iron age an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. The idea of three centuries: stone, bronze and iron - arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Car). The term "J. v." was introduced into science around the middle of the 19th century. Danish archaeologist K. Yu. Thomsen om. The most important studies, the initial classification and dating of the monuments of Zh. in Western Europe they were made by the Austrian scientist M. Görnes, Swedish - O. Montelius and O. Oberg, German - O. Tischler and P. Reinecke, French - J. Deshelet, Czech - I. Pich and Polish - J. Kostshevsky; in Eastern Europe - Russian and Soviet scientists V. A. Gorodtsov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gotye, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, H. A. Moora, M. I. Artamonov, B. N. Grakov and others; in Siberia, by S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko, and others; in the Caucasus, by B. A. Kuftin, A. A. Jessen, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov, and others; in Central Asia - S. P. Tolstov, A. N. Bernshtam, A. I. Terenozhkin and others. The period of the initial spread of the iron industry was experienced by all countries at different times, but by the Zh. Usually, only the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of ancient slave-owning civilizations that arose in the Eneolithic and Bronze Ages (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China, etc.) are usually attributed. J. c. compared with previous archaeological epochs (Stone and Bronze Ages) is very short. Its chronological boundaries: from the 9th-7th centuries. BC e., when many primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and until the time when a class society and state arose among these tribes. Some modern foreign scholars, who consider the time of the appearance of written sources to be the end of primitive history, attribute the end of the Zh. Western Europe to 1 century. BC e., when Roman written sources appear containing information about Western European tribes. Since iron still remains the most important metal from whose alloys tools are made, the term “early iron age” is also used for the archaeological periodization of primitive history. On the territory of Western Europe, early Zh. only its beginning is called (the so-called Hallstatt culture). Initially, meteoric iron became known to mankind. Separate items made of iron (mainly jewelry) 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. A method for obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. e. According to one of the most probable assumptions, the cheese-making process (see below) was first used by the tribes subordinate to the Hittites who lived in the mountains of Armenia (Antitaur) in the 15th century. BC e. However, long time iron remained a rare and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th c. BC e. rather extensive production of iron weapons and tools began in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, and India. At the same time iron becomes known in the south of Europe. In the 11th-10th centuries. BC e. individual iron objects penetrate into the area lying to the north of the Alps, are found in the steppes of the south of the European part modern territory USSR, but iron tools begin to predominate in these areas only from the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. In the 8th c. BC e. iron products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran and somewhat later in Central Asia. The first news about iron in China dates back to the 8th century. BC e., but it spreads only from the 5th c. BC e. In Indochina and Indonesia, iron prevails at the turn of our era. Apparently, from ancient times iron metallurgy was known to various African tribes. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th c. BC e. iron was produced in Nubia, Sudan, Libya. In the 2nd century BC e. J. c. arrived in central Africa. Some African tribes moved from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia, and most of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, iron (except meteoric iron) became known only in the 16th and 17th centuries. n. e. with the advent of Europeans in these areas. In contrast to the relatively rare deposits of copper and especially tin, iron ores, however, most often low-grade (brown iron ore), are found almost everywhere. But getting iron from ores is much more difficult than copper. The smelting of iron was beyond the reach of ancient metallurgists. Iron was obtained in a pasty state using a cheese-blowing process (See Cheese-blowing process) ,
