The method of visual research is the most important of the methods used in TCED to search for informative features.
The microscopic method is a method of examining material evidence using special instruments - microscopes, which make it possible to obtain enlarged images of the external structure of objects and their smallest details, invisible to the naked eye.
The method of research in oblique light is a method of increasing the visibility of the details of an object when it is illuminated by a directed beam of light with an angle of incidence of light much less than 90°: optimally 10° * 35°. In TCED, this method is used to detect slight relief of pressure marks, traces from writing instruments, damage to the surface layer of paper in the form of fiber elevation, glued areas that are not in the same plane with the surface of the document, as well as to detect strokes against the background of paper or among other fragments. images by the difference in their brilliance (specular reflection). To exclude the interfering effect of extraneous light, observation with oblique illumination is carried out in a darkened room.
The method of research in transmitted light (transmission) - is used to identify the details of an object with different optical density. Such a study is used to detect sections of a document that have been cleaned, etched, washed off, as well as to study the structure of paper, watermarks (or filigree), to read pasted texts, flooded, smeared, crossed out entries, as well as to read texts on carbon paper.
Spectral methods - allow you to study the results of the interaction of a selected narrow range of the light spectrum with a substance or with an object material. Radiant energy, passing through a substance (material) or from one medium to another, changes under the action of the substance of the object. At the same time, the indicators of reflection, absorption, and transmission of light change. The dependence of the reflection coefficient (the ratio of the radiation reflected from the object to the entire incident flux) on the wavelength of the radiation is a characteristic of any substance. This characteristic can be recorded visually, photographically, electronically and optically.
Color separation method - reveals differences in color and shades of objects. When examining documents, it happens that one colored object is invisible or barely distinguishable against the surrounding background or among other colored objects. It is possible to enhance the contrast between them by converting spectral differences into brightness differences, such a transformation is called color separation (color separation).
In TKED, the color separation method is used to identify flooded, smeared, strikethrough texts, to establish the fact of addition by differentiating dyes, strokes that have varying degrees spectral absorption. This method is also used to enhance the contrast between faintly visible records and the background of the document by examining the spectral zone where the substance of the strokes has an absorption maximum (determined empirically).
In color separation, it is important to choose the right color filter, following the rule of complementary color and using the color wheel, known to everyone from school.
For example (Fig. 1.1), to enhance the contrast of the blue stroke on paper white color find an additional color in the opposite sector of the circle - orange and examine the document through an orange light filter. At the same time, the strokes look darker and more contrasting, since the filter of the additional color transmits the maximum rays of that part of the light spectrum that correspond to the maximum absorption of the substance of the strokes, while the paper reflects these rays. Purple and blue are complementary to yellow and orange.
Rice. 1.1. Interdependence of colors in color separation
Research methods in reflected UV and IR rays. These methods for studying documents are based on the selective absorption, transmission and reflection of electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet and infrared spectral ranges by the substance of the document materials (on the different ability of the stroke material to reflect, absorb and transmit these rays).
It is known that UFL occupy the spectral region from 10 * 400 nm: the near zone of the spectrum (400 - 315 nm), the middle zone (315 - 280 nm), the far zone (280 - 10 nm). In the practice of TCED, the UV region of the spectrum from 250 nm to 385 nm is most often used, the selection of the desired zone is provided by UV filters (UFS-1, ... UFS-4).
As sources of UFL (Fig. 1.2), mercury-quartz lamps of high and ultrahigh pressure are used: in devices of various modifications, as well as lasers that generate UV radiation. Also widely used are OI-18 UV illuminators, illuminators of special microscopes, for example, MLD-1, LUMAM and other brands.
Rice. 1.2. Scheme of photographing in reflected UFL, where: 1 - UV illuminator;
2 - document; 3 - UV light filter; 4 - camera lens
The research method in reflected infrared rays (IRL) is based on the ability of some writing materials containing carbon substances as components (ink, graphite pencil, printing ink, carbon paper, typewritten tape, electrographic toner, black ink jet printers) and metal salts to absorb infrared radiation unlike other carbon-free dyes (paste ballpoint pens, ink, stamp ink, etc.). It is used to differentiate single-color, but different in composition, letter materials when detecting additions and reprints, flooded and strikethrough texts.
Sources of infrared radiation (Fig. 1.3) are mainly incandescent lamps and special flash lamps. The IR spectrum is cut off by light filters KS-17, KS-18, KS-19, IKS-1, IKS-2, IKS-3, which are placed in front of the radiation receiver. To visualize the resulting invisible picture in the infrared zone of the spectrum, there are image intensifier tubes that display a visible image on the screen, and also provide its photographic fixation in the “Photography” mode.
Rice. 1.3. Scheme of photographing a document in reflected IKL, where: 1 - IR illuminator; 2 - document; 3 - IKL light filter;
4 - camera lens; 5- image intensifier tube
The methods of luminescent analysis are based on the ability of certain substances to fluorescence when exposed to UV or blue-green rays in a darkened room.
With fluorescence, the glow decays almost instantly after the termination of excitation.
In accordance with the Stokes law, the luminescence spectrum is always shifted towards longer wavelengths compared to the exciting radiation spectrum (the exciting wavelength is always shorter than the luminescence wavelength).
Depending on the spectral composition of the exciting radiation, luminescence can be observed in the visible, in the far red, and in the near infrared regions of the light spectrum. When the substance of the strokes and the basis of the document are exposed to UV rays, visible luminescence appears, which can be fixed by photography. To do this, a light filter is placed in front of the lens, which transmits visible rays by the color of the luminescence (if orange, then OS-12) and delays UV rays (see Fig. 1.4).
Rice. 1.4. Scheme of photography of visible luminescence excited by UV light, where: 1 - UV illuminator; 2 - document; 3 - UV light filter; 4 - light filter by luminescence color, 5 - camera
To excite red and IR luminescence in document materials, blue-green radiation is used using an SZS-21 light filter that transmits blue-green rays. When photographing luminescence, light filters are placed in front of the lens, which delays blue-green rays and transmits either red (s / f KS-17 and KS-18 with luminescence in the far red region) or IR rays (s / f KS-19 and IKS light filters with luminescence in the IR region) (Fig. 1.5). Luminescence can also be recorded using an image intensifier tube and other more modern technology.
Rice. 1.5. Scheme of photographing red and infrared luminescence excited by SZ rays, where: 1 - illuminator; 2 - document;
3 - SZ light filter; 4 - light filter by luminescence color,
5 - camera, 6 - image intensifier tube
Luminescent methods are used to detect invisible and poorly visible inscriptions, traces of etching, washing off, erasure, overwriting, the sequence of applying intersecting strokes, as well as to differentiate writing materials of the same color.
Research method in the field of high frequency currents. The method is based on obtaining a photographic image of surfaces and the internal structure of an object under the action of a high-frequency electrostatic discharge. For this purpose, a capacitor is used, between the plates of which a document and photographic film (photographic paper) are placed. The capacitor is placed in the circuit of a high-frequency current generator, when turned on, a spark discharge occurs, which illuminates the corresponding sections of the film.
Photography in the field of high frequency currents (HFI) allows you to:
Detect indented strokes and erased entries;
Set the content of filled, smeared and strikethrough texts;
Determine the traces of replacing a photo card on a document;
Identify new typewriters that do not have visible defects by embossed marks on paper from the impact of typewriter characters.
So, the physical methods of TCED listed above have one common feature that unites them - they are non-destructive, do not destroy the document, do not change it. appearance and content. Therefore, in the production of TCED, these methods are primarily used.
Methods of forensic research photography. A special place in TCED is occupied by photographic research methods, which are non-destructive. The advantage of photographic processes over ordinary visual perception is due to three factors:
1) extremely wide spectral sensitivity, which makes it possible to record images not only in the visible part of the light spectrum, but also in the UV and IR zones of the spectrum, as well as in X-rays;
2) the ability to obtain an optical image with a higher contrast than in reality;
3) the ability of the photoreceiving material to accumulate light energy, which makes it possible to obtain an image of normal quality under low illumination of the subject.
