The study shows that the higher the evolutionary form of activity, the more complex its structure, apparently, the stronger the differentiation of parts, aspects and elements of this activity should be expressed. If at the inorganic level the isolation of its structural components causes certain difficulties, then at the biological and social levels the difficulty lies in their large number. A large variety of parts, sides and elements does not allow us to clearly and definitely single out the main and leading ones among them. The advantage of the socio-philosophical approach to activity as a universal property of matter lies precisely in the fact that it makes it possible to abstract from this particular diversity and single out only what is characteristic of activity in general, regardless of the specifics of its evolutionary forms.
Structure of activity
Many opinions have been expressed about the structure of activity in the philosophical and sociological literature. Ultimately, they can be divided into two main groups. Some authors reduce the whole problem to the diversity of forms of human activity. So, B. A. Grushin offers three classification series, which includes certain "types" of activity. First of all, according to the nature of the expended energy, he distinguishes between activities associated with the expenditure of predominantly muscular, mental and psychic forces. Then, according to the composition, he differentiates “objective activity”, “information activity” and “the play of physiological or mental forces”. Finally, by general character distinguishes "production", "consumption" and "communication".
Other authors seek to uncover internal structure human activity, but seriously differ among themselves on the composition of its constituent elements. According to M. S. Kvetnoy, for example, the internal, "esoteric" section includes four "constituting elements of any activity": 1) needs and interests, 2) motives and goals, 3) actions and means, 4) products.
M. S. Kagan considers "it is possible to isolate three main elements of activity... the subject, endowed with activity and directing it to objects or other subjects; an object, to which the activity of the subject (more precisely, the subjects) is directed; this activity itself expressed in one or another way of mastering the object by the subject or in establishing the subject of communicative interaction with others ". In turn, E. G. Yudin recognizes the existence of four elements of activity - "goal, means, result and the process of activity itself" . And from the point of view of L Nikolov, it is impossible to talk about activity at all, "if three elements are not distinguished - a producer, an object, a product ...".
As we can see, all the named authors in the proposed structures of activity quite obviously do not distinguish between activity and interaction. They, in essence, identify these phenomena, while activity is just those directed changes in the process of interaction that occur inside the interacting bodies. Activity is a property of each of the parties of interaction. Therefore, when it comes to the activity of a subject or an object, it is necessary to conduct an analysis in a differentiated way: separately investigate the activity of the subject and separately the activity of the object, since both of them are active. And if the subject and object are taken together, and even supplemented by other "elements", then this is no longer an activity, but a certain form of interaction. In addition, it is apparently illogical to single out some other "activity" or "activity" as a special "element" in the structure of activity. An activity cannot include itself as a structural entity.
The conducted general philosophical and general sociological analysis allows us to conclude that activity, being a universal property of matter, has as many forms as there are levels of development of matter and forms of its movement. Obviously, there are five forms of activity: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological and social. All of them are material. However, it is quite clear that each of them has its own characteristics, the study of which is a separate scientific task. These basic evolutionary forms of activity, in turn, are divided into specific classes and types with all sorts of subspecies, which are most closely intertwined with each other.
Each evolutionary form of activity has its own specific laws that determine the way in which certain integral objects (individuals) change. These laws characterize the level of development of matter, as well as the meaningful originality that is characteristic of a given group of phenomena. In any evolutionary form of activity, the specificity of objective interaction is fixed at the corresponding stage of the development of the material world. Since these forms of activity are qualitatively different from each other, the transition from one form to another occurs in leaps and bounds.
These five basic evolutionary forms of activity are not isolated from one another, but are interconnected and exist in such a way that one is the basis for the emergence of another, higher one. For example, physical activity arises on the basis of mechanical activity, chemical activity is formed on the basis of the latter, and so on. There are strictly hierarchical dependencies between them, under the influence of which the lowest form of activity is mechanical, and the highest - social.
At the same time, lower forms of activity can be included in higher ones, but they do not already play a decisive role in them, but are subordinate. Higher forms of activity are of primary, leading importance here. It is they that determine the specifics of the flow of certain processes, the specifics of the connections and relationships that are characteristic of these active objects. However, the higher forms of activity cannot be included in the lower ones. This is explained by the fact that more complex and developed structures are inaccessible to simpler and less developed forms of activity.
Of course, the structure of social activity is extremely complex. But if you try to highlight the main thing, then, ultimately, you can structure it according to at least three criteria: 1) satisfaction of basic social needs, 2) external (exoteric) mechanism of implementation, 3) internal (esoteric) mechanism of implementation (Fig. 3.1) .
If for classification we choose such a criterion as the satisfaction of basic social needs, then four main forms can be distinguished in the composition of social activity: work, rest, life and study. They are mutual
Rice. 3.1.
condition and complement each other. The main and defining among them is labor. He created man not only historically. In reality, each person acquires social significance and necessity only through work. Labor is the main form of human activity.
