Expand the essence of the psychological theory of activity. 17. The origin of the theory of activity in Russian psychology

Basic concepts and principles.

Operational and technical aspects of the activity;

Actions and goals;

Operations;

Psychophysiological functions

We begin our acquaintance with the "psychological theory of activity." This theory was created in Soviet psychology and has been developing for over 50 years. It is indebted to the works of Soviet psychologists: L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinstein, A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria, A. V. Zaporozhets, P. Ya. Galperin and many others.

The psychological theory of activity began to be developed in the 1920s and early 1930s. By this time, the sun of the psychology of consciousness had already set and new foreign theories were flourishing - behaviorism, psychoanalysis, gestalt psychology and a number of others. Thus, Soviet psychologists could already take into account the positive sides and shortcomings of each of these theories.

But the main thing was that the authors of the theory of activity adopted the philosophy of dialectical materialism - the theory of Karl Marx, and above all its main thesis for psychology that not consciousness determines being, activity, but, on the contrary, being, human activity determine his consciousness... This general philosophical thesis found a concrete psychological development in the theory of activity.

I'll start with the characteristics of the structure, or macrostructure, activities... The concepts of the structure of activity, although they do not completely exhaust the theory of activity, form its basis. Later, and especially in subsequent lectures, you will become familiar with the application of activity theory to the solution of fundamental psychological problems, such as the subject of psychology, the origin and development of the psyche in phylo- and ontogenesis, the origin of human consciousness, the nature of personality, etc.

Human activities are complex hierarchical structure... It consists of several "layers" or levels. Let's call these levels moving from top to bottom. This is, firstly, the level special activities(or special activities); then level action; next level operations; finally the lowest level psychophysiological functions.

In this lecture, we will begin to consider the structure of activity from the level of actions and will move down to psychophysiological functions. The upward movement towards specific activities and related problems will be reserved for next time.

Action Is the basic unit of activity analysis. What is action? By definition, an action is it is a process aimed at realizing a goal.

Thus, the definition of action includes another concept that needs to be defined - goal... What is purpose? it image of the desired result, that is, the result that must be achieved in the course of the action.

It is worth noticing immediately what is meant here conscious the image of the result: the latter is retained in consciousness all the time while the action is being carried out, therefore it does not make much sense to speak of a "conscious goal": the goal is always conscious.

Let us ask ourselves the question: is it possible to do something without imagining the final result? Sure.

For example, “wandering aimlessly through the streets,” a person may find themselves in an unfamiliar part of the city. He does not know how and where he got, and this means that in his idea there was no final point of movement, that is, his goal. However, aimless human activity is more an artifact of his life activity than its typical manifestation.

Since action, as I have already said, is the basic unit of analysis of human mental life proposed by the theory of activity, it is necessary to examine more closely the main features of this unit.This will help to better understand both the spirit of the theory of activity and its differences from previous theories.

Describing the concept of "action", I can highlight the following four points.

First moment: an action includes, as a necessary component, an act of consciousness (as mentioned above) in the form of setting and holding a goal. But this act of consciousness is not closed in itself, as the psychology of consciousness actually asserted, but "is revealed" in action.

Second moment: action is at the same time an act of behavior. Consequently, the theory of activity also preserves the achievements of behaviorism, making the object of study the external activity of animals and humans. However, unlike behaviorism, it considers external movements in an indissoluble unity with consciousness. After all, movement without a goal is rather a failed behavior than its true essence.

So, the first two points on which the theory of activity differs from the previous concepts are the recognition inseparable unity of consciousness and behavior... This unity is already contained in the main unit of analysis - action.

Third, a very important point: through the concept of action, the theory of activity asserts principle of activity, opposing it to the principle of reactivity. The principle of activity and the principle of reactivity differ according to where, according to each of them, the starting point of the analysis of activity should be placed: external environment or inside the body (subject).

As you remember, for J. Watson the main thing was the concept of reaction. Reaction - means "response" (lat. Re ... - against + actio - action). The active, initiating beginning here belongs to the stimulus.

You already know that Watson considered it possible to describe all human behavior through a system of reactions (albeit very complex ones). But such hopes began to be immediately dashed by facts that showed that many behavioral acts, or actions, cannot be explained on the basis of an analysis of external conditions (stimuli). For a person, actions are too typical that obey not the logic of external influences, but the logic of his internal goal. These are not so much reactions to external stimuli as actions aimed at achieving a goal, taking into account external conditions.

And here it is appropriate to recall the words of Karl Marx that for a person the goal "as a law determines the method and nature of his actions."

So, through the concept of action, which presupposes an active principle in the subject (in the form of a goal), the psychological theory of activity affirms the principle of activity.

Finally, fourth: the concept of action "displays" human activity in the objective and social world... The fact is that the "presented result" (goal) of an action can be anything, not only and even not so much biological, as, for example, getting food, avoiding danger, etc. This can be the production of some material product, establishing social contact, gaining knowledge, etc.

Thus, the concept of action makes it possible to approach with scientific analysis to human life precisely from the side of its human specificity. Such a possibility could in no way provide the concept of reaction, especially an innate reaction, from which J. Watson proceeded. Man through the prism of the Watson system acted primarily as a biological being.

So, you have become acquainted with the concept of action - one of the main "forming" activities. This concept, like a drop of water, reflects the main starting points or principles of the theory of activity, new in comparison with the previous concepts. Let's repeat them one more time.

1. Consciousness cannot be regarded as closed in itself: it must be brought into the activity of the subject ("opening" the circle of consciousness).

2. Behavior cannot be viewed in isolation from human consciousness. When considering behavior, consciousness should not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function(the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).

3. Activity is an active, purposeful, process (principle of activity).

4. Human actions are substantive; they realize social - production and cultural - goals (the principle of objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditioning).

Further, these basic provisions will be disclosed and filled with content, but I wanted to take the opportunity and show you how all these rather complicated provisions are contained, in essence, already in one concept of "action."

So, let's get back to the goal - action link (C - D). The goal defines the action, the action ensures the realization of the goal. Through the characteristics of the goal, you can also characterize the action.

What can be noted when analyzing the goals of a person? First of all, their extraordinary diversity, and most importantly, different scales.

There are large goals, which are divided into smaller, particular goals, which, in turn, can be split into even more particular goals, etc. Accordingly, any sufficiently large action is a sequence of actions of a lower order with transitions to different "levels" hierarchical system of actions. This can be demonstrated with any example.