Methods of forensic photography are divided into types: a) large-scale photography with a significant increase; b) enhancing the contrast of a visually impaired image; c) photography in invisible zones of the spectrum; d) photography of luminescence (visible and invisible).
Large-scale photography with a significant increase is divided into subspecies: macro- and microphotography (up to 20 times and over 20 times).
Photographic contrast enhancement refers to methods used to change the ratio of the brightness of an object on a black-and-white photographic material (color separation) or color tones on a color one (color separation).
Contrast enhancement methods are divided into three subspecies: contrast enhancement during shooting; in the process of manifestation; finished negative image.
Methods of photography in the reflected invisible rays of the spectrum are divided into four subspecies: photography in the IR and UV zones of the spectrum; in x-rays and gamma rays.
Luminescence photography methods: photography of visible luminescence excited by UV and blue-green rays; photography of IR luminescence, invisible to the eye.
Wet copy method (Fig. 1.6). This method is based on the phenomenon of adhesion (sticking) or diffusion on a contact material moistened with the simplest organic solvent - water.
The method of wet copying reveals differences in writing materials according to the degree of their copyability on a wet sticky surface. Upon contact with the moistened surface of the fixed photographic paper, particles of coloring substances of some of the writing materials stick to it, leaving mirror strokes of written characters and other images on this new medium.
The method is used to detect flooded, smeared, strikethrough texts, to establish an addition, to determine the sequence of execution of intersecting strokes (details of documents).
Rice. 1.6. Scheme of the wet copying method, where: 1 - fixed photo paper; 2 - layer of organic solvent - water; 3 - coloring agent of strokes on the basis of the document; 4 - the basis of the document (paper, etc.); 5 - coloring agent of strokes, copied onto fixed photographic paper
To copy water-soluble dyes, a gelatin layer of fixed photographic material moistened with distilled water (sometimes filter paper) is used. Photographic paper is pre-treated under non-actinic light in a fixer, thoroughly washed in running water and dried. The surface of a piece of photo paper is moistened with water for 30-60 seconds. The resulting mirror copy is photographed at the desired scale.
Adsorption-luminescent method (ALM). The method is based on an increase in the luminescence intensity of coloring substances when they are adsorbed by a polymer film treated with an organic solvent. ALM is used to differentiate letter materials in order to establish an addition, identify flooded, crossed out, smeared texts, determine the sequence of intersecting strokes.
Strokes are copied with a PVC film soaked in a solvent (dimethylformamide, cyclohexanone, tetrahydrofuran, etc.). The imprint is irradiated with ultraviolet light and its luminescence is studied in a darkened room.
The method is most effective for differentiating dyes that are similar in color. When determining the sequence of execution of intersecting strokes, it is effective to observe and fix the luminescence of copied strokes in the visible and in the far red zones of the spectrum.
It is recommended to use white PVC film for white products. PVC film will dissolve in many organic solvents (cyclohexanone, dimethylformamide, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, ethyl alcohol). Solvents are active on many writing materials.
1-3 drops of the solvent are applied to the film of a pre-selected size with a pipette, evenly distributed over the surface for 4-10 seconds so that the solvent is absorbed, and then the film is brought into close contact with the examined area of the document for 1-3 seconds.
The contact time and pressure force depend on the solubility of the test substance, the problem being solved, and the properties of the document paper, so they are selected experimentally. The copying ability of the substance of the strokes is judged by the results of experiments, i.e. preliminary tests on the peripheral sections of the document. It should be borne in mind that in case of improper contact, especially long-term contact, peeling of the paper surface of the document and its damage is possible. In addition, in any case, ALM leads to irreversible changes in the strokes of the document attribute: the amount of coloring matter decreases, and the structure of the paper at the point of contact also changes.
Diffuse copying method (DKM). This method is based on the phenomenon of diffusion - the surface penetration of molecules and ions of the test substance into a moistened or dry gelatinous layer of unexposed black and white (non-color) photographic paper (the phenomenon was discovered and experimentally tested in 1903-1907).
When detecting invisible and poorly visible texts, it is often possible to achieve good results by using a highly sensitive DCM. The DKM technology uses the property of some organic water-soluble dyes to change its initial photosensitivity (sensitization) when exposed to the photoemulsion layer.
As you know, colorless silver halide, which is part of a photographic emulsion, has the property of being destroyed with the formation of black granular metallic silver under the action of light and chemical reducing agents contained in developing solutions. In this case, only short-wavelength radiation in the blue-violet region of the spectrum acts on the emulsion. The sensitivity of the unsensitized photographic layer to short-wavelength blue-violet radiation is the natural sensitivity of the photographic material.
Upon contact of the document under study with a moistened gelatin emulsion layer, dye particles that have penetrated into the emulsion as a result of diffusion cause a change in the photosensitivity of the photographic material in the areas of their penetration. In some cases, the dye causes an increase in the sensitivity of the photographic emulsion to radiation of the long-wavelength part of the spectrum (yellow, orange, red rays, to which the unsensitized photographic material is not sensitive): the effect is called optical sensitization. In other cases, under the influence of a dye, the photographic emulsion becomes insensitive or very little sensitive to short-wavelength blue-violet radiation, to which the photographic material has a natural sensitivity: a phenomenon called desensitization. In addition, the dyes of the writing materials increase the photographic veil to some extent, increasing the ability of the halide silver to be destroyed by the action of the developer without prior exposure of the photographic layer.
Depending on the concentration of the dye diffusing into the emulsion, either a sensitizing or desensitizing effect is observed. Usually, the sensitization of the emulsion is caused by a small amount of dye, i.e. when the strokes of the text to be detected are practically invisible or barely visible. The dye in a higher concentration causes the opposite, desensitizing effect.
The effect of the dye on the photosensitive photographic layer largely depends on the properties of the photographic emulsion itself. Since the essence of the method is to change the natural sensitivity under the action of dyes, only non-sensitized photographic material (photographic paper) is suitable for diffuse copying.
The use of DKM to detect invisible and barely visible texts, as well as records made with water-soluble dyes and then smeared, flooded, crossed out with water-insoluble dyes, consists in sequentially performing the following actions in a darkroom with non-actinic red light (Fig. 1.7):
The photographic material is soaked in water (preferably distilled) until the gelatinous emulsion layer swells (from 1 to 20 minutes);
Excess water from the emulsion layer is removed by shaking the photographic material (apply filter paper without pressing it, since when pressed, its fibers can stick to the photographic emulsion and interfere with the diffusion of the dye);
The swollen emulsion layer is applied to the surface of the document, on the site of which the text or print to be detected is located (the contact time is determined experimentally);
The photographic material with dye molecules diffused into the photographic emulsion is placed in a black-and-white contrast developer in a cuvette located under the lens of the photographic enlarger, and illuminated through a KS-2 or OS-18 or ZhS-8 s / f: red, orange or yellow light until the contrast appears. images (or veils);
The resulting mirror image is reproduced and a direct image of the identified document attribute is printed.
Rice. 1.7. DKM scheme, where:
1 - diffusion of the coloring matter of the strokes into the emulsion
photo paper layer:
2 - strokes of the coloring matter:
3 - document substrate:
4 - source of non-active lighting:
5.8 - filtered light source (s / f OS. KS. FS)
6 - photoemulsion layer of photographic paper with a latent image
7 - cuvette with developer;
9 - photoemulsion layer of photographic paper with a visible image:
10 - cuvette with fixing solution
Due to the high sensitivity of DKM, its use often gives nice results in cases where the dye in the strokes is almost absent. In this case, copying can be performed repeatedly with the same success, since the penetration of even an insignificant amount of dye into the photoemulsion layer causes a noticeable effect.
DKM is widely used to detect faded, erased, washed away texts, "pale" prints of seals and stamps, texts smeared with graphite pencil, black ink, as well as poorly distinguishable texts on dark substrates.
