FOREIGN SPEECH AND ITS TRANSMISSIONS
Statements or individual words belonging to other persons may be included in the author's narrative. There are several ways to introduce someone else’s speech into a sentence or text: direct speech, indirect speech, improperly direct speech and dialogue.
Punctuation marks in direct speech sentences
In short, Strawson limits Austin's thesis to the essentially conditional nature of illegal actions. To free the concept of communicative illegal activities from the above difficulties, Bach and Harnish offer an alternative approach to Struson's approach to communication. We designate this intention as “intention”. So, for example, indicating that p, the sender expresses confidence that p and his perlocal intentions, so that the recipient accepts this belief as his own; Similarly, when a request is made for an action, the sender expresses its desire for the recipient to do so.
P - direct speech starting with capital letter;
p - direct speech starting with a lowercase letter;
AND - words of the author starting with a capital letter;
and - The author’s words starting with a lowercase letter.
Different ways the transmission of someone else's speech that does not belong to the author preserves its content and form in different ways. Direct speech is such a way of transmitting someone else’s speech, in which both the content and the form are fully preserved.
In short, the formulation of speech with a certain power of illusion is to express a complex, intentional state. Note that due to this circumstance, Strusson adds to Grisha "the nature of communication acts as a condition of intention, which guarantees the openness of intention." The fact is that the main property of communication intentions is transparency. According to Strawson, the type of intentions and regardless of these differences should be emphasized that, according to researchers, the majority of illegal acts are communicative in nature, and the possibility of their implementation is not so much determined.
There are four options for writing direct speech in writing. Each of them corresponds to the scheme that must be remembered.
Scheme 1
If the direct speech is in the sentence after the words of the author, then it is enclosed in quotation marks and begins with a capital letter, and a colon is placed after the words of the author. For example:
An old priest came up to me with the question: "Do you want to start?" (Pushkin).
Routine procedures in this community as well psychological abilities participants in linguistic interaction. It is also worth noting that supporters of this concept take into account only one of the successful consequences of Austin's illocusia, namely the effect of ensuring the proper adoption of the law. In addition, this effect is considered as communication, and not an illusion: in order to form a successful illusion, emphasize Bach and Harnish, it is enough to pronounce words with a specific intention; Whether this intention is recognized - and thus fulfilled - is crucial to communication, and not an illusion of success.
Scheme 3
Occasionally in fiction you can find sentences in which direct speech is inside the words of the author. In this case, it is enclosed in quotation marks, a colon is placed in front of it, and after - a dash. Please note that the second part of the author’s words begins with a small letter. For example:
She cried out: “Ay, not him, not him!” - and fell without memory (Pushkin).
The concept proposed by Bach and Harnish avoids the weaknesses of Strawson's theory. At the same time, he struggles with his difficulties, two of which seem rather serious. First, the authors of linguistic communication and speech acts seem to ignore the specific function of illusory actions in the sense of Austin, namely, the function of generating normative states, as described in paragraph 2. For example, by presenting promises as acts of the type, Bach and Harnish openly acknowledge that promising lies not so much on creation as on commitment. “Regardless of whether the speaker is obligated to fulfill his obligation,” says the “Linguistic Messages and Speech Acts,” the question is about moral questions that cannot be answered by theories of speech activity.
The number of sentences within direct speech is not limited. For example:
“Thank God,” the girl said, “you came by force.” It was almost as if you hadn’t killed a young lady. ” (According to Pushkin).
In this example, direct speech consists of two sentences, the first of which is broken by the words of the author. But if the author’s words were between the two sentences that make up the direct speech, then after the author’s words it would be necessary to put an end to it. Compare:
Odrova-Sipnevskaya, “Guide to the Philosophy of Language”, Krakow 33 Ostinovsk. Secondly, the question of the appropriateness of the category of communicative intentions, i.e. intentions of communication is in question. Some scholars argue, for example, that such an intention is unthinkable because it refers to it in content. Proponents of the concept of communication of illocutionary acts are trying to cope with these difficulties. The concept of illocution as an institutional act. According to the concept of illocus as an action, the structure of the obligatory illegal action includes the words spoken, the context of their speech and the normative state of things, understood as the usual effect of the action.
“Thank God you came by force,” the girl said. “You almost killed a young lady.”.