Let's say you want to call another city. To carry out this action (I order), you need to perform a number of private actions (II order): go to a telephone booth, find a suitable machine (if there is an automatic connection with your city), take a queue, purchase telephone tokens, etc. into the booth, you must perform the following action in this row: connect with the subscriber. But to do this, you will have to perform a number of even smaller actions (III order): lower a coin, press a button, wait for a beep, dial a certain number, etc.

As another example of describing the sequence of private actions, I will cite a short excerpt from the story by E. Hemingway "On the Big River".

This is one of the early stories of the writer, written in a very interesting style. You will feel it now.

It tells how a young man (apparently the author himself) spends his vacation on the river, where he lives alone and catches trout.

"Nick took an empty bottle and went down to the river<...>Nick wanted to catch the grasshoppers for bait before the sun dries up the grass. “- ..” He overturned a fallen tree, and there, under cover, there were hundreds of grasshoppers. This was their home. Nick filled the bottle with at least fifty medium-sized brown<...>Nick rolled the log back to its original place<...>

Nick leaned a bottle full of jumping grasshoppers against a pine tree. He nimbly mixed some buckwheat flour with water, a cup of flour for a cup of water, and kneaded the dough. He poured a handful of coffee into the pot, pulled out a piece of bacon from the can, and threw it into the hot frying pan. Then he carefully poured the dough into the sizzling bacon ... Nick took a clean pine chip and slipped it under the cake, already browned from the bottom, he shook the frying pan and the cake separated from the bottom. Just not to break it, thought Nick. He slipped the chip as far as possible under the cake and turned it over on its other side. She hissed.

<...>Nick took his spinning rod out of a leather cover, unscrewed the rod, and put the cover back into the tent. He put on a reel and began to wind the forest around it. At the same time, the forest had to intercept from hand to hand, otherwise it unwound from its own weight. "

You see, the whole story (I have chosen random excerpts) is written in a special style, namely: it examines the successive actions of the hero, including the smallest, as if through a magnifying glass of time. Apparently, using this technique, E. Hemingway solves a special artistic task - to reflect the atmosphere of peace, serene relaxation and the pleasure that the hero experiences, experiencing every small event. For us, this story illustrates well the theoretical position that activity is a sequence of actions, each of which can be split into actions of a lower order.

I present to you the opportunity to make out for yourself what actions, in what sequence and in what hierarchical subordination you must perform in order to take a walk out of town, prepare a report for a seminar, publish a wall newspaper, etc.

Speaking about complex compound actions, it should be noted that a specific set and sequence of private actions are dictated by the logic of the social and objective environment. Indeed, in order to catch grasshoppers, it is imperative to consider their lifestyle and behavior. If you do not correlate your actions with the device of the pay phone, you will never contact the subscription. The release of a wall newspaper also involves a certain range of mandatory actions.

Experience regarding the composition and sequence of actions is usually transferred during training in the form of rules, advice, instructions, programs. You have probably already encountered one case of transferring such experience in the first week of classes at the faculty, when you were introduced to the rules for finding and obtaining the desired book in the library.

Everything that has been said so far has been related to what a person does. Now let's move on to a discussion of how, in what way the action is performed. Accordingly, we turn to operations that form the next, lower level in relation to actions.

By definition, operation called way of doing the action.

I will give a few simple examples... You can multiply two two-digit numbers in your head and in writing, solving the "columnar" example. These will be two different ways of performing the same arithmetic operation, or two different operations.

They say that the female way of threading a needle is that the thread is pushed into the eye of the needle, and men, as it were, push the eye onto the thread. These are also different operations, in this case motor operations.

Another example: you want to search for a specific place in a book, but find that the bookmark you put earlier has dropped out. You are forced to resort to another method of finding the required paragraph: either try to remember the page number, or, turning the book, skim through each page, etc. Again, a few different ways achieving the same goal.

As you can see, operations characterize the technical side of performing actions, and what is called "technique", dexterity, dexterity, refers almost exclusively to the level of operations.

What determines the nature of the operations used? The generalized answer is: on conditions in which the action is performed. If the action meets the goal itself, then the operation meets the conditions in which this goal is given. In this case, "conditions" mean both external circumstances and opportunities, or internal means, of the acting subject itself.

Purpose given under certain conditions, in activity theory is called task... When describing the process of solving a problem, it is necessary to indicate both the actions and the operations that implement them. It is possible to speak about an action without operations, or about an action abstracted from operations, perhaps, only at the planning stage.

2.4. Psychological theory of activity

Basic concepts and principles... The psychological theory of activity was created in Soviet psychology and has been developing for over 50 years. It is comprehensively disclosed in the works of Russian psychologists - L.S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinshtein, A. N. Leontyev, A.R. Luria, A.V. Zaporozhets, P.Ya. Galperin and many others. The psychological theory of activity began to be developed in the 1920s and early 1930s. By this time, the psychology of consciousness had already faded into the background and new foreign theories were flourishing - behaviorism, psychoanalysis, gestalt psychology and a number of others. Thus, Soviet psychologists were already able to take into account the positive sides and shortcomings of each of these theories.

But the main thing was that the authors of the theory of activity adopted the philosophy of dialectical materialism - the theory of K. Marx, and above all its main thesis for psychology that it is not the consciousness of a person that determines his being and activity, but, on the contrary, that being and activity determine consciousness. This general philosophical thesis found a concrete psychological development in the theory of activity.

The theory of activity is most fully presented in the works of A.N. Leontyev, in particular in his latest book “Activity. Consciousness. Personality ". We will stick to basically his version of this theory.

The concepts of the structure, or macrostructure, of activity, although they do not completely exhaust the theory of activity, form its basis. Human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several layers, or levels. Let's call these levels, moving from top to bottom:

The level of special activities (or special types of activities) (for details, see p. 79);

Action level;

Operations level;

The level of psychophysiological functions.

Operationally-technical aspects of activities... Action is the basic unit of activity analysis. A-priory action Is a process aimed at realizing the goal of an activity. Thus, the definition of action includes another concept that needs to be defined - the goal.

What is goal? This is an image of the desired result, that is, the result that must be achieved in the course of performing an action.