The traditional method of DKM involves the use of moistened photographic material, which does not exclude the risk of damage to some details or fragments of the document or its significant change, damage. The use of DKM modifications makes it possible to avoid this shortcoming.
Modification No. 1: "dry" DKM. A piece of dry, non-exposed glossy photographic paper is superimposed on the document props under non-active light with an emulsion layer to the object. The photographic paper is tightly pressed against the document and for 2-7 minutes its reverse side is intensively rubbed with a piece of woolen fabric to obtain an electrostatic charge that promotes the diffusion of the dye into the photoemulsion layer. The subsequent processing of the photographic material is carried out in accordance with the traditional DKM method described above.
Modification No. 2: "dactyloscopic" DKM. A segment of a transparent fingerprint film is applied to the studied fragment of a document with a poorly visible record and pressed tightly, the duration of contact is 15-30 seconds. Then, the traditional DCM technology is applied to the film: from the film to photographic paper, its illumination in the developer until the appearance of strokes, etc.
- this is the most common group of methods used in pedagogical practice in all school subjects and at all levels of education.
The source of knowledge in this case is the word, which can be oral or written.
It is this that stimulates active cognitive activity students, provides the highest culture of auditory perceptions and thinking, develops reading, oral and written speech, and also requires the skills of analysis and synthesis, concretization and opposition, the ability to reason and draw conclusions.
Verbal methods include story and explanation, conversation and discussion, lecture, work with a book. These methods are widely used in the course of the formation of theoretical and practical knowledge in children, verbal exchange of information between the teacher and students is supported. However, acquaintance with the material is carried out mainly in a ready-made form, and therefore little attention is paid to the formulation and solution of problematic tasks, the implementation of creative tasks, the development of cognitive independence and initiative in children.
Story and explanation
The story implies an oral narrative presentation of the content of the educational material. This method is used at all stages of schooling, only the nature of the narration, its volume, duration changes. According to the goals, several types of story are distinguished: story-introduction (preparing students for the perception of new educational material, story-exposition (disclosure of the content of a new topic), story-conclusion (conclusions and generalization of what has been studied).
In the course of the story, such methodological techniques as activating attention, associative and regular comparisons, comparisons, highlighting the main thing, summarizing are used. At the same time, a number of pedagogical requirements are presented to the story, in connection with which it must: contain exclusively accurate facts; include a sufficient number of clear and convincing examples, facts proving the correctness of the put forward provisions; have a clear logic of presentation; highlight the main provisions, ideas, focus the attention of children on them; be emotional, expressive; be clear and in plain language; lasts no more than 10 minutes, as children quickly get tired and their attention is scattered. The presentation of the material can also be combined with reading fragments from a textbook or study guide, students recording definitions and dates, repeating the most important, relevant provisions, conclusions.
Explanation - verbal interpretation of patterns, significant qualities of the object under study, disclosure of facts, derivation of laws and methods of action, presentation of experiments. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying theoretical material, solving problems and theorems, and revealing circumstances and consequences in natural phenomena and social life. At the same time, the teacher is obliged to comply with the following requirements: specifically formulate goals and objectives, clearly pose questions to be disclosed; present material clearly and consistently; ensure children's understanding of educational information, involve them in the active observation of the phenomena being explained; establish a relationship with the material already studied. The explanation can be combined with the use of visual aids, experiments, and the use of ICT.
Conversation and discussion
The conversation belongs to the more well-known methods of didactic work, its main function is stimulating, but at the same time it successfully performs other functions. The essence of the conversation is to encourage students to update already acquired knowledge, independent reasoning and generalizations with the help of targeted and skillfully posed questions. The conversation forces the student to follow in the footsteps of the teacher's idea, as a result of which he moves step by step in mastering new knowledge. This method activates thinking, is effective tool diagnostics of acquired knowledge and skills, contributes to the development of cognitive abilities of students, and its educational role is also great.
According to their purpose and structure, conversations are introductory (organizing), heuristic, systematizing (fixing), control and correctional. For the effective conduct of the conversation, professional training of the teacher is necessary, since he must correctly formulate the topic and ask questions that are naturally related to each other and corresponding to the age development of students. The question is asked to the whole class, and only after a short pause for reflection, the student is called to answer. Correct answers are approved, incorrect or incomplete answers are commented, clarified. In case no one can answer, it is necessary to reformulate, break it into parts, put a leading question. An important condition for a full-fledged conversation is a clear discipline in the lesson and the establishment of close contact between the teacher and the students, which allows you to work in an atmosphere of understanding, goodwill, and openness. It should be noted that the conversation is a very laborious method of teaching, as it requires a lot of time, effort, and professional skills.
Discussion as a teaching method has the goal of stimulating cognitive interest, drawing students into an intensive discussion of various scientific points of view on a particular problem, encouraging them to comprehend information and argue their own position. But this requires the presence of at least two different views on the issue under discussion. Without existing knowledge, the discussion becomes pointless, meaningless and inaccurate, and without the ability to express an idea, it becomes confusing and contradictory. In addition, there are special rules for discussion, among which are: limited time for each student to speak, discipline and mutual respect, restraint, worthy acceptance of someone else's position, etc.
Lecture
Lecture from others verbal methods is different:
- more rigid structure;
- the logic of the presentation of educational material;
- abundance of reported information;
- systemic nature of material illumination.
The subject of a school lecture is preferably a description of difficult systems, phenomena, objects, processes, and the cause-and-effect relationships between them. It follows from this that the lecture is applicable only in the upper grades, when students already achieve the level of training required for perception and comprehension of the material of the lecture. The duration of the lecture is whole lesson or even two.
The pedagogical requirements for the lecture are as follows: the creation by the teacher of a detailed project of the lecture; familiarization of students with the topic, purpose and objectives of the lecture; logically consistent presentation of all points of the plan; short summarizing conclusions after highlighting each point; regular relationships in the transition from one part of the lecture to another; problematic and emotional presentation; timely connection of examples, comparisons, facts; contact with the audience; appropriate pace of presentation, allowing students to write down the main points.
Working with a book
Working with a textbook and a book has become one of the main teaching methods. The textbook presents the material in an unmistakable and systematic manner. The student has the opportunity to repeatedly process educational information at his own pace and at a convenient time. Educational books successfully perform teaching, developing, educating, encouraging, control and correctional functions.
The purpose of independent work with the book may be to get acquainted with its structure, skim through, read individual chapters, search for answers to specific questions, study the material, abstracting individual passages, solving examples and problems, memorizing the material. To teach children to work with the word of a textbook and a book, to form their need for reading is the most important task of a teacher.
As a rule, two types of work with a book are used: in the classroom under the guidance of a teacher and independent work at home. In this case, the following techniques are used: taking notes, creating a plan, abstracting, citing, reviewing, creating a reference, a thematic thesaurus. The teacher should constantly exercise children in reading, teach them to analyze what they read, find answers to questions, work with diagrams and tables, use reference books, dictionaries, and encyclopedias.
In psychology, there are various classifications of research methods. Consider a classification whose criterion is research task.
1) Task revealing and describing psychological facts decide observation, conversation (questionnaire, survey, interview), the method of studying the products of activity (studying documents, content analysis).
2) More difficult task studying patterns, that is, identifying the presence of a stable repetitive relationship solves the experiment (laboratory and natural).
3) Task identifying mechanisms, i.e. causal relationship, in psychology, a formative experiment (transformative experiment, experimental genetic method) decides.
Observation- systematic, purposeful and in a certain way fixed perception of mental phenomena in the natural conditions of everyday life. This method is one of the most accessible and widely used in psychology. When conducting an observation, certain conditions must be observed.
1. Before any observation, a goal is formulated: what mental manifestation will be studied.
2. Depending on the purpose of the study, an object is selected (a person of the appropriate gender and age) and situations in which the observation will be carried out.