What is labor? The term "work" is usually used in two senses. In a broad sense - to refer to the process in which a person through his activity mediates, regulates and controls the metabolism between himself and nature. In this sense, labor is an eternal natural condition of human life and therefore inherent in all its social forms. In a narrow sense, the concept of "labor" is used in the conditions of commodity production to refer to any paid human activity. For what you get for your work wages people acquire the necessary material and spiritual benefits that ensure their existence. The concept of "labor" in the narrow sense, in essence, is synonymous with the concept of "labor force".
In the conditions of market relations, labor, like any commodity, has a dual character. On the one hand, it acts as a use value, i.e. in its concrete form - the labor of a grain grower, machine builder, teacher, etc. In use value, the quality of labor is realized - the specialization and level of professional training of the worker, his skill, dexterity, etc. On the other hand, labor is the bearer of exchange or commodity value. Labor as value also contains abstract human labor. Differences disappear in the latter beneficial species labor spent on the formation and reproduction of this labor force. The value of labor is also determined by the amount of labor time socially necessary for its formation (reproduction of labor force).
Consequently, the use value of labor characterizes the quality of labor that is expended on the production of labor power, and the value of labor characterizes the amount of labor used for these purposes. The most complete value of labor is expressed in the standard of living of the worker, i.e. the degree of satisfaction of his material and spiritual needs, the provision of consumer goods. Labor, although based on natural properties(ability) of a person is a social property acquired in the process of socialization. Labor as a commodity is created by consuming a variety of goods produced by other labor.
Labor as a paid activity of people is characterized by the same features as social activity in general. It also has a public character, aimed at the implementation of common for any social group functions, necessarily includes consciousness (ideal) and is carried out by artificially created means.
As a paid social activity, labor is oriented towards the production of goods and services for others. In contrast, rest, life and study of a person are focused on satisfying primarily their own (personal) needs. True, a person satisfies one part of these needs through personal unpaid activities. While the second - at the expense of the paid labor of other people. With the growth of social and personal wealth, people satisfy an increasing part of their needs for recreation, life, study by acquiring paid services performed by employees. When the financial situation worsens, the standard of living decreases, on the contrary, these needs are satisfied at the expense of their own unpaid activities.
In social science, along with the concept of "public activity", the concept of "public life" is quite often used. How do they relate to each other? It seems that these two concepts have identical content and therefore they should be used as synonyms.
If we take an external (exoteric) mechanism for the implementation of social activity, which is directly and directly related to the final result, then we will get another very specific activity structure. In the very general view in social activity, six spheres connected in pairs can be distinguished: production and non-production, material and spiritual, humanitarian (often called not quite correctly "social") and non-humanitarian. These pairs do not exist in isolation from each other, but are closely intertwined, but in such a way that each retains its own specificity. As a result, in the production and non-production spheres there are material and spiritual, as well as humanitarian and non-humanitarian spheres. And vice versa.
Indeed, material production is divided into the production of people and the production of things, and spiritual production is divided into the spiritual production (education) of people and the production of ideas ( public consciousness). In the material and non-productive sphere, one can similarly distinguish between the sphere of material services for people and the sphere of servicing things, and in the spiritually non-productive sphere, the sphere of spiritual service for people and the sphere for servicing ideas (for example, design serves various concepts of technology). Therefore, the material and spiritual production of people, as well as their material and spiritual service, form the humanitarian sphere, and the material production and service of things, together with the spiritual production and service of ideas, form the non-humanitarian sphere (Fig. 3.2).
It should be emphasized that when it comes to the production and service of people (material and spiritual), this
Rice. 3.2.
involves not only and not so much the production and maintenance of an individual (which is also important), but the production and maintenance of social communities (classes, nations, states) defined for each historical period. Each of these spheres, in turn, is subdivided into even smaller ones or combined with others and forms larger ones.
In this regard, the economy of the post-capitalist (and post-socialist) information society is intended to have a clearly expressed humanitarian character. By its very nature, it requires guidelines aimed at ever more complete satisfaction of the comprehensive needs of people. Therefore, the new relations of production must include not only the production and service of things, but also material production and the service of people. The interests and needs of concrete individuals must be placed at the center of the economic activity of Russian society, of all social development.
The allocation of these six areas of social activity is extremely important for maintaining social balance at any stage. social movement. The fact is that none of these areas can receive significant advantages in its development, especially for a long time. Between these spheres, a state of equal size, equivalence, social balance should always be established. If this balance is disturbed for any reason, then such a society begins to feverish, sometimes quite significantly. This is exactly what happened with Soviet society, which for more than 75 years has given priority to the manufacturing sector to the detriment of everything else.