Note that here we mean conscious the image of the result: the latter is retained in consciousness all the time while the action is being carried out, therefore it makes no sense to speak of a "conscious goal": the goal is always conscious. Is it possible to do something without imagining the end result? Sure. For example, wandering aimlessly through the streets, a person may find themselves in an unfamiliar part of the city. He is not aware of how and where he got to, which means that in his idea there was no end point of movement, that is, no goal. However, a person's aimless activity is rather an artifact of his life activity than its typical phenomenon.

Describing the concept of "action", the following four points can be distinguished.

1. Action includes, as a necessary component, an act of consciousness in the form of setting and holding a goal. But this act of consciousness is not closed in itself, as the psychology of consciousness actually stated, but is revealed in action.

2. Action is at the same time an act of behavior. Consequently, the theory of activity also preserves the achievements of behaviorism, considering the external activity of animals and humans as an object of study. However, unlike behaviorism, it considers external movements in an indissoluble unity with consciousness, because movement without a goal is rather a failed behavior than its true essence.

So, the first two points are the recognition of the indissoluble unity of consciousness and behavior. This unity is already contained in the main unit of analysis - action.

3. Through the concept of action, the theory of activity asserts principle of activity, opposing it to the principle of reactivity. These two principles differ in where, in accordance with each of them, the starting point of the analysis of activity should be placed: in the external environment or inside the organism (subject). For J. Watson, the main thing was the concept of reaction. Reaction (from Lat. Re ... - against + actio - action) is a response action. The active, initiating principle here belongs to the stimulus. Watson believed that through the system of reactions it is possible to describe all human behavior, however, the facts indicated that many behavioral acts, or actions, cannot be explained on the basis of an analysis of external conditions (stimuli). For a person, actions are too typical that obey not the logic of external influences, but the logic of his internal goal. These are not so much reactions to external stimuli as actions aimed at achieving a goal, taking into account external conditions. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of Karl Marx that for a person the goal as a law determines the way and nature of his actions. So, through the concept of action, which presupposes an active principle in the subject (in the form of a goal), the psychological theory of activity affirms the principle of activity.

4. The concept of action "brings" human activity into the objective and social world. The presented result (goal) of the action can be anything, not only and even not so much biological, as, for example, getting food, avoiding danger, etc. This can be the production of some material product, the establishment of social contact, the acquisition of knowledge and dr.

Thus, the concept of action makes it possible to approach human life with a scientific analysis precisely from the side of its human specificity. Such an opportunity could not be provided by the concept of reaction, especially innate, from which J. Watson proceeded. Man through the prism of the system

Watson acted primarily as a biological being.

The concept of action reflects the main starting points, or principles, theories of activity, the essence of which is as follows:

1) consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must be brought into the activity of the subject ("opening" the circle of consciousness);

2) behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness. When considering behavior, consciousness must not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior);

3) activity is an active, purposeful process (principle of activity);

4) human actions are substantive; they realize social - production and cultural - goals (the principle of objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditioning).

The next, lower level in relation to the action are operations. Operation is called the way the action is performed. A few simple examples will help illustrate this concept.

1. You can multiply two two-digit numbers both in your head and in writing, solving the example "in a column". These are two different ways of performing the same arithmetic operation, or two different operations.

2. The "female" way of threading a needle is that the thread is pushed into the eye of the needle, while men push the eye onto the thread. These are also different operations, in this case motor operations.

3. To find a specific place in a book, usually use a bookmark. But, if the bookmark falls out, you have to resort to another method of finding the required paragraph: either try to remember the page number, or, turning the book, skim each page, etc. There are again several different ways to achieve the same goal.

Operations characterize the technical side of performing actions, and what is called "technique", dexterity, dexterity, refers almost exclusively to the level of the operation. The nature of the operations performed depends on the conditions in which the action is performed. In this case, conditions mean both external circumstances and opportunities, or internal means, of the acting subject itself.

Speaking about the psychological characteristics of operations, it should be noted that their main property is that they are little or not realized at all. In this way, operations are fundamentally different from actions that presuppose both a conscious goal and conscious control over their course. Essentially, the operations level is filled with automatic actions and skills. The characteristics of the latter are at the same time the characteristics of the operation.

So, according to the theory of activity:

1) operations are of two kinds: some arise through adaptation, adaptation, direct imitation; others - from actions by their automation;

2) operations of the first kind are practically not realized and cannot be caused in consciousness even with special efforts. Operations of the second kind are on the border of consciousness and can easily become actually conscious;

3) any complex action consists of actions and operations.

The last, lowest level in the structure of activity is psychophysiological functions. Speaking about the fact that a subject carries out activities, one must not forget that this subject is simultaneously an organism with a highly organized nervous system, developed sense organs, a complex musculoskeletal system, etc.

Accordingly, they speak of sensory, mnemonic and motor functions. This level also includes innate mechanisms fixed in morphology nervous system, and those that mature during the first months of life. The border between automatic operations and psychophysiological functions is rather arbitrary, however, despite this, the latter stand out as an independent level due to their organismic nature. They go to the subject of activity from nature; he has to do nothing in order to have them, and finds them in himself ready for use.

Psychophysiological functions are both necessary prerequisites and means of activity. We can say that psychophysiological functions are the organic foundation of activity processes. Without reliance on them, it would be impossible not only to carry out actions and operations, but also to formulate the tasks themselves.

Finishing the description of the three main levels in the structure of activity - actions, operations and psychophysiological functions, we note that discussion of mainly operational and technical aspects of activity is associated with these levels.

Motivational and personal aspects of the activity. Need is the initial form of activity of living organisms. It is best to start analyzing needs with their organic forms. In a living organism, certain states of tension periodically arise, associated with an objective lack of substances (objects), which are necessary for the continuation of the normal life of the organism. It is these states of the body's objective need for something outside of it that make up necessary condition its normal functioning and are called needs. These are the needs for food, water, oxygen, etc. When it comes to the needs with which a person is born (and not only a person, but also higher animals), then at least two more should be added to this list of elementary biological needs: social need (the need for contacts) with their own kind, and primarily with adult individuals, and the need for external impressions (cognitive need).

The object of the need is often defined as a motive. The definition of motive as an object of need should not be understood too literally, imagining an object in the form of a thing that can be touched. The subject can be ideal, for example, an unsolved scientific problem, artistic design, etc.