3. When observing, it is necessary to maintain the natural living conditions of the object of study. To do this, you should first get acquainted with the group where the observation will be carried out, adapt to this environment in 2-3 days. Then the observed behave uninhibited and natural.
4. In order to preserve natural conditions, the researcher does not interfere with the activities of the object of study, who does not know that he is being observed.
5. It must be remembered that social stereotypes can affect the objectivity of recording and processing data. If a positive attitude has formed in relation to the object of observation, then the researcher may not notice negative mental manifestations, and if he fixes them, he will most likely explain them as accidental. Conversely, with a negative attitude, the researcher may not notice the positive aspects, but concentrate his attention on the negative facts and, when interpreting the data, explain them as natural and constant.
6. Observation provides objective data if it is carried out consistently and systematically, i.e. the object of study is observed at least 2-3 times in the same activities. This is due to the fact that the observed facts are not separated from many incidental phenomena.
7. It is necessary to develop and master methods of fixing data in the protocol in advance. A "photographic" record of all psychological facts should be made, without distorting or changing them. The protocol sheet is usually divided into two parts. In the first part, the observed facts are recorded, and in the second, their possible interpretation (i.e. interpretation).
The observation method has the following positive features:
Not knowing that he is an object of research, a person behaves freely, naturally, the manifestations of his psyche are not distorted;
The researcher can see the personality of the observed as a whole, perceives each fact as part of it;
Observation is not limited by age: it is carried out over all activities and behavior of a person of any age.
At the same time, the observation has a number shortcomings:
Observable facts are merged with many incidental phenomena;
The researcher takes a wait-and-see position, not being able to interfere in the activities of the objects of observation. A psychic phenomenon may not manifest itself unless the corresponding situation happens by chance;
With the help of observation, it is impossible to quickly collect large material for two reasons: firstly, one person must be observed repeatedly, secondly, the researcher cannot cause the phenomenon of interest to him, but must wait for it to happen;
· in the process of repeated observation, it is impossible to obtain absolutely identical psychological facts, and therefore, to verify the initially obtained data;
There may be some subjectivity in the observation and processing of data. The observer, in the spirit of his expectations, can attribute to a person thoughts and feelings unusual for him;
· Without the use of special recording tools, it is difficult to accurately and correctly record the observed facts. By recording the facts, the researcher fixes them in a descriptive form, which greatly complicates their processing and interpretation. In this method, the use of mathematical data processing is limited.
Conversation - method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication (i.e. in the process of bilateral or multilateral discussion of the issue of interest to the researcher). The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the following requirements:
1. Preparing and conducting a conversation includes setting a goal, choosing material for it. Questions for conversation should be clear, concise, specific, not too general, should not prompt the person the answer.
2. The researcher learns questions by heart and asks them to all respondents in a strictly defined order, achieving detailed answers. It is possible to use clarifying questions, if the need arises in the course of the conversation.
3. The interview is conducted individually in a separate, carefully selected room.
4. Before conducting a conversation, it is necessary to select an object of study and establish a trusting relationship with it. To do this, you can first talk with him on a topic of interest to him, and only then proceed to pre-compiled questions. The conversation should be conducted naturally, tactfully, unobtrusively and in no case be in the nature of "questioning". It is very important that the researcher shows the person that he is interested in talking with him, listens to his answers.
5. Methods for fixing data are preliminarily developed. It is possible to use technical means (tape recorder, voice recorder). It is allowed to separate the functions of the researcher and the recorder. The answers of the respondent, his behavior, emotional manifestations are recorded in detail in the protocol.
Virtues conversations are:
the ability to simultaneously explore many aspects of the human psyche;
the ability to quickly collect a fairly large amount of material both about one person and about a group;
the researcher is more active than in observation, as he asks questions;
the possibility of re-conducting in order to clarify changes (for example, age-related);
Possibility of application at different stages of research.
The conversation method has limitations:
Manifestations of subjectivism, since the selection of material, the formulation of questions, getting in touch with the respondent, fixing and interpreting the answers depend on the skills of the researcher;
age restrictions in the use of the conversation. A child cannot always give an account of his experiences, feelings, explain his preferences and actions, since he only masters speech as a means of communication.
Survey - conversation with a standard set of questions. The survey can be conducted orally and in writing:
1) interview -a method of obtaining psychological information using an oral survey;
2) questioning(fr. enquete- a list of questions) – obtaining information in the form of written responses of respondents to pre-formulated questions.
Method of analysis of activity products. Various documents, essays, diaries, drawings, other creative works, etc. can be considered as products of activity.
Advantages given method:
opportunity for a short time collect a sufficiently large factual material both from one person and from a group of people;
· with constant use, the opportunity to obtain qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the characteristics of the psyche of the studied;
the possibility of repeated repetition to find out how regular the received fact is;
Since the result of mental activity is embodied in a material product, this subject can be evaluated by an infinite number of people (expert assessment);
The material product can be stored for a long time;
preservation of naturalness in the manifestation of the psychological characteristics of the object of study, which does not know that the study is being conducted with it.
disadvantages activity products analysis method:
It can be used only when the child has already begun to master a certain type of activity;
· processing of the obtained data is sometimes extremely difficult, since it requires specially designed analysis schemes, which depends on the ability of the researcher to highlight all the psychological features of the product obtained. Then a violation of objectivity and a manifestation of subjectivism is possible, for example, when assessing the degree of originality of a drawing.
When studying documents, a special technique is used, called "content analysis"(literally, "content analysis") . This is a fairly formalized method of document analysis, when special “units” are highlighted in the text. Then the frequency of their use is calculated. It makes sense to use this method only in cases where the researcher is dealing with large array information, analyzes numerous texts. In practice, content analysis in psychology is used in research in the field of mass communications.
Experiment(from lat. experimentum- trial, experience) - this is the active intervention of the researcher in the life of the subject in order to create conditions under which any psychological pattern is detected. In psychology, there are two main types of experiment:
· laboratory experiment is carried out in specially equipped rooms, which provides a particularly strict control of independent and dependent variables;
· natural experiment - in this case, the subject don't know, don't know that he is participating in the study (the subject performs the usual activity, and the experimenter is a familiar person for him).
For both types, there are some general rules: the experimenter systematically manipulates one or more independent variables(this is the cause) and registers concomitant changes in the behavior of the object under study, i.e. following the change dependent variables(this is a corollary). The organization of the experiment requires compliance with a number of conditions:
1. An experiment, like all research methods, needs a preliminary setting of a goal and a choice of an object.
2. It is necessary to carefully develop a methodology for conducting an experiment, to prepare material for research. The material must be made in strict accordance with the recommendations contained in the methodology.
3. You should first prepare the conditions in which the study will be conducted.
4. It is necessary to draw up and memorize instructions and a description of the procedure for conducting the experiment in advance. Moreover, it must be remembered that the instructions must be understandable to the subjects.
5. Before conducting an experiment, it is necessary to select a subject and establish friendly, trusting relationships with him. The researcher must position the subject towards him, which is accompanied by a relaxed, calm conversation, a smile, and approving gestures. It is impossible to emphasize the unusualness, the exclusivity of the situation, to take the position of the inspector. It is advisable to give the experimental procedure the character of ordinary friendly communication. The materials of the methodology cannot be used to establish contact.
6. It is necessary to react to the successes and failures of the subject during the experiment with restraint and evenness, unless otherwise provided by the research methodology.
7. The pace of the study should correspond to the individual psychological characteristics of the subject.
8. An experiment with a child should not be very long. As a rule, it is limited to 15 - 20 minutes, unless another time is provided by the research methodology. Moreover, the younger the child, the shorter the study should be.
9. The experiment always assumes a standard procedure, so you can not make any changes to it, for example, change the instructions. It is necessary to ensure that the subject understands and accepts the instructions. It can be repeated 2–3 times without changes, but it cannot be explained unless it is provided for by the research methodology. All subjects must be presented with tasks in a strictly uniform way, with the same intonation, voice power, without emphasizing any words, except for specially stipulated cases.
