was said, if possible, do not move away from good, but if necessary, do not shy away from evil " .
So, a politician (“sovereign”), as N. Machiavelli believed, “for the sake of preserving the state” can violate this word and in general “do not shy away from evil.” And in our time there are politicians who, drawing bright image proclaimed goals, justify the use of lies, materials compromising opponents, and other completely not good means to achieve them. Particularly promiscuous in the means of the organization, committed to extreme views and measures. Fighting for their political goals, they consider it possible to arrange street riots, seize administrative buildings, arrange fights with political opponents, etc.
The formula “the end justifies the means” is opposed by another view of the relationship between politics and morality: to subordinate politics to morality. However, many scholars point out that politician it is not uncommon to have to choose: either to avert the danger, to carry out harsh measures that do not quite correspond to “absolute morality”, or, by inaction, to allow damage to society. The moral limit that cannot be crossed is today reflected in human rights documents, in international humanitarian law.
POLITICAL ACTION
Recall that any activity is a set of actions. Political activity includes a wide variety of activities: organizing parties and making government decisions, election campaigns and speeches in parliament, political rallies and diplomatic negotiations, holding party congresses and appeals to the people, developing political programs and referendums, coup d'état and visits by government delegations. These can be actions of an individual or a group that act as subjects of political activity.
Political actions are aimed at "doing something" (for example, getting a law passed, etc.), or "preventing something", or "stopping something" (for example, stopping ethnic conflict). In this regard, it is necessary to consider not only action, but also inaction. How could one assess the inaction of a state leader in the face of the danger of a coup d'état? How to assess the inaction of a person in relation to elections (non-participation in elections)? In both cases, inaction allows other participants in political events to draw their own line.
The actions of the subjects of politics can be rational and irrational. Rational actions are conscious, planned, with a clear understanding of the goals and necessary means. Irrational are actions motivated primarily by emotional states people, for example, their irritation, hatred, fear, impressions of ongoing events. In real political life, rational and irrational principles combine and interact.
Political actions are spontaneous and organized. A spontaneous rally and a carefully prepared party conference are examples of such actions.
Political action does not always lead to the achievement of the set goal. For example, the assassination of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya led to results that differed significantly from the goals of the Narodnaya Volya struggle. (Remember what were the goals of this organization. What were the consequences of the terrorist act against the king?)
IN Lately the importance of such methods of political activity as persuasion, the study of public opinion, constructive dialogue various political forces, monitoring compliance with legal norms, predicting the consequences of certain political actions. All this requires a high political culture, moral self-control, and political will from the subjects of politics.
POWER AND POWER ACTIVITIES
Since political activity is associated with influencing power or using power, we will consider this concept in more detail. At the same time, we will take into account that you met with him many times both in the course of history and in the study of social science. Of course, you are familiar with the words that are based on the Greek roots “kratos” or “archi”, meaning “power”, “domination”: aristocracy, democracy, monarchy, etc. You probably know that power - it is the ability and ability to dispose of someone or something: to influence the behavior of people based on authority, right, and, if necessary, to subordinate to one’s will through coercion. In political science, there are various classifications of power.
Economic power is called economic power, which is distributed among the highest state bodies, industrial and financial companies, firms, their managers and owners. military power is in the hands of the Supreme Commander (in Russia, according to the Constitution, it is the President of the country), military leaders. spiritual power, that is, the power of ideas is the influence on society of the most authoritative writers, scientists, journalists, church leaders, as well as owners and leaders of the media, who are sometimes called information power. state power carried out by state bodies and persons vested with the highest powers in accordance with the Constitution of the country (in the state power allocate legislative, executive And judicial). Various subjects of politics seek to seize power in all spheres of society. The ability to influence society as a whole political power,
owned by the state, and political parties and movements - their leaders.