A plurality, or "nest," of actions that gather around one subject is a typical sign of motive. According to another definition, a motive is what an action is performed for. "For the sake" of something, a person, as a rule, performs many different actions. This set of actions, which are caused by one motive, is called activity, and more specifically - special activity or a special kind of activity.

As examples of special types of activity, they usually cite play, educational, work activities. The word “activity” has stuck with these forms of activity even in everyday speech. However, the same concept can be applied to a host of other human activities, such as caring for the upbringing of a child, hobbies for sports, or solving a major scientific problem.

The level of activities is clearly separated from the level of actions, since the same motive can be satisfied by a set of different actions. However, the same action can be prompted by different motives.

The actions of a particular subject are usually prompted by several motives at once. The polymotivation of human actions is a typical phenomenon. For example, a person can work well for the sake of High Quality result, but at the same time satisfies its other motives - social recognition, material reward, etc. By their role or function, not all motives "converging" on one activity are equal. As a rule, one of them is the main one, the others are minor. The main motive is called the leading one, the secondary ones are called motives-incentives: they not so much “start”, as they additionally stimulate the given activity.

Turning to the problem of the relationship between motives and consciousness, we note that motives generate actions, that is, they lead to the formation of goals, and goals, as you know, are always realized. The motives themselves are not always realized. As a result, all motives can be divided into two classes: conscious and unconscious. Examples perceived motives can serve as significant life goals that guide a person's activities over long periods of his life. These are motives-goals. The existence of such motives is characteristic of mature personalities... Class unconscious there are significantly more motives, and before a person reaches a certain age, practically all motives appear in him.

The work of realizing your own motives is extremely important, but at the same time it is very difficult. It requires not only great intellectual and life experience but also great courage. In fact, this is a special activity that has its own motive - the motive of self-knowledge and moral self-improvement.

Unconscious motives, like conscious ones, are manifested in consciousness, but in special forms. There are at least two such forms: emotions and personal meanings.

Emotions arise only about such events or results of actions that are associated with motives. If a person is worried about something, it means that this “something” affects his motives.

In the theory of activity, emotions are defined as a reflection of the relationship between the result of an activity and its motive. If, from the point of view of the motive, the activity is successful, positive emotions arise, if unsuccessfully, negative ones.

Emotions are a very important indicator that serves as a key to unraveling human motives (if the latter are not realized). It is only necessary to notice for what reason the experience arose and what kind of properties it was. It happens, for example, that a person who has committed an altruistic act experiences a feeling of dissatisfaction. It is not enough for him that he helped another, because his act has not yet received the expected recognition from others and this has disappointed him. It is the feeling of disappointment that prompts the true and, apparently, the main motive by which he was guided.

Another form of manifestation of motives in consciousness is personal meaning. This is an experience of heightened subjective significance of an object, action, or event that finds itself in the field of action of the leading motive. It is important to emphasize here that only the leading motive appears in the meaning-forming function. Secondary motives (motives-incentives) play the role of additional stimuli, they generate only emotions, but not meanings.

The phenomenon of personal meaning is well revealed in transitional processes, when an object that is neutral until a certain moment suddenly begins to be experienced as subjectively important. For example, boring geographic information become important and meaningful if you plan a hike and choose a route for it. Discipline in a group starts to worry you much more when you are appointed as a prefect.

The connection of motives and personality... It is known that human motives form a hierarchical system. If we compare the motivational sphere of a person with a building, then for different people this building will have different shape... In some cases it will be like a pyramid with one top - one leading motive, in other cases there may be several peaks (i.e., meaning-forming motives). The entire building can rest on a small foundation - a narrowly egoistic motive - or rely on a broad foundation of socially significant motives, which include the fate of many people and various events in the circle of human life. Depending on the strength of the leading motive, the building can be high or low, etc. The scale and character of his personality is determined by the motivational sphere of a person.

Usually, the hierarchical relationship of motives is not fully realized by a person. They become clearer in situations of conflict of motives. It is not so rare that life collides different motives, requiring a person to make a choice in favor of one of them: material benefit or business interests, self-preservation or honor.

Development of motives... When analyzing activity, the only way is from need to motive, and then to goal and action [P - M-C - D (need - motive - goal - activity)]. In real activity, the opposite process constantly occurs: in the course of activity, new motives and needs are formed [D - M-P (activity - motive - need)]. It cannot be otherwise: for example, a child is born with a limited range of needs, mainly biological.

In the theory of activity, one mechanism for the formation of motives is outlined, which is called the "mechanism for shifting a motive to a goal" (another option is "a mechanism for converting a goal into a motive"). The essence of this mechanism is that the goal, previously prompted to its implementation by some motive, eventually acquires an independent incentive force, that is, it itself becomes a motive.

It is important to emphasize that the transformation of a goal into a motive can occur only with the accumulation of positive emotions: it is well known that it is impossible to instill love or interest in a business by punishment and coercion alone. An object cannot become a motive on request, even with a very strong desire. He must go through a long period of accumulation of positive emotions. The latter act as a kind of bridges that connect a given object with the system of existing motives until a new motive enters this system as one of them. An example would be the following situation. A student willingly begins to study some subject because he enjoys communicating with his beloved teacher. But over time, it turns out that interest in this subject deepened, and now the student continues to study it for his own sake and, perhaps, even chooses it as his future specialty.

Internal activities... The development of the theory of activity began with an analysis of the external, practical activities person. But then the authors of the theory turned to inner activity.

What is internal activity? Let us imagine the content of that inner work, which is called mental and which a person is constantly engaged in. This work does not always represent the actual thought process, that is, the solution of intellectual or scientific problems - often during such reflections, a person reproduces (as it were, plays) in his mind the forthcoming actions.

The function of these actions is that internal actions prepare external actions. They economize the efforts of a person, giving him the opportunity, firstly, to accurately and quickly choose the desired action, and secondly, to avoid gross and sometimes fatal mistakes.

In relation to these extremely important forms of activity, the theory of activity puts forward two main theses.

1. Such activity is an activity that has essentially the same structure as external activity, and differs from it only in the form of its course. In other words, internal activity, like external activity, is stimulated by motives, accompanied by emotional experiences, has its own operational and technical composition, that is, it consists of a sequence of actions and the operations that implement them. The only difference is that actions are performed not with real objects, but with their images, and instead of a real product, a mental result is obtained.