10. The experiment is usually carried out by the experimenter and the recorder. It is important that the latter is out of the subject's field of vision, but he himself can see and hear him well. In the protocol, he fixes the behavior, speech and emotional reactions of the subject in accordance with the criteria provided for by the research methodology. We especially emphasize that the speech of children is recorded with the preservation of all its features, without correcting grammatical and other errors. The function of the recorder, therefore, is to record the psychological facts accurately, the function of the experimenter is to conduct research.
The experiment has a number advantages:
The active position of the researcher (he does not wait until the subject has a mental phenomenon that he is studying. He himself causes it by creating the appropriate conditions);
The experiment can be repeated, i.e. once again evoke the psychic phenomenon under study, which means checking and clarifying the initially obtained data;
experiment allows you to quickly collect a lot of factual material;
experiment is a more objective method than observation, since its methodology contains clear criteria for fixing and processing data;
Significantly facilitated the method of fixing data, since the phenomenon under study is separated from a whole series of life circumstances;
· analysis of the protocol of the experiment is built in accordance with the specified methodology sequence. The analysis of the facts obtained can be expressed in numerical terms, subjected to quantitative processing.
TO shortcomings experiments include the following:
The experiment requires a long and careful preparation. The reliability of the data obtained depends on the ability of the experimenter to set a goal, choose the material, accurately use the instructions, monitor the time and sequence of the task, the characteristics of the reaction of the subject, as well as the ability to get in touch with him, from knowledge of the methods of statistical processing of the facts obtained;
The researcher engages in communication with the subject and may unwittingly influence his behavior. The mental model can influence the facts obtained;
a holistic view of the subject's psyche is not created;
· when conducting a laboratory experiment, naturalness in the mental manifestations of the subject may disappear.
Formative experiment – method of tracking changes in the human psyche in the process of active influence of the researcher on the subject. Having studied the mechanisms, we are able to model the phenomenon and actively manage it.
Stages of the formative experiment:
1) ascertaining stage (control and experimental groups of subjects participate in it);
2) formative stage (only the experimental group of subjects participates);
3) control stage (control and experimental groups of subjects participate).
At the ascertaining and control stages, the same research methods are used, which makes it possible to compare the results of these stages with each other, on the basis of which to draw conclusions about changes in the studied characteristics as a result of formative influences.
IN domestic psychology There are 4 groups of methods:
I. Organizational Methods:
1. Comparative method– It consists in considering individual mechanisms of behavior and psychological acts in the process of development and in comparison with similar phenomena in other organisms. Most widespread this method, called "comparative genetic", was obtained in zoopsychology and in child psychology. (comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.)
2. Longitudinal method These are multiple examinations of the same persons over a long period of time. The purpose of longitudinal studies is to register the somatic and mental development of the individual
3. Complex method- representatives of other sciences participate in the study, while one object is studied different means. This allows you to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds, for example, physiological, mental and social. personal development,
4. Cross section method(or cross-sectional study) mental development - a comparison of different groups of people by age, education, activities and communication. It consists in the fact that conclusions about developmental features are made on the basis of studies of the same characteristics in compared groups of people of different ages, different levels of development, with different personality traits.
II. Empirical Methods:
1. Observation - a method consisting in a deliberate, systematic, purposeful and fixed perception of the external manifestations of the psyche.
Types of observation:
Slice (short-term observation),
Longitudinal (long, sometimes over a number of years),
Selective and
continuous
And a special kind of - included observation (when the observer becomes a member of the study group).
The general monitoring procedure consists of the following processes:
1) definition of the task and goal;
2) choice of object, subject and situation;
3) the choice of the method of observation that has the least effect on the object under study and most provides the collection of the necessary information;
4) choosing the method of recording the observed (how to keep records):
5) processing and interpretation of the received information. Observation is used, first of all, when minimal interference is required in the natural behavior, relationships of people, when they strive to get a complete picture of what is happening.
Self-observation (introspection)- A person's observation of his own mental phenomena. Two types: immediate or delayed (in memoirs, diaries, a person analyzes what he thought).
Although scientific observation is in contact with everyday life, it differs from it by a clear target setting. The main requirement is the presence of a clear target setting. In accordance with the purpose, an observation plan must be defined, fixed in the scheme. The planned and systematic nature of observation is its most essential feature as a scientific method. Any observation is selective, partial. The main advantage of the method of objective observation is that it allows you to study mental processes in natural conditions. However, objective observation, while retaining its value, for the most part should be supplemented by other research methods. The following requirements apply to the monitoring procedure:
2. Experiment (laboratory, natural, formative)
An experiment (the main method) differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, who systematically manipulates some factors and registers the corresponding changes in the state and behavior of the student.
it is a research activity in order to study causal relationships, which involves the following:
The researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying and actively influences it;
The experimenter can vary, change the conditions under which the phenomenon occurs;
In the experiment, it is possible to repeatedly reproduce the results:
As a result, the experiment establishes quantitative patterns that allow mathematical formulation.
The main task of a psychological experiment is to make the essential features of the internal psychological process acceptable for objective external observation.
Laboratory experiment is carried out in artificial conditions, as a rule, with the use of special equipment, with strict control all influencing factors. The subject knows that an experiment is being conducted, although he may not know the true meaning of the experiment until the end. The experiment is repeated with big amount subjects, which allows you to establish general mathematical and statistical reliable patterns of development of mental phenomena
Natural experiment - a psychological experiment included in the activity or communication imperceptibly for the subject,
Formative (training) experiment - a method of research and formation of a mental process, state or quality of a person. Its originality lies in the fact that it simultaneously serves as a means of research and a means of forming the phenomenon under study. The formative experiment is characterized by the active intervention of the researcher in the mental processes he is studying.
3. Psychodiagnostic methods(test and poll).
The purpose of modern psychological diagnostics is to record and describe psychological differences both between people and between groups of people united according to some characteristics.
The number of diagnosed signs, depending on the objectives of the study, may include psychological differences in age, gender, education and culture, mental state, psychophysical characteristics, etc.
1) One of the types of psychodiagnostic method are psychological tests . English word"test" means "test" or "trial". Test - a short-term, identical task for all subjects, the results of which determine the presence and level of development of certain mental qualities of a person.
This is a short, standardized test, which, as a rule, does not require complex technical devices, and is amenable to standardization and mathematical data processing. With the help of tests, they seek to identify certain abilities, skills, abilities (or their absence), to most accurately characterize some personality traits.
Achievement tests are one of the methods of psychodiagnostics, which makes it possible to identify the level of the subject's possession of specific knowledge, skills, and abilities.
Intelligence tests - a psychodiagnostic technique for identifying the mental potential of an individual.
Creativity tests - a set of methods for studying and evaluating creative features.
Personality tests - a psychodiagnostic technique for measuring various aspects of an individual's personality.
Projective tests (projective) - a set of methods for a holistic study of personality, based on psychological interpretation, i.e. conscious or unconscious transfer by the subject of his own properties to external objects
2) Among the most common means of cognition of the phenomena of psychology are all kinds of polls .
The purpose of the survey is to obtain information about objective and subjective facts from the words of the respondents.
Types of survey: 1) face-to-face survey - conversation, in tervyu, anamnesis; 2) absentee survey - questionnaires.
Anamnesis (lat. from memory) - information about the past of the student, obtained from him or - with an objective history - from persons who know him well.
Conversation method- a method that provides for the direct or indirect receipt of psychological information through verbal communication. It is an auxiliary tool for additional coverage of the problem under study. The conversation should always be planned in accordance with the objectives of the study, but should not be of a template-standard nature.
Interview- a method of social psychology, which consists in the collection of information received in the form of answers to the questions posed, as a rule, pre-formulated. In a standardized interview, the wording of the questions and their sequence are predetermined, they are the same for all respondents. Non-Standardized Methodology interview , on the contrary, is characterized by complete flexibility and varies widely. The researcher, who is guided only by the general plan of the interview, has the right to formulate questions and change the order of the points of the plan in accordance with the specific situation.