Of particular importance for the essential characteristics of social activity is the analysis of se internal structure, highlighting the main elements, parties, factors, regulators and establishing the mechanisms of interaction between them. According to the internal (esoteric) mechanism of implementation in the structure of social activity, one can distinguish, firstly, two initial elements - current activities and accumulated activity; secondly, two main aspects - theory and practice; thirdly, two factors - social information and social organization; finally, fourthly, two regulators - social management and social dismanagement. An analysis of these activity parts will be given in subsequent paragraphs and chapters.
- Questions of Philosophy. 1977. No. 2. S. 29–30.
- Kvetnoy M.S. Human activity: essence, structure, types (sociological aspect). pp. 32–33.
- Kagan M.S. Human activity (experience system analysis). pp. 45–46.
- Yudin E. G. System approach and principle of activity. S. 268.
- Nicholas L. Structures of human activity. S. 57.
Any human meaningful activity is expedient and motivated by internal or external causes. It transforms the surrounding reality, and therefore it is important to understand the goals and driving motives of the individual through these criteria. Why is this important? To predict cause-and-effect relationships and the results of an individual's activity. Both the subject of activity and the surrounding society will use these criteria for their own purposes.
Activity
This is a conscious activity of a person, aimed at satisfying personal and social needs, having a specific goal and motive. All activities of people form the process of development of society.
Activity is a form of realization of the goals of people in society. In its process, both the external world as an object of conscious influence and the person himself are transformed. This happens as a result of improving knowledge about the world and its capabilities. Therefore, it is so important to know and take into account the motivating motives of activity and the direction of people's actions in society, because in the end they form a system. social life society, and their effectiveness depends on motivation.
Human activities are given attention by different disciplines. Sociology considers it from the point of view of social significance. Philosophy - for the analysis of meanings and values in the actions of people, for psychology, the structure and the person are important from the point of view of the mental orientation of the individual, for management it serves as a tool for motivating employees.
In the process of studying different areas of humanitarian knowledge, a single basis was singled out that characterizes the process of activity. This structure and its elements constitute the principle of expedient activity, which is preserved in all its types.
Phenomenon structure
Any activity has a common nature and direction. A person looks succinctly enough, the scheme of which can be represented as follows: goal → motive → result. But this chain does not contain all the links. Moreover, it is characterized by the cyclic nature of the repetition of the process. And the beginning of such a chain is based on the result of previous activities. Rather, it is a spiral that rushes towards the perfection of man and society.
Before setting a goal, a person must feel the need and the motive for activity that arises on its basis. Moreover, the result is not the end of the chain, but serves as the basis for a new stage in the active development of the personality from setting a goal (task) based on a certain motive and to the process of achieving the result using the selected methods and means to achieve it. This is the logical structure and its stages. These are the links of one chain, and they act as a structure of human activity:
- Need.
- Motive.
- Target.
- Process.
- Method (method) of implementation.
- Result.
Each element performs certain function, it is important for the whole process. Without an identified need, it is impossible to determine the authorship of the goal. This form of activity has no result, or it is alienated from the subject of activity, does not belong to him and does not serve his purpose, since it makes the whole process meaningless.
If the process replaces the result, people lose interest in this area of activity. If the result does not meet expectations, the individual loses its meaning and may degrade due to the lack of essential quality human activity - awareness of its purpose.
Analysis and synthesis
Forms of activity are studied by a complex of sciences of a social and humanitarian orientation. One of their tasks is to reveal the nature of goal-setting in human activity in order to motivate each member of society for socially significant activity and prevent anti-social motives and asocial orientation in people's actions.
The analysis of all elements of the chain makes it possible to discover the cause-and-effect patterns of the interaction of motives and results of activity, the goals and forms of the process, thereby helping to understand the driving forces of society.
The structure itself is not linear. It repeats itself, intersects with other forms and methods of action of a person and a group, is absorbed, sometimes interrupted, without culminating in the achievement of the goal.
An analysis of the activity structure of a completed cycle gives an idea of the strength of motivation, the ways of applying energy to solve problems, and other socio-psychological factors of activity. He can serve quality tool to create motivational programs and methods of organizing the labor process.
Knowledge about the causes and conditions for the formation of motives can serve effective tool to create incentive programs in the process and professional self-realization of people.
The purpose of the activity is the leading motivator
The level of a goal declared by a person depends on his culture, capabilities, environment, social conditions. Not always he can accurately formulate the goal. More often, personal goals are replaced by external attributes of success and values that are characteristic of a certain moral environment of society. The ability to formulate a personal goal of activity is an indicator personal development person.
The purpose of an activity is to understand its result. This idea is material, having spatio-temporal localization.
Goals can be internal, immanent (intrinsic) to human nature and external, determining the activity of the individual. External and internal goals may coincide. This the best way for the benefit of society and the individual, since it does not provoke a conflict of interest.
If the external goal does not correspond to the interests of the individual, then the activity can achieve a result, but it is permissible to talk about efficiency if there is a strong motive for achieving the result. If the goal solves important tasks for the individual, it in itself can act as a powerful motivating factor. So, what is the motive of activity? What role does he play?