which consisted in the reduction of iron ore at a temperature of about 900-1350 ° C in special furnaces - forges with air blown by bellows through a nozzle. At the bottom of the furnace, a cry was formed - a lump of porous iron weighing 1-5 kg, which had to be forged for compaction, as well as removal of slag from it. Raw iron is a very soft metal; tools and weapons made of pure iron had low mechanical qualities. Only with the discovery in the 9th-7th centuries. BC e. methods of manufacturing steel from iron and its heat treatment, the wide distribution of the new material begins. The higher mechanical qualities of iron and steel, as well as the general availability of iron ores and the cheapness of the new metal, ensured the displacement of bronze, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools and in bronze age. It didn't happen right away. In Europe, only in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron and steel began to play a really significant role as a material for the manufacture of tools and weapons. The technological revolution caused by the spread of iron and steel greatly expanded man's power over nature: it became possible to clear large forest areas for crops, expand and improve irrigation and reclamation facilities, and improve land cultivation in general. The development of crafts, especially blacksmithing and weapons, is accelerating. Woodworking is being improved for the purposes of house-building, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), and the manufacture of various utensils. Artisans, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received better tools. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of handicraft and agricultural. hand tools (except for screws and articulated scissors), used in the Middle Ages, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads was facilitated, improved military equipment, the exchange expanded, the metal coin spread as a means of circulation. The development of productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time, led to the transformation of the entire social life. As a result of the growth of labor productivity, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic prerequisite for the emergence of the exploitation of man by man, the collapse of the tribal primitive communal system. One of the sources of the accumulation of values and the growth of property inequality was the expanding in the era of Zh. century. exchange. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of robbery and enslavement. At the beginning of the Zh. fortifications spread widely. In the era of Zh. the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system, were on the eve of the emergence of class society and the state. The transition of certain means of production into the private ownership of the ruling minority, the emergence of slave ownership, the increased stratification of society, and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already features typical of early class societies. For many tribes, the social structure of this transitional period took the political form of the so-called. military democracy (See military democracy).
J. c. on the territory of the USSR. On the modern territory of the USSR, iron first appeared at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Transcaucasia (Samtavr burial ground) and in the south of the European part of the USSR. The development of iron in Racha (Western Georgia) dates back to ancient times. The Mossinois and Khalibs, who lived next to the Colchians, were famous as metallurgists. However, the widespread use of iron metallurgy on the territory of the USSR dates back to the 1st millennium BC. e. In Transcaucasia, a number of archaeological cultures of the late Bronze Age are known, the flowering of which dates back to the early Zh. century: the Central Transcaucasian culture with local centers in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Kyzyl-Vank culture (see Kyzyl-Vank),
Colchis culture ,
Urartian culture (see Urartu). In the North Caucasus: Koban culture, Kayakent-Khorochoev culture
and Kuban culture. In the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region in the 7th century. BC e. - the first centuries A.D. e. inhabited by the Scythian tribes, who created the most developed culture of the early Zh. century. on the territory of the USSR. Iron products were found in abundance in the settlements and mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical production were found during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest number of remnants of iron-working and blacksmithing was found at the Kamenskoe settlement (See Kamenskoe settlement) (5-3 centuries BC) near Nikopol, which was apparently the center of a specialized metallurgical region of ancient Scythia (see Scythians). Iron tools contributed to the wide development of various crafts and the spread of plowed agriculture among the local tribes of the Scythian time. The next after the Scythian period of the early Zh. in the steppes of the Black Sea region, it is represented by the Sarmatian culture (see Sarmatians), which dominated here from the 2nd century. BC e. up to 4 c. n. e. In the previous period from the 7th c. BC e. Sarmatians (or Savromats) lived between the Don and the Urals. In the first centuries A.D. e. one of the Sarmatian tribes - Alans -