In the case when questions and answers are submitted in writing, a questionnaire takes place.
Questionnaire- a methodological tool for obtaining primary socio-psychological information based on verbal (verbal) communication, representing a questionnaire for obtaining answers to a pre-compiled system of questions. Questioning (correspondence survey) also has its own specifics. It is believed that it is more expedient to resort to a correspondence survey in cases where it is necessary to find out people's attitudes to acute debatable or intimate issues, or to interview a large number of people in a relatively short period of time.
The method of studying the products of activity widely used in historical psychology, in child psychology.
A variety of methods for studying the products of activity is biographical method. The material here is letters, diaries, biographies, creative products, handwriting, etc.
In many cases, psychological research uses not one, but several methods, each of which complements the others, revealing new aspects of mental activity.
III. Data processing methods: quantitative and qualitative methods - this is the analysis of the material - they include "quantitative (application of mathematical statistics, data processing on a computer) and qualitative (differentiation of material into groups, analysis) methods.
IV. Correction methods: auto-training, group training, psychotherapeutic influence, education.- Modern psychology in various ways has an impact on the practical activities of people. Psychological assistance is most often and most effectively provided in a situation of not only objectively existing, but also subjectively experienced distress. This experience can be acute and expressed in deep dissatisfaction with oneself, others, life in general, and sometimes in suffering. In such cases, the provision of not only advisory, but also psychotherapeutic assistance is required. And here it is necessary to talk about the corrective methods of work of a psychologist. Currently, psycho-correctional methods are a rather extensive set of techniques, programs and methods for influencing people's behavior, including auto-training, group training.
The origin and implementation of the method autogenic training associated with the name of the German psychotherapist I.G. Schultz. Thanks to his work, autogenic training has become widespread in all countries, primarily as a method of treating and preventing various kinds of neuroses and functional disorders in the body. Subsequently, practical experience has shown that autogenic training is an effective means of psychohygiene and psychoprophylaxis, as well as managing a person's condition in extreme conditions. In autogenic training, three main ways of influencing the state of the nervous system are used:
1) developing the ability to completely relax the muscles of the body;
2) the use of the active role of representations, sensory images;
3) the regulatory and programming role of the word, spoken not only aloud, but also mentally.
The complex of exercises, which is the essence of autogenic training, is the means that not only contributes to the growth of a person’s reserve abilities, but also constantly improves the activity of the programming mechanisms of the brain.
Under group training usually understand the peculiar forms of teaching knowledge and individual skills in the field of communication, as well as the forms of their corresponding correction. As for the methods of socio-psychological training, there are many classifications, but, in fact, they all distinguish two large, partially overlapping areas - group discussions and games. The group discussion method is used mainly in the form of case studies and in the form of group introspection. Among the gaming methods of socio-psychological training, the method of role-playing games has received the widest significance.
Currently, the practice of group training is a booming branch of applied psychology. Socio-psychological training in our country is used to train specialists in various fields: managers, teachers, doctors, psychologists, etc. It is used to correct the dynamics of marital conflicts, improve relations between parents and children, etc.
The concept of "method of psychological research" can also be used in the sense a special technique for solving a specific psychological problem.
In these specific methods, methodological principles are implemented that are common not only to this problem, but also to many other ways of knowing. However, the specificity of specific methods is determined primarily by the nature of a particular problem that is solved with their help. The arsenal of specific psychological techniques used by modern psychology is extremely important.
The forms they take are also very diverse and are determined by the uniqueness of a particular area of psychology.
At the same time, some common features that are characteristic of most specific psychological methods can be distinguished.
Research usually falls into four stages:
First - preparatory. In the course of it, preliminary information about the object of study is collected and studied. Observation is used during training sessions and work, at home, in the course of deliberately organized conversations. Questioning, anamnesis, i.e. description of the conditions preceding the emergence of the investigated fact.
The second stage is the experiment itself. It implements a specific research methodology and, in turn, breaks up into a number of successive experimental series.
The third is the quantitative processing of the research data. It involves the use of various statistical techniques and the application of the basic provisions of the theory of probability, which make it possible to judge the reliability of the conclusions obtained, confirming the originally put forward hypothesis.
The fourth stage of the study - interpretation of the obtained results, their interpretation based on psychological theory, the final clarification of the correctness or fallacy of the hypothesis.
Thus, the use of specific methods includes many of the characteristic features of objective psychological research. Observation, analysis of products of activity, conversations, clarification of anamnestic data, experiment, mathematical processing of its results, conclusions and their interpretation - all this is organically included in the course of the study.
Scientific Solution psychological problems implies the ability of the researcher to apply specific techniques if necessary.
Topic 2 . ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHE(2 hours)
1. The emergence of the psyche. Consciousness and the unconscious. Forms of behavior.
2. Mind and brain.
LITERATURE
1. Nemov R.S. Psychology. In 2 books. – M.: Vlados, 1994.
2. General psychology / ed. E.I. Rogova., -M., 2001
3. General psychology / ed. A.V. Petrovsky. - M., Education, 1976.
4. Bassin F.V. The problem of the unconscious. -M., 1968.
5. Wooldridge D. Mechanisms of the brain.- M., 1965.
6. Ladygina-Kots N.N. The development of the psyche in the process of evolution of organisms. - M., 1968.
7. Fabry K.E. Animal games and human games. -Issues of Psychology -1982 - No. 3 - P.26-34
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Of the four groups of methods we have identified, we will characterize organizational methods in the most detail, since their methodological significance in common system research is completely unsatisfactorily represented in the modern psychological literature.
The most established and experimentally tested organizational method is the comparative method, which is modified in various psychological disciplines.
In evolutionary biopsychology, which is also called comparative, research is organized by comparing (simultaneously or sequentially) different stages of evolution or different levels of development according to certain parameters. The design and implementation of such a study over a long period of time and by various methods (especially observation and experiments) is a very complex matter. Initially, the comparative method was used for the purpose of studying the phylogenesis of behavior and mental activity, but then it was specially applied to study ontogenetic evolution, for example, in primates (Ladygina-Kots, 1935; Tikh, 1966).
The comparative method as a general method of organizing research, guiding its course and regulating the interaction of all methods, is currently widely used in general psychology (comparison of various contingents of subjects, or “samples”), in social psychology (comparison of various types of small groups, demographic, professional , ethnographic and other contingents), in pathopsychology and psychodefectology (comparison of patients with healthy people, people with defects - sensory, motor, intellectual - with normally seeing, hearing, etc.).
In child psychology and psychogerontology, the comparative method appeared in a special form of the method of "age" or "transverse" sections. The vast majority of research in this area was carried out using this particular method, although they differ in experimental methods and techniques, in problems and theoretical constructions. Comparative age studies can cover different phases of one or two adjacent periods (for example, childhood and adolescence), but in relation to the entire complex of phenomena studied (for example, perception or thinking). These are the fundamental works of J. Piaget (Flavell, 1967), including one of the most significant in the field of the genesis of thinking (Piaget, Inelder, 1963).
Another modification of the age-comparative method is a selective comparison of individual periods, carried out with the aim of revealing the evolutionary-involutionary characteristics of the dynamics of the studied mental process. One of the most interesting and instructive studies of this kind is the cycle of studies by A. A. Smirnov and his collaborators on the problem of memory, which compared the features of some mnemonic processes in preschoolers, schoolchildren, and adults (Smirnov, 1967).
A complete cycle of age comparisons is presented in our collective work devoted to ontogenetic changes in perceptual constants (Anan'ev, Dvoryashina, Kudryavtseva, 1968). The main periods of human life (from early childhood to old age) were compared according to the parameter of visual perception - constancy. The value of this parameter as an indicator of individual development was revealed by the method of age, or transverse, sections.