Motivational Needs
This concept is so important in terms of mental processes that there are numerous theories of human motivation. One of the most famous is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. According to this system, it is the needs that are the internal engine of the individual, they encourage him to create and be creative, and the structure of human activity is based on them. Maslow's scheme consists of several levels:
- The desire to satisfy the physiological need for food, home, warmth.
- Existential needs: security of life, inviolability of housing, the presence of a predictable future.
- Social security: the need for love, the need for people, belonging to a social group.
- Spiritual needs in creativity.
- cognitive needs.
- Aesthetic. This is a desire for harmonization of the inner and outer world, for beauty.
- The need for self-actualization (a person wants to have status, recognition, strives for full self-expression).
All needs that are aimed at the personal well-being of the individual are basic, primary. The level of recognition by society, the desire to lead a social life - all this is secondary. Such needs are formed when the basic ones are satisfied.
motive
The motive forms the goal, as the activity structure shows. The diagram clearly demonstrates the importance of this element. It should be added that all needs are inherent in human nature. But the leading motivator will be the one that solves the most urgent tasks to achieve personal goals.
The motive, if you characterize it briefly, is the meaning of a person's activity, his activity.
In order to understand what the motive of activity is, let's look at an example.
If a person strives to become a leader, his goal is to acquire the status of a boss, the motive is to satisfy the need for recognition, the result is a high position. In real life, everything is not so schematic and primitive, of course. Motives are often multilevel, as are goals.
Methods and methods of activity
Analysis of the activity structure logically leads to whole line questions.
How are the goal and the result interrelated, how do these moments affect each other? What is In what way does it manifest itself in the process of achieving the goal?
Indeed, if the motive is internal engine, then the way or method of achieving the goal is an external form of the implementation of the activity. And it should be adequate to the purpose. Compliance of methods and methods with the result obtained is a qualitative characteristic of the process. The discrepancy between the forms and content of activities with the goal may have Negative consequences both for the individual and for the immediate environment.
If a person strives to become educated, and his internal motive is the need for knowledge, then buying a diploma will never become an adequate form of achieving the goal. The characteristic of the structure of activity always gives an idea of the adequacy of the goal, methods and results of the process.
Process is always action. The characteristic of the activity structure of different options gives an idea of possible ways development of events. Actions can lead to a result, then they form an expedient process. Actions at the level of affects, habits, false beliefs, delusions in relation to the goal are inappropriate and lead to unpredictable results.
Activities
The activities are varied. The chosen path depends on various parameters - age, profession, status, field of activity. Let us consider some types in order to trace how the psychological structure of human activity changes.
This process does not begin with adulthood, when a person becomes capable of doing free and independent choice with full responsibility. Activities are carried out from the very first days of life. Only the degree of her awareness and motivation changes.
An infant, like a fully formed personality, has a goal, but it cannot yet be called conscious. But he is driven by a strong motive - satisfaction. He is already active at the subconscious level of reflexes.
Further added play activity. IN childhood she is the leader. At this stage, the general structure of activity is already manifesting itself. It reflects the whole hierarchy Maslow's needs rolled up.
Next natural stage - educational activity person. Its purpose is to acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities. This is very meaningful view activities.
It is present at all stages of human life. It can be said differently: any kind of activity performs a learning function.
As a rule, in the process of labor, the expedient activity of the individual is realized to the full extent. Ultimately, a product is produced that satisfies the current needs of society.
The result of the creative process is a work of art. The desire for self-expression contains the structure of activity. The scheme demonstrates the close relationship between this motive and the goal: the motive of self-expression ↔ way ↔ goal. But it takes place not necessarily only in a creative environment. The element of creating something new is present in all forms of human activity, but to varying degrees, of course.
Result
The final stage for the sake of which any activity is carried out is the planned result. If it does not meet expectations, the person may experience frustration - mental condition characterizing internal devastation, disappointment. Naturally, this kind of phenomenon does not contribute to the success and further setting of goals. Therefore, it is so important that the result brings joy. The latter must be distinguished from pleasure. A person experiences joy in the event that he puts effort into the process to obtain a result. In this case, the result itself is a logical motivator for further activity, because people tend to strive for positive emotions.
The result is the end product of human activity. At the same time, it must meet the set goal. The structure of human activity coincides in this phase. Having achieved the goal and received the result, the individual goes to new level the need to be satisfied.
The result often appears in the form of a product, but it does not always have a material shell.
The result can be a goal that brings joy from the process of work. If the result of the activity corresponds to the goal, then the person has achieved positive result. If not, then a negative experience is formed, which should also be taken into account when planning for the future.
Rational activity and personality
Human activity, the purpose of which is self-improvement, deserves special attention. During the implementation of this process, the structure of human activity has personal potential as its subject and basis. Every person has this opportunity. But not everyone is ready to work on themselves. Only a highly developed individual understands that he himself is the best subject of his own development. What are the features of this process?