began to play a significant historical role and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name of the Alans. By the same time, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the Northern Black Sea region, the cultures of the “burial fields” (Zarubinetskaya culture, Chernyakhovskaya culture, etc.) spread in the western regions of the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper and Transnistria belong. These cultures belonged to agricultural tribes who knew the metallurgy of iron, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors of the Slavs. The tribes living in the central and northern forest regions of the European part of the USSR were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. In the 8-3 centuries. BC e. in the Kama region, the Ananya culture was widespread, which is characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. The Ananyino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pyanobor culture (late 1st millennium BC - 1st half of the 1st millennium AD). In the Upper Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve to Zh. century. include settlements of the Dyakovo culture (mid-1st millennium BC–mid-1st millennium AD), and on the territory to the south of the middle reaches of the Oka, to the west of Volga, in the basin of the river. Tsna and Moksha are settlements of the Gorodets culture (See. Gorodetskaya culture) (7th century BC - 5th century AD), which belonged to the ancient Finno-Ugric tribes. Numerous settlements of the 6th century BC are known in the region of the Upper Dnieper. BC e. - 7th c. n. e., which belonged to the ancient East Baltic tribes, later absorbed by the Slavs. The settlements of the same tribes are known in the southeastern Baltic, where, along with them, there are also the remains of a culture that belonged to the ancestors of the ancient Estonian (Chud) tribes. In Southern Siberia and Altai, due to the abundance of copper and tin, the bronze industry developed strongly, for a long time successfully compete with iron. Although iron products, apparently, appeared already in the early Mayemir time (Altai; 7th century BC), iron was widely distributed only in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. (Tagar culture on the Yenisei, Pazyryk barrows in Altai, etc.). Cultures Zh. v. are also represented in other parts of Siberia and the Far East. On the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan until the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. tools and weapons were also made of bronze. The appearance of iron products both in agricultural oases and in the cattle-breeding steppe can be attributed to the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. Throughout the 1st millennium BC. e. and in the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD. e. the steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan were inhabited by numerous Sako-Usun tribes, in whose culture iron became widespread from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. In the agricultural oases, the time of the appearance of iron coincides with the emergence of the first slave-owning states (Bactria, Sogd, Khorezm). J. c. on the territory of Western Europe, it is usually divided into 2 periods - the Hallstatt (900-400 BC), which was also called the early, or first Zh. v., and La Tene (400 BC - the beginning of AD) , which is called late, or second. The Hallstatt culture was spread on the territory of modern Austria, Yugoslavia, Northern Italy, partly Czechoslovakia, where it was created by the ancient Illyrians, and on the territory of modern Germany and the Rhine departments of France, where the Celtic tribes lived. The same time includes cultures close to the Hallstatt: the Thracian tribes in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, the Etruscan, Ligurian, Italic, and other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula; the cultures of the early Zh. century. Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Turdetans, Lusitans, etc.) and the late Lusatian culture in the basins of the river. Oder and Vistula. The early Hallstatt period is characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools and weapons and the gradual displacement of bronze. Economically, this era is characterized by the growth of agriculture, socially - by the collapse of tribal relations. The Bronze Age still existed at that time in the north of present-day East Germany and West Germany, in Scandinavia, Western France, and England. From the beginning of the 5th c. the La Tène culture is spreading, characterized by a genuine flourishing of the iron industry. The La Tène culture existed before the conquest of Gaul by the Romans (1st century BC); Atlantic Ocean along the middle course of the Danube and north of it. La Tène culture is associated with the tribes of the Celts, who had large fortified cities, which were the centers of the tribes and places of concentration of various crafts. In this era, the Celts gradually created a class slave society. Bronze tools are no longer found, but iron became most widespread in Europe during the period of the Roman conquests. At the beginning of our era, in the areas conquered by Rome, the La Tene culture was replaced by the so-called. provincial Roman culture. Iron spread to the north of Europe almost 300 years later than to the south. By the end of the Zh. refers to the culture of the Germanic tribes that lived in the territory between North Sea and rr. Rhine, Danube and Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and archaeological cultures, the carriers of which are considered the ancestors of the Slavs. In the northern countries, the complete dominance of iron came only at the beginning of our era. Lit.: F. Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 21; Avdusin D. A., Archeology of the USSR, [M.], 1967; Artsikhovsky A. V., Introduction to archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1947; World History, vol. 1-2, M., 1955-56; Gotye Yu. V., Iron Age in Eastern Europe, M. - L., 1930; Grakov B.N., The oldest finds of iron things in the European part of the USSR, "Soviet archeology", 1958, No. 4; Zagorulsky E. M., Archeology of Belarus, Minsk, 1965; History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day, vol. 1, M., 1966; Kiselev S.V., Ancient history of Southern Siberia, Moscow, 1951; Clark D. G. D., Prehistoric Europe. Economic essay, trans. from English, M., 1953; Krupnov E.I., Ancient history North Caucasus, M., 1960; Mongait A. L., Archeology in the USSR, M., 1955; Niederle L., Slavic Antiquities, trans. from Czech., M., 1956; Piotrovsky B. B., Archeology of Transcaucasia from ancient times to 1 thousand BC. e., L., 1949; Tolstov S. P., According to the ancient deltas of the Oks and Yaksart, M., 1962; Shovkoplyas I. G., Archaeological records in Ukraine (1917-1957), K., 1957; Aitchison L., A history of metals, t. 1-2, L., 1960; CLark G., World prehistory, Camb., 1961; Forbes R.J., Studies in ancient technology, v. 8, Leiden, 1964; Johannsen O., Geschichte des Eisens, Düsseldorf, 1953; Laet S. J. de, La prehistoire de l'Europe, P. - Brux., 1967; Moora H., Die Eisenzeit in Lettland bis etwa 500 n. Chr., 1-2, Tartu (Dorpat), 1929-38; Piggott S., Ancient Europe, Edinburgh, 1965; Pleiner R., Staré europské kovářství, Praha, 1962; Tulecote R. F., Metallurgy in archaeology, L., 1962. L. L. Mongait.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
See what the "Iron Age" is in other dictionaries:
IRON AGE, a period in the development of mankind associated with the development of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Replaced the Bronze Age, and in some regions the Stone Age. In the North Caucasus, iron tools were created from the 9th to 6th centuries. BC e. under ... ... Russian history
IRON AGE, a historical period that began with the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools and weapons. Replaced the Bronze Age at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC ... Modern Encyclopedia
The era of human history, distinguished on the basis of archeological data and characterized by the leading role of iron products and its derivatives.
How right-vi-lo, J. v. came-ho-dil to replace the armor-zo-in-mu-ve-ku. Na-cha-lo Zh. v. in different regions from-but-sit-sya to different-time-me-no, moreover, yes-ti-ditch-ki of this pro-cess near-approx zi-tel-ny. For-ka-for-te-lem of the beginning of Zh. c. yav-la-et-sya regular use of ore-no-go-zhe-le-za for from-go-to-le-of tools and weapons, dis-pro-stra -non-black metal-lur-gy and kuz-nech-no-go de la; mass-co-use of the iron-iron-ny from de-li oz-on-cha-et a special stage of development already within the framework of Zh. v., in not -something-ryh cul-tu-rah from de-lyon-ny from na-cha-la Zh.v. not-how-ki-mi-hundred-le-tiya-mi. The end of Zh. not-rarely count on-stu-p-le-tion of tech-no-logic. epoch, associated with prom. pe-re-in-ro-tom, or pro-dle-va-yut it to the present.
Shi-ro-something out-dre-zhe-le-for ob-slo-vi-lo the possibility of pro-from-va mass series of tools of labor-yes, which from- ra-zi-elk on the improvement and further races-pro-country of the earth-le-de-lia (especially ben-but in the forest regions, on heavy for about-ra-bot-ki soil-wah, etc.), progress in construction. de-le, re-myo-slah (in part-st-no-sti, po-vy-li-pi-ly, na-pil-ni-ki, shar-nir-nye in-st-ru-men-you etc.), to-by-che metal-loving and other raw materials, from-go-to-le-nii wheel-no-go transport, etc. Raz-vi- tie pro-from-water-st-va and trans-port-that led to the race-shi-re-niyu trade-whether, in-yav-le-niyu mo-no-you. Use-pol-zo-va-nie mas-so-in-go-lez-no-go voo-ru-zhe-niya su-shche-st-ven-but said-for-moose on pro-gres-se in military de le. In many societies, all this is a way of diversifying the first-in-life-from-but-she-ni, arising-nick- but-ve-niyu go-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, include-che-niu in the circle of qi-vi-li-za-tsy, the oldest of some of them are many th older J. c. and did they have a level of development, pre-elevating, many others. general-st-va per-rio-yes-lez-no-go-ve-ka.
Raz-whether-cha-yut early and late Zh. c. For many cultural tour, pre-zh-de of all-ev-ro-pey-skih, gra-ni-tsu me-zh-du ni-mi, like right-vi-lo, from-no-syat to the era the crash of an-tich-noy qi-vi-li-za-tion and on-stu-p-le-niya Sred-ne-ve-ko-vya; a series of ar-heo-lo-gov co-from-no-sit fi-nal ran-not-go J. v. with the beginning of the influence of Rome. cul-tu-ry on pl. on-ro-dy Ev-ro-py in the 1st century. BC e. - 1 in. n. e. In addition to that, different regions have their own internal. per-rio-di-za-tion iron-lez-no-go-ve-ka.