Political power as a state arose about 5 thousand years ago. However, even in the previous millennia, there was a need to regulate the interactions of people, to give them organization, subordinating them to the general rules of behavior. Such regulation in the early stages of human history was carried out by the will National Assembly, council of elders, military leaders. The more diverse the activities of people became, the more noticeable social inequality was, the more differences their interests acquired, the more acute was the need for their coordination, in special activities aimed at streamlining, integrating society, preventing chaos, disorganization, destruction. social connections. This special activity turned into a professional one: a layer of people appeared, whose main occupation was the management of the affairs of society, the exercise of power functions. The state arose, which became the main instrument for the exercise of political power.
Powerful activity is basically the activity of developing and adopting power decisions and their implementation. The Russian philosopher I. A. Ilyin (1883-1954) described this activity as follows: “The ruler must not only want and decide, but also systematically lead others to want and decide. To rule means, as it were, to impose one's will on the will of others, but in such a way that this imposition is voluntarily accepted by those who obey.
Dominion is a subtle, artistic process of communication between a more powerful will and a weaker will. This process creates an invisible and weightless atmosphere of attraction of the periphery to the center, of many disparate wills to a single, organized, leading will.
As a result of the interaction of various subjects and objects of power (owners of power and subordinates), power relations arise. Depending on the means used by the subject, these relations can take different shape. The power of strength - it is the ability of the subject to achieve the desired result in relations with the subject through the use of physical or mental influence. Coercion - it is an act calculated to force the subject to submit to some demand under the threat of punishment. Motivation based on the ability of the subject to provide the subject with certain benefits. Influence on subordinates with the help beliefs based on the power of arguments, strong, thoughtful reasons that influence their behavior. Subordination the power of authority associated with public recognition high quality the subject of power, inspiring confidence in him. Finally, it is possible manipulation consciousness and behavior of people, i.e. a hidden influence on them with the help of distorted information, demagogic slogans, etc.
Political science identifies a number of key components of power activity. This is, first of all, an imperious will, i.e., an intense desire to achieve a goal, the mobilization of forces, freedom in the manifestation of power, the adoption of such decisions that must be carried out by everyone, the implementation of measures that everyone must obey. This, further, is an imperious decision, a decision on any issue, the basis of which is the conclusion found by the bearer of power (ruler, state body) as a result of studying the issue, thinking it over, discussing, agreeing. These are also powerful actions, specific manifestations of activity in which the powerful will and powerful decisions are realized. Powerful activity is reflected in power acts, i.e., in laws, decrees, resolutions, orders of state bodies. You can see these features of power activity in the policies of the leaders of different states known to you in different historical periods - Ivan the Terrible and Peter I, Alexander II and P. A. Stolypin, Napoleon and Roosevelt.
LEGITIMACY OF POWER
Power can be effective if it is legitimized. The concept of legitimacy is widely used in political science to characterize such an attitude of those subject to the holder of power, in which the population recognizes the legitimacy of power, accepts it as legitimate and fair, and voluntarily agrees to obey it. The classical typology of the legitimacy of ruling was developed by the German scientist M. Weber (1864-1920). He singled out three types of legitimacy and, accordingly, three types of political domination (power based on direct and unconditional subordination).
traditional type legitimacy exists through the habit of obeying authority. It relies not so much on the law as on traditions, customs, faith in the sacredness of long-standing orders and authorities. This type is typical for monarchies.
Charismatic type legitimacy is associated with the extraordinary, extraordinary personal qualities of the ruler (the word "charisma" Greek origin, means "divine gift"). People accept such power not by tradition, but as a result of sensory perception of the new, bright, unusual. This type of power is based not on habitual behavior, not on the law, but on an emotionally colored admiration for the real or imagined exceptional qualities of the leader.
Rational legal type legitimacy means the recognition of power that has arisen according to established rules and in accordance with the law. This type is not associated with outstanding personality leader, not with the habits of people, but with strict observance of the formal legal norms governing power activities. IN modern world it usually exists in democratic states.