In another cycle of our research, the method of age sections was used to determine the ontogenetic transformations of the complex of visuospatial functions (field of vision, visual acuity, linear eye). Using this method, both the features of maturation and aging of each of these functions and the types of interfunctional correlations in different periods of life were revealed (Ananiev, Rybalko, 1964; Aleksandrova, 1965; Rybalko, 1969).
In parallel with comparative method in developmental and genetic psychology, a longitudinal method was developed (the “long method”), but it was used on an incomparably smaller scale. One of the symposiums of the 18th International Congress of Psychology (“Studying the course of mental development child "- organizer R. Zazzo). The generalization of some experience of its application allowed R. Zazzo to evaluate the effectiveness of the longitudinal method in comparison with the method of age or cross sections. It is shown that the longitudinal method is more sensitive in determining the possibilities of mental development. Its advantage over the method of age cuts is manifested in solving two problems: 1) predicting the further course of mental evolution, the scientific substantiation of mental prognosis, and 2) determining the genetic relationships between the phases of mental development.
The longitudinal method involves multiple examinations of the same individuals over a fairly long period of their life path, sometimes measured in tens of years. It eliminates such a serious drawback of the cross-sectional method (comparative-age), as the equation of all individuals of a given age and a given population. In fact, these individuals may not end up at the same point in ontogenetic evolution, since they complete their development at different rates and in different ways. Compared with the cross-sectional method, the longitudinal method is a more complex and individualized method of organizing research in the field of developmental, genetic and differential psychology.
The path of continuous tracing of the course of mental development is predetermined by a program designed for a number of years. It should be noted that the shorter the observation period, the less effective the use of the longitudinal method. Long-term observation and constant reproduction of certain functional tests (tests) comparable by certain criteria to experimental tasks, while using other methods (biographical, analysis of activity products, etc.) - all this characterizes the polyoperative composition of the longitudinal method as a way of organizing a long-term research cycle. The immediate result of its application is an individual monograph or some set of such monographs devoted to the course of mental development, covering several phases of periods of human life. A comparison of a number of such individual monographs makes it possible to sufficiently fully represent the range of fluctuations in age norms and the moments of transition from one phase of development to another.
However, the construction of a series of functional tests and experimental methods, periodically repeated in the study of the same person, is an extremely difficult matter, since the adaptation of the subject to the conditions of the experiment, special training, etc., can influence the pattern of development. In addition, the narrow base of such a study, limited to a small number of objects, does not give grounds for constructing age-related syndromes, which is successfully carried out using the comparative method of "cross sections". R. Zazzo took this circumstance into account when he recommended combining both methods in genetic psychology (Zazzo, 1966).
A similar combination of longitudinal and comparative methods is also useful in other areas of psychology, especially in differential psychology, where the reliability of an individual psychological diagnosis is of paramount importance. In clinical psychology (pathopsychology), a casuistic analysis based on longitudinal data is usually superimposed on pathopsychological syndromes obtained by a comparative method (when studying patients with various neuropsychiatric diseases or comparing them with healthy people). In sports psychology, longitudinal methods of organizing research are of particular importance in combination with data from a mass survey of athletes of various specialties, qualifications, length of service, etc.
Both comparative and longitudinal methods can be used in the study of individual psychophysiological functions, mental processes, states, personality traits. The scale of the organization of the entire cycle of work, the composition of the methods and the technique used depend on the subject of the study. It should be taken into account, however, that in modern conditions, psychological research is increasingly included in complex complex systems, in which many other sciences are involved, which are necessary for solving actual practical problems (for example, the scientific organization of labor). The exceptional importance of human factors in various types of social practice (from the organization of production to the mass service of the population) determines the importance of such complex, i.e., interdisciplinary research.
Like the comparative or longitudinal method, which in itself does not represent any theory at all, but is a way of organizing a research cycle, the complex method in itself is not yet a concept of the integrity of the studied phenomena, but, undoubtedly, is aimed at building such a research cycle that provides would in the future justify the secret concept.
The program of a comprehensive interdisciplinary research is united by the commonality of the object under study and the division of functions between individual disciplines, periodic comparison of data and their generalization, mainly relating to relationships and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds (for example, physical and mental development, the social status of a person and its characterological properties, economic indicators productivity and individual style of work, etc.). Sociological-psychological, economic-ergonomic, anthropological-psychophysiological and other complex studies impose special requirements on the construction of optimal research modes for the operational management of a heterogeneous composition of methods by which a large amount of material is extracted and processed (especially statistically). The results of such studies provide the basis for appropriate conclusions about the improvement of certain areas of practice.
The methodology and technique of complex research is just beginning to be developed (Man and Society. Vol. I-XIII, 1966-1973). However, given the growing importance of psychology in the system of sciences and the interaction between them, special attention should be paid to the organization of complex research in the field of production, mass services, health care and, of course, education and upbringing, which are of paramount importance. Complex associations of psychologists, teachers and pediatricians, physiologists and anthropologists, methodologists of various profiles can be especially useful for ensuring the unity of pedagogical influences and optimal relationships between education, training and development (Initial education ..., 1968; Ananiev, 1974).
Among the empirical methods of psychology, with the help of which the facts of research are obtained, objective observation (continuous or selective) is of primary importance, the methodology of which has recently undergone a significant transformation due to the use of various fixation and other technical means both for observation and for processing the data obtained.
About self-observation as a specific method of psychology and as the main tool of idealistic introspectionism, there are diametrically opposed opinions of the opponents and apologists of this method. For us, self-observation is not a methodological, but a methodological problem, which still awaits systematic study and technical improvements.
There is no doubt that the very possibility of self-observation, that is, the level of self-analysis, is an indicator of a person's mental development, reflecting the features of the formation of his self-consciousness. However, one should not put an equal sign between self-observation and a special study of self-consciousness. Like all phenomena of mental activity, self-consciousness is objectified in activity, in the real positions of the individual and her actions, in the level of claims and the dynamics of relations with others, in various types of communication. On the other hand, self-observation acts as a component of many other methods in the study of mental reactions, acts of behavior, forms of activity in the form of a verbal report.
Nevertheless, it is obvious that self-observation as an observational method has a special meaning in studying the dynamics of consciousness, which is both a subjective reflection of objective reality and an internal method of human self-understanding; self-consciousness as a subjective program of the personality and its self-regulation.
In this regard, the methods and data of mediated self-observation (diaries, autobiographical materials, correspondence, etc.) are of particular value. In various fields of psychology, self-observation data are used in accordance with the subject and general organization of the study. In medical practice, the material of a subjective anamnesis is always used, compared with the data of a clinical and laboratory study (objective anamnesis).
In all types of applied psychology - from labor psychology to cosmic psychology - self-observation is used in various modifications and in connection with other, objective methods. Of particular importance is the description of well-being in various states of activity, the dynamics of ideas and experiences, and behavioral motives (Lange, 1893).
Experimental methods in psychology are so diverse that none of the manuals on experimental psychology can provide a complete description of all experimental methods, since these are complex systems of special operations and procedures carried out in specially equipped chambers and cabins using complex instruments, apparatus and other technical devices. The first form of experimental method in psychology is the so-called laboratory experiment. This designation, of course, is purely formal and makes sense only in comparison with other types of experiment - "natural" and psychological-pedagogical.
Classical forms of a laboratory experiment - a method of mental reactions that exists in many variants (simple, sensory and motor reactions, choice reactions, reactions to a moving object, etc.), psychophysical methods (determination of thresholds and dynamics of sensitivity - absolute and differential - of various modalities ). These methods have received exceptional development not only in psychology, but also in many related sciences. In psychology itself, the progress of theory and experimental technique led to the further improvement of these methods.
Following these methods, experimental psychology began to be replenished with various psychometric methods for studying mnemonic, perceptual, apperceptive, and attentional processes. Each of them corresponds to special equipment and a specific technique for conducting experiments. Somewhat later, the possibilities of experimental study of the processes of thinking and speech functions opened up. Thanks to the successful development of this study, the experimental foundations of semiotics and modern heuristics have been created, for which the experimental psychology of thinking is no less important than mathematical logic.