2. Internal activity originated from external, practical activity through the process of internalization, which is understood as the transfer of appropriate actions to the mental plane. Obviously, in order to successfully perform some action “in the mind”, it is imperative to master it materially and first get a real result. For example, thinking over a chess move is possible only after the real moves of the pieces have been mastered and their real consequences are perceived.

It is just as obvious that during interiorization, external activity, without changing its fundamental structure, is strongly transformed. This is especially true of its operational and technical part: individual actions or operations are reduced, and some of them are dropped altogether; the whole process is much faster.

Can they mental processes and functions to be described by the concepts and means of the theory of activity? Is it possible to see in them structural features activities? It turns out you can! Soviet psychology for several decades she has been developing an activity-based approach to these processes.

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Chapter 7 PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATIONAL-INVESTIGATIVE ACTIVITIES This chapter will consider the psychological characteristics of operational-search and investigative activities associated with the disclosure of crimes, with the identification of the perpetrators and

From the book Fundamentals of Psychology the author Ovsyannikova Elena Alexandrovna

2.3. Activity. Activity structure. Types of activity Activity is the active interaction of a person with the environment, in which he achieves a consciously set goal, which arose as a result of the appearance of a certain need, motive in him.

From the book Cognitive Styles. About nature individual mind the author Kholodnaya Marina Alexandrovna

The psychological theory of activity was created in Soviet psychology in the 1920s and early 1930s. last century and developed for about 50 years by Soviet psychologists: S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria, A.V. Zaporozhets, P. Ya. Galperin.

Using an activity category - distinctive feature Russian psychology.

Activity- specifically human activity, regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at cognition and transformation of the external world and the person himself.

Human activity is of a social, transformative nature and is not limited to simple satisfaction of needs, largely determined by the goals and requirements of society.

The problem of activity is organically linked with the problem of personality and consciousness. These three categories in psychology act as 3 basic principles of psychology (see principles of psychology). Personality is both formed and manifested in activity. Activity is a process of human interaction with the world, but the process is not passive, but active and consciously regulated by the individual.

Human activity manifests itself and continues in creations, it is productive, and not just consumer in nature.

The creative nature of human activity is manifested in the fact that, thanks to it, it goes beyond its natural limitations, that is, it surpasses its own genotypically determined capabilities. Due to the productive, creative nature of activity, a person has created sign systems, tools for influencing the world around him and himself, material and spiritual culture. The historical progress that has taken place over the past several tens of thousands of years owes its origin precisely to activities that have improved the biological nature of people.

Having given birth to and continuing to improve consumer goods, a person, in addition to abilities, develops his needs. Once connected with the objects of material and spiritual culture, the needs of people acquire a cultural character.

Human activity is fundamentally different from the activity of animals.

1. The activity of animals is caused by natural needs, human activity is mainly generated and supported by artificial needs arising from the appropriation of the achievements of the cultural and historical development of people of the present and previous generations. These are the needs for knowledge (scientific and artistic), creativity, moral self-improvement, and others.

2. The forms and methods of organizing human activity differ from the activity of animals, almost all of them are associated with complex motor skills and abilities acquired as a result of conscious purposeful organized training, which animals do not have.

3. Animals consume what is given to them by nature. Man, on the other hand, creates more than consumes.

So, the main differences activities person from activity animals are reduced to the following:

Social conditioning. Human activity in its various forms and means of implementation is a product of socio-historical development. The objective activity of people is not given to them from birth. It is "given" in the cultural purpose and the way of using the surrounding objects. Such activities need to be shaped and developed in training and education. The activity of animals appears as a result of their biological evolution.

Purposefulness. Human activity, in contrast to the instincts of animals, is conscious. People are always guided by consciously set goals, which they achieve through carefully thought out and tested means or methods of action. Any activity consists of separate actions, united by the unity of the goal and aimed at achieving the results programmed by this goal.

Planning of activities. Activity is not the sum of individual actions or movements. In any kind of activity, all its components are subordinate to a certain system, are interconnected and are carried out according to a meaningful plan. Higher animals solve two-phase problems to satisfy needs that are more or less stable in nature and are limited mainly by biological needs.

Objectivity... Human activity is associated with objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used by him either as tools, or as items to satisfy needs, or means of his own development. For animals, human tools and means of satisfying needs as such do not exist.

Subjectivity. Activity is conditioned by the personal characteristics of a person and transforms him, his abilities, needs, living conditions. The activity of animals practically does not change anything either in themselves or in the external conditions of their life.

Creation. Human activity is productive, creative, constructive. A person in the process of performing an activity transforms himself. The activity of animals has a consumer basis; as a result, it does not produce or create anything new in comparison with what is given by nature.

Activity differs not only from activity but also from behavior.

- behavior is not always purposeful, and activity is always purposeful;

- behavior does not imply the creation of a certain product, but the activity is aimed at creating a certain product;

- behavior is often passive, activity is always active;

- behavior can be impulsive, activity is arbitrary;

- behavior can be spontaneous, activity is organized;

- behavior can be chaotic, activity is systematized.

There are two forms of activity: external (practical, objective, visible to other people) and internal (mental: gnostic - perceptual, mnemonic, imaginative, mental; emotional and volitional). Long time psychology was exclusively concerned with internal activities. It was believed that external activity only expressed internal (or "activity of consciousness"). It took a long time to come to the conclusion that both of these forms of activity represent a community through which a person interacts with the world around him. Both forms have fundamentally the same structure, that is, they are prompted by needs and motives, accompanied by feelings and directed by goals. Internal activity is distinguished from external only by the fact that it includes not real objects, but their mental images; the results of internal activities are also expressed in perfect shape(image) that may or may not become a real product.

The unity of these two forms of activity is also manifested in their mutual transitions through the processes interiorization and exteriorization.

Process interiorization expresses the ability of the psyche to operate with images of objects and phenomena that are currently absent in a person's field of vision.

Exteriorization activity characterizes the ability of a person to carry out external actions (operations) based on the transformation of the internal laws that have developed due to the internalization of internal laws, due to the previously formed internal ideal plan of activity. Exteriorization - the embodiment of previous experience in physical external actions.

Activity structure

Activity - active interaction of the subject with the environment, in which he achieves a consciously set goal, which arose as a result of the appearance of a certain need in him.

S.L. Rubinstein included in the psychological structure: motive–goal – way(actions and operations), result.

The main function of activity is personality development, which is reflected in the principle of personality development in activity.