If the classification of M. Weber refers more to the legitimacy of the power of individuals, then subsequently the American political scientist D. Easton proposed an approach applicable to various political regimes. ideological legitimacy is based on the values and principles proclaimed by the authorities, on their compliance with the expectations of the people. Structural legitimacy exists on the basis of people's attachment to the structures and norms of the regime. Personal legitimacy is based on the moral approval of those who exercise power in the structures of the regime.
Both considered classifications represent the so-called ideal types of power relations, and in real life they can manifest themselves more or less noticeably; in a particular case, a combination of them is possible.
Domination is a kind of political activity, and it also has all the features that characterize politics as an activity and which are described in this paragraph.
Power activity is, in essence, the policy of power that affects all social communities, all spheres of people's life, society as a whole.
Politics and power are key concepts political science, with the most important provisions of which you will get acquainted in the 11th grade.
Basic concepts: politics, power, political power, legitimacy of power.
Terms: political action, domination, charisma.
1. Can the words of Aristotle be recognized as relevant or obsolete: “Man by nature is a political being”? How should they be understood?
2. Russian philosopher N. O. Lossky (1870-1965) wrote:
“The attempts of other social reformers to immediately raise society to a much higher stage of development with one convulsive leap usually only destroy the modest good achieved earlier and do not at all realize new ones, higher forms perfection." Analyze this statement about the activities of politicians from the point of view of the connection "goal - means - result". What idea in the text of the paragraph is confirmed by the words of N. O. Lossky?
3. What are the main directions of the policy of Peter I. What were the goals, means of achieving them and the results of each of them? How did the policy of Peter the Great influence Russian society?
4. What problem is considered in the following statement by M. Weber: “Not a single ethics in the world circumvents the fact that the achievement of“ good ”goals in many cases is associated with the need to come to terms with the use of morally dubious or at least dangerous means, with the possibility or even the likelihood of bad side effects, and no ethics in the world can say when and to what extent an ethically positive end "sanctifies" ethically dangerous means and side effects"? Does the position of M. Weber coincide with the views of N. Machiavelli? Justify your conclusion.
5. Discuss what indicators can be used to determine whether the legitimacy of power is increasing or decreasing. Think about what the prevailing use of certain means in power activities indicates.
6. Collect press materials about the recent activities of any political organization. Analyze this activity using the concepts you learned in this paragraph.
| Work with the source |
The Russian philosopher V. Yu. Smorgunova reflects on the connection between political knowledge and political action.
All political actions have a political meaning, they are intentional, although they also contain unconscious component. However, awareness of political action not always testifies to their constructiveness, adequacy existing political situation, correct reflection by the subject political actions of their own needs and political interests, proper consideration of the political interests of other political actors. The subject of political action in his political practice can rely not on an independently conducted study of political life, not on his own political assessment, but on political information learned from another epistemological source. It is also possible that there is a discrepancy between the declared goals, which deliberately mask the real meaning of political motives, and those political ideas that actually guide the activities of political subjects. A similar situation occurs in the case of underdevelopment of the political thinking of a participant in the political process, who is not aware of the contradictions between thinking and practice...
Political relations, politics in general, power structures are called upon to rationalize public life in the interests of achieving public harmony. That is why political knowledge is embodied in political decisions. A political decision as an intellectual-volitional formation demonstrates the trigger mechanism that turns intellectual activity into practical actions. Here the spiritual world merges with the real, practical world. Here we see how a political person turns from a knowledgeable and willing person into a powerful person who really realizes his interests. This realization of interests is only possible in various forms of the political.
Questions and tasks: 1) What role does political knowledge play in political activity? 2) What does the use of incorrect information lead to? 3) How does a knowing person become a powerful person? 4) What is the importance of correct ideas about reality for making power decisions?