- The ability to be fully responsible for the results of their development.
- The ability to achieve success in the activity in which a person realizes himself fully.
- The goal has a deep life meaning, as a rule, significant for society, beyond the personal needs of an individual.
- A high level of organization of personal space, the subordination of the way of life to the goal.
It should be noted that any human activity, the purpose of which satisfies him, is an element of self-improvement. The fact is that joy is always the discovery of one's own boundaries and possibilities. In addition, it also provides a positive attitude that encourages others to work together and increases the energy of this process.
Even Aristotle - the father of "Logic" - called expedient activity a great good for society and man. All the true values of life acquire even greater significance over time. Aristotle's words are undoubtedly relevant to the present day.
Activity is a specifically human activity regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world and oneself.
Activity is a process of a person's active attitude to reality, during which the subject achieves the goals set earlier, the satisfaction of various needs and the development of social experience.
Main features of activity
Distinctive features of human activity are its social character, purposefulness, plannedness, systematicity.
The main characteristics of human activity are objectivity and subjectivity.
When analyzing activities, there are three plans for its consideration:
genetic, structural-functional and dynamic. 
Activity structure
Activity is the internal (mental) and external (physical) activity of a person, regulated by a conscious goal.
Activity has its own structure: motives, methods and techniques, purpose and result.
motives- these are those internal goals that are associated with the needs of the individual and encourage her to a certain activity. The motive of activity is that which induces it, for the sake of which it is carried out.
The motives of human activity can be very different: organic, functional, material, social, spiritual.
The motive and goal form a kind of vector of activity that determines its direction, as well as the amount of effort developed by the subject in its implementation. This vector organizes the entire system of mental processes and states that are formed and unfold in the course of activity.
Goals are the most significant objects, phenomena, tasks and objects for a person, the achievement and possession of which constitute the essence of his activity. The purpose of an activity is an ideal representation of its future result. A distinction should be made between the final goal and intermediate goals. Achieving the ultimate goal is tantamount to satisfying a need. Intermediate goals include goals that a person sets as a condition for achieving the final goal.
Goals can be near and far, personal and public, depending on how important a person attaches to them and what role in public life plays his activity.
Methods and techniques (actions) are relatively complete elements of activity aimed at achieving intermediate goals subordinate to a common motive.
A complex external action for its implementation may require a number of acts related to each other in a certain way. These acts, or the links into which action breaks down, are operations.
Any activity includes internal and external components.
By its origin, internal (mental, psychic) activity is derived from external (objective) activity. Initially, objective actions are performed, and only then, as experience accumulates, a person acquires the ability to perform the same actions in the mind. The translation of an external action into an internal plan is called internalization.
Mastering internal activity leads to the fact that before starting external activity aimed at achieving the desired goal, a person performs actions in the mind, operating with images and speech symbols. External activity in this case is prepared and proceeds on the basis of the performance of mental activity. The realization of a mental action outside, in the form of actions with objects, is called exteriorization.
The activity is carried out in the form of a system of actions. Action is the main structural unit of activity, which is defined as a process aimed at achieving the goal. Allocate practical (objective) and mental actions. 
Each action can be divided into indicative, executive and control parts.
Mastering the activity: skills and abilities.
When carrying out activities, a person interacts with the objective (real or mental) world: the objective situation is transformed, certain objective situations are created, and intermediate results are achieved. Each operation in the structure of the action is determined by the conditions of the changing situation, as well as the skills and abilities of the subject of the activity.
Skill is a stereotyped way of performing individual actions - operations, formed as a result of their repeated repetition and characterized by curtailment (reduction) of its conscious control.
Distinguish between simple and complex skills
Skills are formed as a result of exercises, i.e. purposeful and systematic repetition of actions. As the exercise progresses, both quantitative and qualitative indicators of work change.
Skill arises and functions as an automated technique for performing an action. Its role is to release consciousness from control over the implementation of action methods and switch it to the goals of the action.
The success of mastering a skill depends not only on the number of repetitions, but also on other reasons of an objective and subjective nature.
Since the structure of actions and various kinds activity includes many skills, they usually interact with each other, forming complex systems. The nature of their interaction can be different: from consistency to opposition. 
To save a skill, it should be used systematically, otherwise de-automation occurs, i.e. weakening or almost complete destruction of developed automatisms. With deautomatization, movements become slower and less accurate, coordination is disturbed, movements begin to be performed uncertainly, require special concentration of attention, increased conscious control.
Skill is a method of performing actions mastered by the subject, provided by a set of acquired knowledge and skills.
Skills are formed as a result of the coordination of skills, their combination into systems with the help of actions that are over conscious control. Through the regulation of such actions, the optimal control of skills is carried out, which should ensure the accuracy and flexibility of the performance of the action.