Psychological analysis of activity, including mental activity, allows you to characterize it structural elements:

– need - reflection of the needs of the organism or personality in something and the source of the personality's activity;

– motive - reflection of needs, motivation of the subject to activity;

– goal - the projected result of the activity. Activity begins with the awareness of the objective goal as reflected, because the goal of activity as a mental phenomenon is not mirrored, but personally reworked on the basis of the determining role and needs of a particular personality;

– way of doing the activity - actions and operations with the help of which the activity is realized;

– result - an ideal product or “materialized” (AN Leontiev) materialized goal.

The process of activity begins with staging goals based needs and motives (or a person's awareness of the task assigned to him). The main component of the activity is action, which has its own: goal , motive , method (s) and result .

The need is not experienced as such - it is presented as an experience of discomfort of dissatisfaction and manifests itself in search activity. In the course of the search, there is a meeting of a need with its object, fixation on an object that can satisfy it. From the moment of "meeting" the activity becomes directed, the need is objectified - as a need for something specific, and not "in general" - and becomes a motive, it is now that we can talk about activity. It correlates with the motive: the motive is that for the sake of which the activity is performed, and the activity is the set of actions that are caused by the motive. As a result of motivation, a goal is determined that will act as a regulator of activity. Target - This is an image of the desired result to be achieved in the course of the activity.

Activity comprises action, a actions - from operations. If a person does not own operations, specific to a particular type of activity, he cannot successfully perform it.

Action - an element of activity, in the process of which a specific, not decomposed into simpler, conscious goal is achieved.

The goal defines the action. The sequence of actions ensures the realization of the goal of the activity. Action - a unit of activity analysis . Action is one of the defining components of human activity, which is formed under the influence of its goal.

Each action has its own psychological structure: purpose of action, motives, operations and end result .

Operation- a specific way to perform an action . Each action can be performed by several operations. The choice of a particular operation is determined by a specific situation and individual characteristics subject of activity (see. Individual style of activity). For example, the female way of threading a needle is that the thread is pushed into the eye of the needle, while men, on the contrary, push the eye onto the thread.

Operations characterize the technical side of the action. The nature of the operations used depends on the conditions in which the action is performed. If the action meets its own goal, then the operation meets the conditions in which this goal is specified. In this case, the conditions mean external and internal circumstances. A goal set under certain conditions is called a task.

Operations are fundamentally different from actions that presuppose both a perceived goal and a conscious control of the course; the fact that they are little or not realized at all.

Any complex action consists of a layer of actions and a layer of operations "underlying" them. The line between action and operation is fluid. Its movement upwards means the transformation of some actions (mostly the most elementary ones) into operations. In such cases, there is enlargement of units of activity . Moving the border down means turning operations into actions, or splitting up activities into smaller units.

Definition of the concepts of "skill",
"Skill", stages of their formation

Operational structure of activities: knowledge, skills and skills.

Knowledge- facts assimilated and consolidated into a system, their generalizations in the form of concepts, terms, conclusions, scientific theories. Knowledge contains generalized experience that reflects the laws of the objective world. Knowledge must be inextricably linked with life practice, with a constant readiness to perform the desired activity.

Skills - the ability to perform arbitrary automated actions with great precision, economical and optimal speed. In the learning process, sensory-perceptual, attentive, mnemonic, gnostic, imaginative, communicative, professionally significant and other skills are formed. Professionally significant skills characterize the ability to successfully perform professionally necessary actions associated with psychomotor acts in different types professional activity.

Human activities.

A person becomes a person in the process of socialization. Socialization in a broad sense is understood as the appropriation of the experience accumulated by humanity in the process of education and upbringing. In Russian psychology, it is customary to distinguish four types of activity: communication, play, learning and work, each of which at a certain stage of ontogenesis plays a leading role in the development of a person, personality and subject of activity.

Leading activity- the type of activity, the implementation of which determines the formation of the main psychological neoplasms; the direction of the mental development of a person, his personality in a specific age period life.

6. Describe attention. Types and properties of attention.

Attention- this is a selective concentration of consciousness on an object, the orientation of the psyche to a certain activity while being distracted from everything else. With the help of attention, the selection of the required stimuli entering the zone of consciousness is made.

The physiological basis of attention is the stimulation of some optimal focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, amplified by subcortical structures, and, according to a number of physiologists, by the reticular formation located in the brain stem. The importance of at the same time, it has a mechanism for the formation of a dominant focus of excitation (dominant according to A.A. Ukhtomsky).

Not being a mental cognitive process proper, attention determines the possibility of other mental processes, reflecting them.

Thus, the main attention functions are:

– selection of relevant (sensory, mnemonic, mental) influences in the performed activity and rejection of insignificant - selectivity of attention;

– retention the activity performed (preservation in the mind of the images necessary to complete the activity, achieve the goal);

– regulation and control implementation of activities.

Attention is classified according to a number of parameters.

Attention as a manifestation selective focus and intensity mental activity (consciousness) is divided into views:

– external attention (outwardly directed) is determined by focusing the subject's attention on external objects

– inner attention (internally directed), the object of which is the subject's own thoughts, experiences, mental (mnemonic, logical) activities.

Depending on participation volitional process consider voluntary, involuntary and post-voluntary attention:

- voluntary attention motivated, consciously regulated by the requirements of the activity being performed, mediated and directed by appropriate volitional efforts. Achievement of the set goal of activity determines the active, but requiring significant energy expenditures, character arbitrary attention;

– involuntary attention arises without a consciously set goal and is held on the object without volitional efforts, is determined by the characteristics of the stimulus. Of the several stimuli, the most powerful acts, for example, the coloring of the object, its novelty, expressiveness, uncommonness that impresses the subject's inner state, etc. It is based on an orienting reflex;

- post-voluntary attention is kept on the object after the stimulus has ceased due to its significance for a person: failure in solving any problem that aroused emotional interest, even when switching to another activity, leads to its preservation in consciousness, contributing to the subsequent solution. Post-spontaneous attention does not require the application of volitional efforts, it has no less stability than voluntary, but does not require high energy expenditures, since, in fact, it is involuntary, arising from voluntary, due to interest in the activity being performed. This is the most productive type of attention, characterized by stability, complexity of switching and accompanying the subject's intellectual activity.