Conclusions to chapter III
1. Activity is a form of existence of society, a characteristic way for a person to relate to the outside world, a manifestation of the activity of the subject, expressed in the expedient change in the world around him, as well as in the transformation of the person himself. In the process of activity, the development of society and the person himself takes place. In any activity there are motives, a goal, means to achieve it, actions aimed at achieving the goal, and a result. The role of motives can be needs, interests, social attitudes, beliefs, ideals, drives and emotions.
special role creative activity plays in the development of man and society, in the process of which something new is created that has never existed before. The variety of manifestations of human creative activity is expressed in such activities as play, learning, work. In creative activity, human abilities are developed, and its result is culture, the renewal of all aspects of social life.
2. Spiritual activity (cognitive, value-oriented, prognostic) is associated with a change in people's consciousness. These are activities in the field of science and education, artistic culture and religion. It includes the creation, dissemination and development of spiritual values. Mastering the culture, people master the spiritual wealth of their people, country and world. IN various types and forms, spiritual activity creates and develops the culture of the individual and society. The spiritual (inner) world of a person brings together the mind, feelings, will of a person, characterizes a person from the standpoint of her attitude to the surrounding reality, to other people, to herself.
3. Labor is an expedient human activity aimed at creating, with the help of the means of labor, material and spiritual values necessary for people's lives. It is a way of satisfying human needs; source of public wealth; factor of social progress. Labor activity is characterized by a set of labor operations; the quality of subjects of labor; material and technical working conditions; the way in which subjects of labor are connected with the means and conditions for their use; the structure of the organization of the labor process and its management. The transformation of the technical factor of production significantly increases the role of the human factor.
With the transition to a market economy, social partnership has been developed - a system of relationships between state authorities, representatives of workers and employers, entrepreneurs, based on equal cooperation.
4. Political activity expresses the interests of large social groups and society as a whole. It includes a variety of actions, use various means, which should not go beyond the limits indicated in the documents on human rights. The direction and content of political activity is largely determined by political ideology.
Political activity is associated with influencing power or using power. Power is the ability to influence the behavior of people based on authority, right and, if necessary, through coercion. Power activity is manifested mainly in the development, adoption and implementation of political decisions. Power can be effective under the condition of its legitimacy, that is, with such an attitude of the population, in which the subordinates recognize the power as lawful and fair.
Questions and tasks for chapter III
1. Based on the content of chapters II and III, characterize the social essence of the activity.
2. Reflect knowledge about the activity and its diversity in the table.
Activity and its types
3. An argument arose at a seminar on philosophy:
Nikolay. In activity - the essence of man. It cannot manifest itself otherwise than in some cases.
Lena. I don't agree with this. You can live without doing anything. ancient greek philosopher did not engage in any activity, but only thought about life.
Maksim. Isn't philosophizing the same as being active? It is also the essence of man. Animals cannot philosophize.
You enter into an argument. State your attitude to the points of view expressed and own point perspective on the issue under discussion.
4. Give examples of creativity in labor, spiritual and political activities. What is common and what are the differences between these acts of creative activity?
5. Compare the two definitions of creativity. N. Berdyaev said that creativity is the transition of non-existence into existence through an act of freedom. A. D. Andreev defined creativity as the highest, most precious ability of a person, a manifestation of his divine prerogative (exclusive right. - Ed.) his spirit. How do you feel about these statements? Do you see anything in common between them? What definition do you prefer and why?
Getting ready for the exam
1. What signs should be added to the necessary elements of the definition of the concept of "human activity"?
1) The manifestation of activity;
2) .........................................;
3) ........................................ .
2. What is superfluous in listing the features of human activity?
1) Goal setting;
2) motives;
3) adaptation to the environment;
4) transformation environment.
3. A manifestation of activity characteristic of a person, expressed in the transformation of the external world, is:
1) game;
2) behavior;
3) attitude;
4) activity.
4. An activity that generates something new that has never existed before is:
1) knowledge;
2) study;
3) creativity;
4) copy.
5. Are the following statements correct?
A. In the process of activity, creative creation of culture is carried out.
B. Anthill is an example of a well-organized activity.
1) Only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both statements are wrong.