One of the main qualities of skills is that a person is able to change their structure (skills, operations and actions that are part of the skills, the sequence of their implementation), while maintaining the same final result.
Skills are based on active intellectual activity and necessarily include thinking processes. Conscious intellectual control is the main thing that distinguishes skills from skills. The activation of intellectual activity in skills occurs at those moments when the conditions of activity change, non-standard situations arise that require the prompt adoption of various decisions.
Exercises are of great importance in the formation of all types of skills and abilities, thanks to them, skills are automated, skills and activities are improved in general. Exercises are necessary both at the stage of developing skills and abilities, and in the process of their preservation. Without constant, systematic exercises, skills and abilities are usually lost, lose their qualities.
So, we found out that activity is that form of an active attitude to reality, through which a real connection is established between a person and the world around him. Through activity, a person influences nature, things, other people. Consider what elements the activity consists of
In the structure of activity it is necessary, first of all, to distinguish subject And an object activities. Subject - the one who carries out the activity. Individuals, a group of people, an organization, a state body can act as a subject.
An object – this is what the activity is aimed at. Individual objects, processes, phenomena, the internal state of a person can act as an object. For example, a coach influences an athlete (trains him). The object of the artist's activity is the audience in the hall (audience). Finally, the activity of the subject can be directed at himself (a person consciously trains his body, tempers it, educates the will, engages in self-education, etc.). For example, a medieval dyer (subject of activity) affects the fabric; a brigade of builders-finishers can be considered as a subject of a house under construction, and the Ministry of Education - as a subject of management activities in relation to all educational institutions country
Target – it is a conscious image of the anticipated result, the achievement of which is aimed at. For example, an artist, a potter, or a gunsmith first comes up with an image of what a landscape might be, or a pot, or a blade. His image can be shown in a drawing, a three-dimensional model, but first it appears in the minds of the above professions. Statesman starting reforms, must clearly imagine their result. The teacher must be aware of what knowledge and skills students will receive as a result of his pedagogical activity.
So, the goal is what is presented in the mind and expected as a result of a certain way directed activity.
Can a person set any goal he wants? With flint, one can set out to make an arrowhead, but one cannot make a bow out of it. Consequently, the goal of activity may not be any image of the desired, but only one that corresponds to real opportunities the surrounding world and the subject of activity. The goal is determined more precisely, the better the subject of activity knows what are the real means and conditions for achieving it. “Who should be considered smart?” asked the Syrian thinker of the thirteenth century. Abu al-Faraj. And he answered: "The one who strives only for an achievable goal."
When the goal is defined, its achievement or failure of the activity depends on funds . To build a house you need Construction Materials, mechanisms, tools and other means of production. To grow a crop, you need seeds, tools, a system of agricultural techniques, etc. To teach students to read and write, you need textbooks, notebooks, effective techniques educational work, etc. The means must correspond to the goal. When they say: "Fire sparrows with a cannon," this means that the means do not correspond to the goal. Recall the fable: the bear, in order to save the owner from the mosquito that annoyed him, slammed the first one with a club.
In this regard, the question arises: is the goal achievable by dishonest means? End justifies the means? The Russian writer N. S. Leskov wrote: “No noble goal justifies measures that are contrary to the principles of human happiness.” This means that not any measures are suitable for achieving a noble goal, but only noble ones. A good end cannot be achieved by unworthy, unkind means. Unkind means lead to the fact that the result differs significantly from the goal: it also becomes unkind. The centuries-old experience of mankind convinces us of the validity of these conclusions.
Any activity appears before us as a chain of actions. Recall that action – it is a meaningful manifestation of human activity in external environment . Thus, learning activities include a variety of actions: writing lectures, reading books, solving problems, etc. The activities of astronauts include observing the Earth, adjusting instruments, conducting experiments, repair work, training, etc. The activities of the farmer - plowing, sowing, weeding, harvesting.
German sociologist M. Weber(1864-1920), speaking of social actions, divided actions depending on their motives into goal-oriented, value-rational, affective and traditional.
Purposeful rational action characterized by a rationally set and thoughtful goal. The individual whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and possible side effects of his actions acts purposefully rationally. In this case, the individual rationally considers the relationship of means to the goal and side effects, the conditions for achieving the plan. The inner core of goal-oriented activity is the achievement useful, beneficial for the subject result.
Value-rational action It is characterized by the fact that a person conforms his actions not with considerations of utility or benefit, but with his own ideas about honor, duty, about what is good and what is bad. Such action is subject to principles, commandments, requirements. It is based on a belief in aesthetic, religious or other value certain behaviour.
traditional action It is formed on the basis of following tradition, that is, imitation of certain patterns of behavior that have developed in culture and are approved by it, and therefore are practically not subject to rational comprehension and criticism. Such an action is carried out largely purely automatically, according to established stereotypes, it is characterized by the desire to focus on habitual patterns of behavior that have developed on the basis of one's own experience and the experience of previous generations. Despite the fact that traditional actions do not at all imply the development of an orientation towards new opportunities (and perhaps just for this reason), perhaps it is precisely this that makes up the lion's share of all actions performed by individuals. To some extent, people's commitment to commit traditional serves as the basis for the stability of the existence of society and the predictability of the behavior of its members.
affective action conditioned emotional state individual - a flash of passion, hatred, anger, horror, etc.