Basic properties of attention

Attention volume- the number of objects or elements of stimulus perceived by the subject per unit of time. The average indicator, according to the Research Laboratory of VIFK, is an image of 5 ± 2 simple geometric shapes(circle, cross, square, etc.) with an exposure of 1 s (there are recommendations to use an exposure equal to 1/10 s).

Concentration of attention is determined by the ability to maximally focus on one selected object, arbitrarily distracting from the rest (for example, when aiming). An indicator of concentration of attention is its noise immunity, determined by the strength of an extraneous stimulus that can distract the subject from the object of activity.

Stability of attention- ability long time to linger on the chosen object. We repeat, the higher the subject's interest in the activity being performed, the longer he is able to keep his attention on the object of activity.

Attention intensity - it is his stable concentration on the object, characterized by the ability to resist fluctuations (to hesitation).

Switching attention characterized by a rapid voluntary transfer of attention from one object to another, a quick transition from one activity to another (for example, from defense to attack in boxing and other martial arts).

Distribution of attention- keeping several objects in the field of consciousness at the same time (one of them is brighter than the rest). With additional stimulation, it is possible to quickly switch attention to any other object. Distribution and switching of attention have some common psychophysiological mechanisms.

Fluctuations of attention- the property of attention to involuntarily move from object to object, usually at least 1 time every 5 s, thus, the intensity of attention does not remain unchanged, especially with a dual image of figures (for example, in a special drawing, one can perceive the silhouettes of two faces - two profiles, or a flower vase located between them.

Distraction of attention- a property opposite to stability and allocated not by all researchers, it is characterized by involuntary behavior, which determines the inability to concentrate when exposed to extraneous stimuli.

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Plan

1. General Provisions"Theory of activity" in Russian psychology

2. Definition of the activity and its main characteristics

3. Structure of activity

4. Skills and skills as components of human activity

5. Classification of activities. Activities

1. General provisions of the "theory of activity" in Russian psychology

Views on activity and its components in Russian psychology were considered in the theory of activity, the main provisions of which are most fully described in the work Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev "Activity. Consciousness. Personality ".

The main thing was that the authors of the theory of Activity adopted philosophy dialectical materialism- the theory of K. Marx, the thesis that it is not consciousness that determines being, activity, but, on the contrary, being, human activity determines his consciousness.

The main provisions of the theory of activity:

1. Consciousness cannot be regarded as closed in itself; it finds its expression in the activity of the subject;

2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from the consciousness of a person;

3. Activity is an active, purposeful process;

4. Human actions are substantive; they pursue social, production and cultural goals;

5. Thus, activity is a person's activity aimed at achieving consciously set goals related to meeting the needs and interests of a person, or at fulfilling the requirements for him from society and the state

2. Definition of activity and its main characteristics

Activity - specific type of human activity aimed at cognition and creative transformation of the surrounding world and oneself (Atlas of psychology by M.V. Gamezo, I.A.Domashenko)

However, activity and activity are not identical concepts.

Activity - active (dynamic) state of living organisms, as a condition for their existence in the world, for example, instinctive behavior.

The concept of activity should also be distinguished from the concept of behavior.

psychology exteriorization induction

Thus, considering the differences between activity and animal activity and behavior allows us to determine the main characteristics of human activity:

1. The activity is of a socio-historical nature;

2. Conscious in nature;

3. Productive character;

4. Creative nature

3. Activity structure

(Students are given diagrams: The structure of activity according to A. N. Leontiev, Components of an action and its main functions)

From the point of view of the theory of activity, human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several layers or levels:

1) Macro level - the level of special activities (special activities: communication, play, learning, work)

2) The level of actions (objective, actions, physical, mental)

3) Operation level

4) The level of psychophysiological functions (sensory, mnemonic, motor function)

Consider these levels starting from action level.

Action- a relatively complete element of activity aimed at achieving a certain intermediate perceived goal. D. can be both external, performed in an expanded form with the participation of the motor apparatus and sense organs, and internal, performed in the mind.

Characteristics of actions:

1) the first feature is that actions, as a necessary component, include an act of consciousness in the form of setting and holding a goal

2) the second feature of an action is at the same time an act of behavior, and external actions are inextricably linked with consciousness

3) the third feature - through the concept of "action" the principle of activity is affirmed

4) the fourth feature - actions can be external, attracted and internal mental.

In this case, the action is objective, even if it is a mental action, it still has its own presented result.

Types of actions:

1. by main functions:

a) motor;

b) central;

c) sensory

2. By direction:

A)NSrare actions- these are actions aimed at changing the state or properties of objects of the external world (for example, a person strikes a nail with a hammer and changes its properties). They are made up of certain movements. An analysis of the various object-related actions shows that in most cases they all consist of three relatively simple ones: take (raise), move, lower. In addition, in psychology, it is customary to distinguish other types of movements: speech, somatic, expressive, locomotor etc.

In all cases, coordination of movements and their consistency with each other is necessary.

B) actions - actions aimed at other people;

C) physical - actions aimed at external actions with objects, for example, ball manipulation

D) ymental actions - various human actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness. It has been experimentally established that the mental action necessarily includes motor motor components.

Human mental activity is often divided into:

perceptual, through which a holistic image of perception of objects or phenomena is formed;

mnemonic, which is part of the activity of memorizing, holding and recalling any material;

mental, with the help of which the solution of mental tasks occurs;

imaginative(from image - image), i.e. the activity of the imagination in the process of creativity.

Any activity includes both internal and external components (see the diagram of the structure of the activity)

By its origin, internal (mental, mental) activity is derived from external (objective) activity.

Initially, objective actions are performed and only then, as experience is accumulated, a person acquires the ability to perform the same actions in the mind, directed, ultimately, outward, to transform objective reality, are themselves subjected to reverse transformation (exteriorization).

Exteriorization- the transition from an internal, mental plan of action to an external one, implemented in the form of techniques and actions with objects. Interiorization - the process of transforming external, objective actions into internal, mental ones.

The inextricable connection between external and internal actions expands the cognitive capabilities of a person, a person acquires the ability to operate with images of objects that are currently absent in his field of vision.

The next level of activity structure -- operations.

Operation - a way to perform an action. For example, an action such as subtraction can be performed by several operations, such as mentally or in writing. The action of threading a needle can be realized in female and male ways: female - the thread is threaded into the eyelet, male - the eyelet is moving on the thread (example from the textbook Gippenreiter "Introduction to Psychology")

Each action consists of a system of movements or operations subordinated to a specific goal. Operations characterize the partial side of the performance of actions, they are little or not realized at all. Operations can arise from adaptation, direct imitation, or through the automation of actions.