Consider the schemes of these offers.
Foreign speech, transmitted in the form of a subordinate clause, is called indirect speech.
The first, main part of the sentence in this case is the words of the author, and the second is indirect speech. Please note: the words of the author face an indirect speech and are separated by a comma. This method of transmitting someone else’s speech, in contrast to direct speech, preserves the content of someone else’s statement, but does not preserve its shape and intonation.
As a result, the sender of the message is responsible for the fulfillment of this condition. For example, when compiling a statement, the sender is responsible for the veracity of the declared content, and when fulfilling a promise, he is responsible for the execution of the action that he says. Thus, the normative consequence of speech solves its illocution. In addition, this is the effect of a convention or illocution rule, in accordance with which the sender formulates his statement. In other words, according to the concept discussed here, all illocutionary acts are essentially conditional: without the applicable rules or conventions, their implementation would be impossible.
Compare two ways to convey the same statement in the illustration. A sentence with indirect speech does not convey the exclamatory intonation that is present in direct speech.
Indirect speech can be attached to the main part of the sentence with the help of the conjunctions WHAT, BE, WHAT, pronouns and adverbs WHO, WHAT, WHERE, WHERE, WHEN, WHY and WHY, and others, as well as LI particles. The choice of these words depends on the purpose of the statement in indirect speech. In interrogative sentences, pronouns or the particle LI will be used:
A characteristic function of the latter is that they do not change in the natural world, but in the "institutional" or "ordinary" world: the world of laws, obligations, obligations, roles, status and other facts. For example, a constitutional agreement promising action promises, says Cameron. obliged to carry out the activities that he speaks. The concept of normative effects of illocutionary acts plays a fundamental role in Alston's theory, developed since the 1960s. He defends the idea that the wording of the illocutionary act consists in pronouncing words in accordance with the relevant rule and involves assuming responsibility for the fulfillment of the conditions specified in this rule; The strength of the action depends on the nature of the conditions under consideration and, therefore, on the rule in accordance with which the speaker speaks.
I asked, when train leaves.
In incentive sentences, the union is used TO, for example:
Captain ordered so that raised the flag.
In narrative sentences, the unions WHAT, BE, are used, for example:
He told, as ifsaw a live bear in the forest.
Unlike direct speech indirect speech transmits someone else’s statement on behalf of the author and reproduces it not verbatim, but only with the preservation of the general content (although in some cases indirect speech may come close to the literal reproduction of someone else’s speech). For example: 1) Grushnitsky came to me at six in the evening and announced that his uniform would be ready tomorrow, just in time for the ball (M. Lermontov).2) However, the newcomer did not do all the empty questions; he asked with extreme accuracy who is the governor in the city, who is the chairman of the chamber, who is the prosecutor (N. Gogol).
Note that only a rule takes the form of a canonical form of constitutive rules; It is not mentioned in the context of the termination of the Ob. In a speech to read a monograph, an activity promising is considered as an obligation of the sender to perform a certain action, a statement - a guarantee that the decision expressed by the sender is true, and a request - to encourage you to take some measures. Taking into account the latter case, we can say that not all institutional consequences of successful illocution are normative.
A similar impression can be made after reading 10 years of expression and meaning in which Searle presents the taxonomy of illocusia; In addition, one can read there that the institutional effect or illusion of the request is to try to get the recipient to perform or take a specific action. First of all, in the aforementioned work, “Expressions and Meaning,” we read that the difference between the current Bach and Garnish acts in categories and those that are classified by them are not that only the latter suggest the existence of social institutions.
Differences direct and indirect speech are clearly manifested when translating direct speech into indirect. Changes affect the grammar structure, vocabulary, and the emotional side of other people's statements.
1. Syntactically indirect speech It is drawn up as a complex sentence with an additional explanatory clause. The main sentence (it comes first) is formed by the author’s words (their circle is somewhat narrower than in direct speech). The subordinate clause transfers the content of the speech of others and joins the main thing with the help of the union what(as narrated), by union so that(when expressing motivation), allied words (relative pronouns or adverbs) who, what, where, when, how muchetc. and particle alliance whether(when expressing a question). For example:
Secondly, one of the conditions of Searle regarding the sincere and inadequate execution of an illusory act is that the sender of this act has a certain communicative reflective intention; In other words, it is important to emphasize that the goal is to have an appropriate reference to institutional states, the existence of which is determined by the presence of linguistic constitutional rules. In short, Searle combines the idea of \u200b\u200bthe deliberate nature of speech acts with a belief in their institutional nature.
a) If direct speech is expressed by a narrative sentence, then when replacing indirect it is conveyed subordinate clause with union what.
b) If direct speech is an incentive sentence (expresses an incentive, request, order) and the predicate in it is expressed by a verb in an imperative mood, then when replacing indirect speechit is conveyed by the subjunctive explanatory sentence with the union to.