6. Lead own example any activity and expand on this example common features any activity.
7. Write three sentences containing the concept of "social and humanitarian knowledge" and giving any information about this knowledge.
8. Write an essay based on the following statement: “Oh, if only education were added to diligence, and diligence to education.”
Political activity, like any other, involves the definition of its goals. They are divided into long-term (they are called strategic) and current goals. Goals can be relevant, priority and irrelevant, real and unrealistic. How relevant, on the one hand, and how realistic, on the other hand, this or that goal can be answered only through a complete and accurate analysis of the main trends in social development, urgent social needs, the alignment of political forces, and the interests of various social groups. Of particular importance is the question of the availability of funds with which to achieve the intended goals. In relation to political activity, this issue was considered by the outstanding Renaissance thinker Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527). “It is superfluous to say,” he wrote, “how laudable in the state is fidelity to a given word, straightforwardness and unswerving honesty. However, we know from experience that in our time great things were only possible for those who did not try to keep their word and were able to fool whomever they needed; such sovereigns ultimately succeeded much more than those who staked on honesty ... It should be understood that a sovereign, especially a new one, cannot do everything for which people are considered good, since in order to preserve the state, he is often forced to go against his word, against mercy, kindness and piety. Therefore, in his soul, he must always be ready to change direction if events take a different turn or the wind of fortune blows in the other direction, that is, as was said, if possible, do not move away from good, but if necessary, do not shy away from evil " . So, a politician (“sovereign”), as N. Machiavelli believed, “for the sake of preserving the state” can violate this word and in general “do not shy away from evil.” And in our time there are politicians who, painting a bright image of the proclaimed goals, justify the use of lies, materials compromising opponents, and other completely not good means to achieve them. Particularly promiscuous in the means of the organization, committed to extreme views and measures. Fighting for their political goals, they consider it possible to organize street riots, seize administrative buildings, arrange fights with political opponents, etc. The formula “the end justifies the means” is opposed by another view of the relationship between politics and morality: subordinate politics to morality. However, many scientists note that a politician often has to choose: either to prevent the danger of taking tough measures that do not quite correspond to “absolute morality”, or by inaction to allow damage to society. The moral limit that cannot be crossed is today reflected in human rights documents, in international humanitarian law.
Political action
Recall that any activity is a set of actions. Political activity includes a wide variety of activities: organizing parties and making government decisions, election campaigns and speeches in parliament, political rallies and diplomatic negotiations, holding party congresses and appeals to the people, developing political programs and referendums, coup d'état and visits by government delegations. These can be actions of an individual or a group that act as subjects of political activity. Political actions are aimed at "doing something" (for example, getting a law passed, etc.), or "preventing something", or "stopping something" (for example, stopping ethnic conflict). In this regard, it is necessary to consider not only action, but also inaction. How could one assess the inaction of a state leader in the face of the danger of a coup d'état? How to assess the inaction of a person in relation to elections (non-participation in elections)? In both cases, inaction allows other participants in political events to draw their own line. The actions of the subjects of politics can be rational and irrational. Rational actions are conscious, planned, with a clear understanding of the goals and necessary means. Irrational - these are actions motivated mainly by the emotional states of people, for example, their irritation, hatred, fear, impressions of ongoing events. In real political life, rational and irrational principles combine and interact. Political actions are spontaneous and organized. A spontaneous rally and a carefully prepared party conference are examples of such actions. Political action does not always lead to the achievement of the set goal. For example, the assassination of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya led to results that differed significantly from the goals of the Narodnaya Volya struggle. (Remember what were the goals of this organization. What were the consequences of the terrorist act against the king?)
Recently, the importance of such methods of political activity as persuasion, the study of public opinion, a constructive dialogue between various political forces, control over compliance with legal norms, and forecasting the consequences of certain political actions has increased. All this requires a high political culture, moral self-control, and political will from the subjects of politics.