So, actions – this is an elementary part of activity in which the simplest goal is achieved, not decomposed into simpler ones. Each action has a beginning and an end, a semantic completion, and is aimed at achieving relatively close goals. Action is always conscious to some extent. deeds called actions that are subject to moral principles, morality. Their social significance is recognized by man. Therefore, the actions of people in their content are noble and unworthy, positive and negative. At the same time, an act is also a way of carrying out any specific action. How much various ways performing an action, so many different actions can be distinguished.
The unity of actions and deeds performed in the game, learning and work is a human activity. In it, a person is formed and manifests himself as a person with consciousness. To this it should be added that the influence of activity on the formation of consciousness specific person largely depends on his professional orientation.
Mental processes are the most important components of any human activity. But at the same time, they do not just participate in the activity, they develop in it and themselves represent special types of activity. Thus, any activity is a combination of internal and external, mental and behavioral actions and deeds.
Automated, consciously, semiconsciously and unconsciously controlled components of activity are called respectively skills, habits and habits.
Skills– These are the elements of activity that allow you to do something with high quality, for example, accurately and correctly perform any action, operation, series of actions or operations. Skills usually include automatically performed parts called skills, but in general they are consciously controlled parts of the activity, at least in the main intermediate points and the final goal.
Skills- these are fully automated, instinctive components of skills, implemented at the level of unconscious control. If action is understood as a part of an activity that has a clearly defined conscious goal, then a skill can also be called an automated component of an action.
Exercises are of great importance in the formation of all types of skills and abilities. Thanks to them, the automation of skills, the improvement of skills, activities in general. Exercises are necessary both at the stage of developing skills and abilities, and in the process of their preservation. Without constant, systematic exercises, skills and abilities are usually lost, lose their qualities.
Another element of activity is habit. It differs from skills and abilities in that it is a so-called unproductive element of activity. If skills and abilities are associated with the solution of a problem, involve obtaining a product and are quite flexible (in the structure of complex skills), then habits are an inflexible (often unreasonable) part of an activity that is performed mechanically by a person and does not have a conscious purpose or purpose. clearly expressed productive completion. Unlike a mere habit, a habit can be consciously controlled to a certain extent. But it differs from skill in that it is not always reasonable and useful.
Finally, the most important structural element of activity is result , which can be described as the final consequence of a sequence of actions or activity as a whole. It is important to emphasize that the result is closely related to the goal, but not identical to it, since the goal describes desired, but also not achieved result. Moreover, we often face the fact that the end result of our activities does not correspond to the original plan.
Who in our country does not know the phrase thrown by V. Chernomyrdin: “We wanted the best, but it turned out, as always!”
Indeed, often the actions of people lead to other results than those to which they aspire. The philosopher G. Hegel gave such an example. Out of revenge, a person sets fire to the house of another person, the houses standing next to him catch fire, the property of other people perishes, and maybe the people themselves. The criminal did not expect such a result of his actions. The result increased his guilt, and thus he got hit back. The means he used gave rise to completely different circumstances than had been intended.
THINK: What are the reasons for the discrepancy between the goal and the result of the activity
Currently, there are two main approaches to understanding this issue in psychology. The first of them is conditionally designated as a structural-morphological paradigm of the psychological analysis of activity. According to this approach, the main structural component activity is an action, and the organization of activity as a whole is interpreted as a hierarchy of systems of actions of different levels of complexity. The second approach is designated as the functional-dynamic paradigm of the psychological analysis of activity. It, being more modern and perfect, is based on the following basic provision. An activity, due to its exceptional complexity, cannot and is not based on any one (“unitary”) component, for example, an action. It implies the need for several qualitatively heterogeneous psychological components- their "units". They are interconnected and form an integral psychological structure of activity. This structure is dynamic, and its functioning is the process of activity. The studies carried out on the basis of this approach have proved that any activity, regardless of its type, type and even class, is based on a stable, constant set of such components. All of them are objectively necessary for the implementation of activities, and their totality is denoted by the concept of "invariant psychological structure" of activity. True, in various psychological concepts they are designated somewhat differently. So, B.F. Lomov uses the concept of "main components" of activity; V.D. Shadrikov - the concept of "a block of the system of activity"; A.V. Karpov, considering the procedural aspect of these components, uses the term "integral processes" of activity regulation.
These approaches are not antagonistic, but rather complement each other, since the second of them is, in essence, the development and deepening of the first (but at the same time, its kind of "negation").