Thus, this, apparently, explains two types of effects of successful illusions in the sense of Austin: the effect is interpreted as communicative success and the consequence of the understanding that it is included in the normative state of things. The concept of illocution as an institutional act suffers from several difficulties, at least two of which deal with fundamental issues. In the first difficulty, Harnish notes in “Obligations and Speeches of Acts”: in contrast to propositional relations - beliefs, desires and intentions - obligations and rights of subjects “ high orderTherefore, the concept of acts of institutions is difficult to expect a naturalistic theory of reduction of speech acts Towards a theory that describes a more fundamental order of reality.
Direct speech, in which the predicate is expressed in the form of the imperative mood of the verb, can also be conveyed and simple sentence with addition in indefinite form.
c) If direct speech is an interrogative sentence, then when replacing indirect it is conveyed by a complex sentence with a clause with a particle whetheror using allied words which, what, what, where, where, howetc. (Such constructions are called indirect questions;after an indirect question question mark not set.)
According to Harnish, this observation speaks in favor of the concept of communicative illocutionary acts, on the basis of which the theory of propositional relations is interpreted as the naturalistic basis of the theory of speech acts. The second difficulty concerns the concept of institutional speech acts, since it can be regarded as an explanation of Austin's idea of \u200b\u200bthe essentially conditional nature of the needle-shaped act. Proponents of the concept of institutional illocution may conclude that the above difficulties are obvious. The notion of the nature of speech acts mentioned above does not take into account the third influence attributed to Austin's idolatry.
2. When replacing direct speech indirect personal and possessive pronouns, as well as personal forms of verbs are transmitted on behalf of the author, narrator, and not from the person whose speech is transmitted.
3. Available in direct speech, interjections, particles, when replacing it indirectly are omitted. Their meanings can sometimes only be conveyed in other words, more or less close to them in meaning. In this case, an approximate retelling of direct speech is obtained (only the content is transmitted, and not the form of direct speech).
A successful act of illusion is appropriately accepted by the recipient, changes the regulatory position of the broadcaster and receiver, and creates, by agreement, the opportunity for a specific response or continuation of a specific form of interaction between the sender and the receiver. Bach and Harnish, the authors of the most developed version of the communication concept of illocutionary acts, argue that a successful illusion is a statement accompanied by an intention to produce an effect; The fulfillment of this intention is based on its recognition, that is, on an understanding of the power and meaning of the speech adopted.
Not all direct speech is easy to turn into indirect. Direct speech, saturated with interjections, introductory words, appeals and characteristic of spoken language words not replaceable indirect speech. For example: 1) With despair, Marya Vasilievna just threw up her hands and said: “Ah, Semyon, Semyon! What are you, right! .. ”(A. Chekhov).2) "Ugh you abyss!- he muttered [Yermolai], spitting in the water.- What an opportunity! And all of you, damn old! ”- he added with a heart ... (I. Turgenev).
According to Bach and Harnish, the power of illocating a communication act is not generally accepted or normative, but is transmitted: it depends on the type of statement expressed in his speech by the television company. According to Searle, the force of the act, therefore, is simultaneously transmitted, conditional and normative: it depends both on the sender's intention and on the rules that he applies to the normative consequences of this act. However, respondents avoid referring to the effect, i.e. create the usual opportunity for a specific perlocal effect.
The fact is that Bach, Harnish and Searle agree with the principle that illocutionary power should not be characterized by the category of perlocal dimension of linguistic interaction. According to the concept of illocusia as an act of interaction, the strength of speech acts depends on the type effect. The effect is conditional. Its conventions should be disclosed using the category of models of interaction with the language. These patterns are inherent in nature, because in each of these two elements we can distinguish: the action of the sender and the response of the recipient.