At the level of psychophysiological functions physiological support of the activity process is provided.

These include a number of body abilities, such as the ability to sense - sensory function, to form and fix traces of past influences - mnemonic function, motor or motor ability - motor function. Congenital mechanisms, fixed in the morphology of the nervous system, and those that mature within 1 months of life and constitute the level of psychophysiological functions.

The difference psychophysiological functions in the fact that they get to the subject from nature, he does not have to "do" anything in order to have them, he finds them in himself ready for use. They form the prerequisites and means of activity.

So where does our activity begin?(see activity structure diagram)

The origin of activity occurs due to the presence of needs and motives.

Need- the state of the body's objective need for something that lies outside it and constitutes a necessary condition for its normal functioning.

In addition to biological needs (for food, food, etc.), a person also has specifically human needs:

· The need for contacts with their own kind (in communication);

Need for external impressions, cognitive need

Objectification of the need leads to the birth of a motive. The stimulus for activity is motive.

It is the motive that gives the activity a certain specificity in relation to the choice of means and methods of achieving the goal. The motives can be a variety of needs, interests, attitudes, habits, emotional states... The variety of human activities gives rise to a variety of motives. However, there is a leading motive that determines this activity, which a person is engaged in, and motives-incentives, which are additional stimuli to action. Depending on the motives, people have different attitudes towards their activities. After a person has a motive, he has goal - that which realizes human need and acts as an image of the final result of activity. The goal of an activity is not equivalent to its motive, although sometimes the motive and the goal coincide.

As the activity develops, new motives are formed, and this contributes to the fact that it works mechanism for shifting the motive to the goal. The goal, previously prompted to its implementation by some motive, eventually acquires an independent incentive force, i.e. itself becomes a motive.

For example, a student is studying a subject, because likes to communicate with the teacher. But over time, his interest deepened and not for the sake of the teacher, but for the sake of the subject itself, the student studies it and chooses it as a future specialty. The transformation of a goal into a motive occurs only if positive emotions are accumulated.

4. Skills and skills as components of human activity

The mechanism of planning, control and regulation of actions was investigated by domestic and foreign physiologists and psychologists - ILK. Anokhin, P.A. Bernstein, E.A. Afatyan, W. Ashby and others. Their studies show that the goal of any action is presented in consciousness in the form of a psychological image - a kind of neuropsychological model. Feedback ensures that actions are corrected as it is being performed. This mechanism, as P.K. Anokhin, called an action acceptor.

P.A. Bernstein proposed a completely new principle of motion control; he called him the principle of sensory correction, referring to the corrections made to the pulses based on sensory information about the movement. In this connection, this author highlights various structural elements of activity - abilities, skills, habits.

Skills - these are ways to successfully perform an action that corresponds to the goals and conditions of the activity. Skills are always based on knowledge.

Skill - these are fully automated components of actions, formed during the exercise. From the physiological side, a skill means the formation in the cortex of diseased hemispheres and the functioning of a stable system of temporary neural connections, called a dynamic stereotype.

Skills and abilities, as modes of action, are always included in specific activities. They can be divided into training, sports, hygiene, etc.

There are skills and abilities that are used in different types of activities, for example:

motor skills are formed in the process of physical labor, sports, in the educational process;

mental skills are formed in the process of observation, planning, production of oral and written calculations, work with a book, etc.

The vital importance of skills and abilities is very great. They facilitate physical and mental efforts in work, learning, bring a certain rhythm, stability into the activity of each person, creating conditions for creativity.

There are three main stages in the formation of a skill: analytical, synthetic and automation stage ( see the diagram of the condition and the main stages of skill formation).

Skills are formed as a result of exercise, i.e. purposeful and systematic repetition of actions. As the exercise progresses, both quantitative and qualitative indicators of work change.

The success of mastering a skill depends not only on the number of repetitions, but also on other objective and subjective reasons.

Skill formation indicators:

1. The action is carried out as a single act. There are no unnecessary actions, fast pace and high quality of performance;

2. Change of touch control. If the skill is controlled by vision, then the skill is controlled by kinesthetics (movement) Offer a little illustrative experience: close your eyes and on the next line in your notebookand write your first and last name;

3. Methods of control are changing. If at the beginning of mastering an action, a person controls the correctness of the performance of actions, their sequence, then when the skill is formed, control is directed to the environment.

The skills and abilities acquired by a person influence the formation of new skills and abilities. This influence can be both positive - induction (transfer), and negative (interference)... The essence of induction - transfer is that a previously developed skill facilitates the acquisition of a similar skill.

Skill interference -- weakening of new skills under the influence of previously developed ones, due to their similarity.

To preserve the skill, they should be used systematically, otherwise de-automation, when speed, lightness, smoothness and other qualities characteristic of automated actions are lost. And a person again has to turn his attention to his every movement, consciously control the way it is carried out.

The skill can be formed in different ways: through a simple demonstration; through explanation; through a combination of display and explanation.

In all cases, it is necessary to understand the scheme of action and the place in it of each operation.

The conditions that ensure the successful formation of skills include the number of exercises, their pace and distribution in time. Knowledge of the results is important in the conscious mastery of skills and abilities.

Habits- the third component of activity, unproductive. Habits is a component of an action based on a need. They can, to a certain extent, be consciously controlled, but they are far from always reasonable and useful (bad habits).

Habit Formation Ways: through imitation; as a result of repeated repetition of the action; through conscious, targeted efforts, such as positive reinforcement of desired behavior through a material object, verbal assessment, or emotional image.

In contrast to the skills and habits of habit, an inflexible element of activity, often unreasonable, which is performed by a person purely mechanically and does not have a conscious goal or clearly expressed productive completion.

5. Classification of activities. Main activities

In the approach to the classification of activities, R.S. Nemov sees 2 ways:

1. Description of activities in accordance with human needs and basic parameters (strength, quantity, quality);

2. Generalization and identification of the main types of activity inherent in all people, in which each person is inevitably included in the process of his individual development(compendium of Nemov R.S. Kn 1 p. 129 - 133)

Application

Activities

Activity structure

Expand the essence of the psychological theory of activity. 17. The origin of the theory of activity in Russian psychology

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