The main components of the invariant structure of activity are: motivation, goal setting, anticipation (anticipation) of its results, decision making, planning, programming, control, correction, as well as the operational image of the object of activity, the system of individual qualities of the subject and the totality of performing actions. Taken in their statics, i.e. in those structural psychological formations that provide them, these components are the main "building blocks" of activity. But taken in their dynamics, functioning, they are the main regulatory processes for the implementation of activities.
The most important, initial and basic component of activity is motivation. It implements in relation to the activity both proper incentive and regulatory functions; dynamizes and organizes the whole system of activity. The totality of motives is united in the concept of the motivational sphere of the personality, and a variety of psychological formations can act as motivators of activity - needs, interests, attitudes, motives, aspirations, drives, social roles, norms, values, personal dispositions, etc.
Motivation is always presented in activity not abstractly, but concretely, i.e. in relation to the objectives of the activity. As a result of correlating the motives of activity with its goals, the most important psychological formation of activity is formed - its personal meaning. There is also the concept of the vector "motive - goal", which is likened to a kind of "core", around which the entire system of activity is organized. Goal formation is understood as the process of forming the goal of an activity and concretizing it into subgoals of individual actions. The goal is an ideal form of presentation of performance results. This perfect shape the future result is formed in a person before the start of the activity and in the future has a decisive influence on all its content. The goal is considered in psychology as a backbone factor of activity. This means that it is the goal that determines the content, structure and dynamics (temporal organization) of the activity.
Forecasting is closely related to goal setting, since the formulation (or choice) of goals is always based on the forecast of future events, anticipated changes in the object and conditions of activity. From a psychological point of view, the process of forecasting is based on the fundamental ability of a person to anticipate - anticipation of the future. In turn, anticipation is the main form of the so-called anticipatory reflection by the subject of reality. An important feature anticipation and forecasting is that they have a level structure. This means that they can be implemented at qualitatively different levels of complexity, using completely different mental processes and mechanisms. At present, six main levels of anticipation have been described: subsensory, sensorimotor, perceptual, representational, verbal and reflexive.
The next basic component, decision making, occupies a central position in the structure of activity. The main function of decision-making is the removal (or reduction) of pragmatic uncertainty and the determination of methods of action in specific situations. This is a kind of "bridge" from the phase of orientation in activity situations to the phase of building and implementing performing actions. Decision-making processes have the strongest, determining influence both on the performance parameters of the activity and on its procedural features.
The planning process is aimed at concretizing the decisions made by the subject and determining the program of activities. There are three main types (levels of complexity) of planning: “work according to guidelines”, “work according to samples” and planning taking into account expected changes in conditions, including the likely occurrence of new events and activity factors. The content of the planning process is based on a certain sequence of several main stages that make up the temporary planning structure: 1) general orientation in the situation, identification of the main difficulties to achieve the goals facing the subject; 2) development of a series alternative options way out of the current situation; 3) comparative analysis of these options, "weighing" their advantages and disadvantages, as well as determining the "price" that the implementation of each of them will require; 4) the actual choice of one or another option that maximizes the probability of achieving the goals of the activity; 5) specifying and detailing this option and developing a “technology” for its implementation; 6) implementation of the plan; 7) assessment of the effectiveness of implementation; making corrections to it, if necessary; comparison of actually achieved results with the initial goals.
The processes of self-control, as another mandatory component of activity in psychology, are usually classified according to four main principles - temporal, modal, structural, and the principle of the level of arbitrariness. In accordance with the temporary principle, one should distinguish between preliminary (anticipatory), current (intermediate) and resulting (final) types of self-control. In accordance with the modality principle (the concept of modality denotes one or another kind of sensations), there are visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, and also combined types of self-control. In accordance with the structural principle, the types of self-control differ depending on the level at which it is implemented. In this respect, one can speak of biological level self-control (homeostasis); about the physiological self-regulation of the main systems of life; about psychophysiological regulation of states; about psychological self-control of activity; about social self-control of behavior.
Correction processes are also very specific in activity. Firstly, they complete and, as it were, "close" themselves general cycle construction and implementation of activities, as well as each of its individual stages. Secondly, on the basis of the correction processes, the subject self-educates, expands and enriches his professional experience, increases general level competence.
Under the operational image, the object of activity is understood as an ideal, specialized reflection of the object transformed in the activity, which develops in the course of its implementation and is subordinate to its main goals, objectives, conditions. It is characterized by the properties of pragmatism, schematicity, "conciseness", adequacy to specific tasks of activity, as well as the property of "functional deformation".
Finally, another mandatory component of the activity is the system of individual qualities of the subject, on the basis of which it is possible to perform this activity. We emphasize that any activity is implemented on the basis of a certain set of individual qualities organized among themselves. They are designated by the concept of "professionally important qualities" - individual qualities, necessary for the implementation of activities at a given regulatory level and positively correlated with at least one of the main performance parameters of the activity.