In many functional and procedural experimental psychological studies, a variety of physiological (especially conditioned reflex and electrophysiological) and physicochemical methods are used, and in the study of speech-thinking processes, linguistic and logical methods of research are used.
The complication of psychological measurement methods has led to the creation of a special field of experimental psychology - the engineering and economic foundations of experimental psychology - which is in charge of designing laboratory facilities, choosing insulating materials and devices, designing new technology (equipment), etc.
The ever-widening introduction of radio electronics and automation into experimental psychological technology has ensured the creation of software signaling and stimulation devices with any signal complexes and with any gradation of their intensity. Due to the spread of electrophysiological devices, recording equipment is becoming more and more diverse and complex. In a number of cases, counting operations are included in this equipment, the results of which are issued in the form of quantitative indicators of stimuli and reactions. The development of signaling and recording equipment is still not sufficiently interconnected, and therefore it is still not uncommon for a device to record only chronometric indicators of motor or speech reactions from a complex set of signals. In the future, we should expect greater mutual agreement and integration of both types of equipment.
One of the most urgent problems of modern experimental psychology, according to P. Fress (Fress, Piaget, 1966, pp. 93-95), is the transition from the study of the psyche in the laboratory to the study of it in real life. In recent decades, thanks to electronics, it has become possible for experimental psychological technology to go beyond the laboratory, into certain conditions of real life. This kind of experimental psychological method can be called a field experimental method, using more portable equipment and shorter cycles of experimental procedures.
At present, field experiments are widely practiced in the psychophysiology of labor, aviation and space psychology, and especially in the psychology of sports and military psychology. Very interesting prospects for the development of laboratory and field experiments are opened by a socio-psychological study of interpersonal relationships in small groups, group and collective experiments using various types of homeostats, television sets with feedback, front group techniques, etc.
The natural and psychological-pedagogical experiment has been thoroughly developed in Soviet psychology and described in detail in psychological-pedagogical studies (by N. A. Menchinskaya, G. S. Kostyuk, A. A. Lyublinskaya, M. N. Shardakova, and others).
In modern conditions, conversation is an additional technique to experimental methods or, which is typical for genetic and pathological psychology, a variant of a natural experiment that reproduces a certain situation of communication and mutual information. In social psychology, conversation acts as an independent method of interview with its own special technique for collecting information, the principles of grading answers and a rating scale. On the basis of interviews, as well as questionnaires of various types and questionnaires, states (public opinion, public sentiment, social expectations, role behavior) are recognized and decisions are made. In other words, interviews, questionnaires and questionnaires (for example, Eysenck's questionnaires, on the basis of the analysis of which extraversion-introversion, a measure of neuroticism, etc. are determined) are psychodiagnostic tools and should be attributed to this group of empirical methods.
Psychodiagnostic methods also include sociometric methods, through which the status of an individual in groups (small and large), indicators of emotional expansion, etc. are determined. An extensive and ever-increasing number of methodological techniques are tests, or mass psychological tests. The criticism of this method in the Soviet scientific literature was mainly directed at the tendency of the bourgeois interpretation of the data obtained with the help of one of the main types of tests claiming to determine intellectual abilities or mental endowments. The use of these tests for the purposes of social selection is reactionary and directed against the democratization of education and culture.
Attention was drawn to the excessive formalization of assessments and orientation to the results of solving problems, ignoring the originality of the process of intellectual activity. A serious drawback of many intelligence tests is their arbitrary nature: the design and introduction into mass practice of tests and subtests that have not passed the normal research cycle in special laboratories.
The most effective modifications of experimental methods, especially field ones, which are suitable for high-speed mass application, should be transferred to diagnostic methods. Some psychodiagnostic test systems (for example, D. Wexler's system and scale) meet these requirements, since most of the subtests are taken from experimental practice.
Among the tests, one should distinguish between standardized and non-standardized, and standardized tests have different purpose: success tests (knowledge assessment scale) of blank types, widely used in the learning process; intelligence tests, among which there are not only those that pursue the goal of directly determining mental giftedness, but also many tests aimed at determining the level and structure of intelligence (verbal and non-verbal, general); tests of professional suitability or professional ability to work, modified depending on professional profiles.
For the purpose of psychodiagnostics of personality traits, its character traits and motives of activity, projective tests are more often used (for example, “Rorschach spots”, etc.). The existing technique for processing data from projective tests is still very imperfect and does not exclude the possibility of subjectivist interpretations, especially in the psychoanalytic direction. However, the improvement of projective tests and the construction of objective systems for evaluating their results is quite possible and will contribute to the development of psychodiagnostics.
Psychomotor tests (for example, tests by N. Ozeretsky or the Brazilian psychologist Mir Lopez), psychovegetative tests (especially galvanic skin reactivity, sweating, blood pressure measurements during various physical and mental stresses) can be used as psychodiagnostic tools.
Thanks to the successes of the Soviet psychophysiological school, B. M. Teplov introduced into the system of psychodiagnostic means many valuable functional tests or tests of the neurodynamic properties of a person (the strength of the excitatory and inhibitory process, mobility, dynamism, etc.). For the same purposes, neurochronometry, developed by E. I. Boyko and his collaborators, is used. The creation of a unified system of modern psychodiagnostics is an urgent task of Soviet psychology, which should be solved by collective efforts in the coming years.
Among the praximetric methods, well-developed methods and techniques include timing of working or sports movements, cyclographic recording of acts of behavior or labor actions, professional description of an integral production complex, artistic, literary and scientific works, inventions and rationalization proposals, school essays and educational works). For each of these types of “products” of human activity, an appropriate analysis technique should be developed (measuring certain quantitative characteristics and assessing quality, including novelty and individualization of the results of theoretical and practical activities). In this regard, it may be useful to study preparatory handwritten and finished materials of literary, artistic, technical and scientific creativity.
The biographical method - the collection and analysis of data on the life path of a person as an individual and a subject of activity (analysis of human documentation, testimonies of contemporaries, products of the person's activity, etc.) - is still poorly developed in psychology. Even in such areas as personality psychology, characterology, and the psychology of art, there is still no developed methodology and technique for compiling collections of documents and materials, criteria for evaluating various components of a biography and determining types of a life path. However, a comparative study of biographies, such as the biographies of scientists compiled by G. Lehman (Geman, 1953) in order to determine the optimal periods of creativity and phases of the formation of talent, can be very useful for developing methods for biographical research.
A special group of "processing" research methods are quantitative (statistical) methods, which are described in detail in the next chapter. Qualitative analysis consists in the differentiation of the processed material by types, species, variants, in general, in the categorization of the quantitatively processed material, which is necessary for the preparation of a generalizing phase of research. One of the processing methods of qualitative analysis is psychological casuistry - a description of cases, both the most typical for a given population or its main levels, and those that are exceptions.
Interpretive methods of a synthetic nature in psychology are currently being formed depending on two main types of interconnections of mental phenomena - "vertical" genetic links between phases and levels of development and "horizontal" structural links between all the studied personality characteristics. (Age and individual differences..., 1967). The genetic method interprets all the processed research material in the characteristics of development, highlighting the phases, stages, critical moments of the formation process mental functions, formations or personality traits. The structural method interprets all the processed research material in the characteristics of systems and the types of connections between them that form a personality, social group etc. The specific expression of this method is psychography.
In essence, at this methodological level, the method becomes in a certain sense theory, determines the way for the formation of concepts and new hypotheses that determine further research cycles of psychological knowledge. That is why this chapter describes in such detail the complex and longitudinal methods that organize the structure and sequence of our research. From the same considerations, considerable attention is paid to our understanding of psychodiagnostic methods in the structure of empirical measurements, providing a certain direction in the study of the nature of mental phenomena.