Understanding “J. v." use-pol-zu-et-sya pre-zh-de everything for the study of the first-in-everyday-societies. Processes connected with the sta-nov-le-ni-em and the development of the go-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, for-mi-ro-va -no-eat modern. on-ro-dov, as right-vi-lo, ras-smat-ri-va-yut is not so much within the framework of ar-heo-logich. cultural tour and "centuries", how many in the context of is-to-rii co-from-vet-st-vu-ing states and ethno-owls. Namely, but with them co-from-but-syat-sya pl. ar-heo-logic. cul-tu-ry of the late J. c.
Ras-pro-country-non-black metal-lur-gy and metal-lo-ob-ra-bot-ki. The most ancient center of metal-lur-gyi zhe-le-za was the region of Lesser Asia, East. Middle-di-earth-but-sea, Za-kav-ka-zya (2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC). Swi-de-tel-st-va about shi-ro-com is-pol-zo-va-nii same-le-for-yav-la-yut-sya in texts from ser. 2nd millennium. -right-ke-ko-slave-la, on-gru-women-but-go-le-zom (late 14th - early 13th centuries). Means. the number of iron-lez-nyh from de-ly nay-de-but on ar-heo-logic. pa-myat-ni-kah 14-12 centuries But in the Hittite kingdom, steel from the West in Pa-le-sti-not from the 12th century, in Cyprus from the 10th century. One of the ancient-shih-na-ho-dok met-tal-lur-gi-che-so-gor-na from-no-sit-sya to ru-be-zhu on the 2nd and 1st thous. -le-ta. On the rub-be-same 2 - 1st thousand. on-stu-drank in Me-so-po-ta-miya and Iran; so, during the digging of the palace of Sar-go-on II in Khor-sa-ba-de (4th quarter of the 8th century) about-on-ru-same-but ca. 160 t same-le-za, in the main. in the form of krits (ve-ro-yat-no, tribute from sub-authority ter-ri-to-ry). Possibly, from Iran to the beginning. 1st millennium black metal-lur-giya raced to India (where on-cha-lo shi-ro-ko-go is-pol-zo-va- niya zhe-le-za from-no-syat to the 8th or 7/6th centuries), in the 8th century. - on Wednesday. Asia. In the steppes of Asia, the same-le-zo in-lu-chi-lo shi-ro-some race-pro-country not earlier than 6/5 centuries.
Through the Greek. the city-ro-yes of Lesser Asia iron-lezo-de-la-tel-nye-on-you-ki races-pro-country-ni-lis in con. 2nd millennium to the Aegean Islands and approx. 10th c. to mainland Greece, where from this time on, there are var-nye kri-tsy, iron swords in gre-be-ni-yah. In Zap. and Center. Ev-ro-pe Zh. v. on-stu-drank in the 8th-7th centuries, in the South-West. Ev-ro-pe - in the 7th-6th centuries, in Bri-ta-nii - in the 5-4th centuries, in Scan-di-na-wii - fak-ti-che-ski in ru-be-same er .
All in. Near-black-but-sea-rye, to the North. Kav-ka-ze and in the south-but-ta-ezh-nom Vol-go-Ka-mye per-ri-od per-vich-no-go os-voi-niya same-le-for-ver-shil -Xia in the 9th-8th centuries; on-a-row with things, from-go-tov-len-ny-mi in the me-st-tra-di-tion, here from the West from de-lia, created-dan -nye in the trans-Caucasian-Kaz-s-tra-di-tion became-whether (ce-men-ta-tion). Na-cha-lo so-st-ven-but Zh.v. in the indicated and used-py-tav-shih their influence in the regions of the East. Ev-ro-py from-no-syat to 8-7 centuries. Then su-shche-st-ven-but you-grew-lo-liche-st-in-iron-th-me-ths, we receive them from-go-to-le-of- ha-ti-lis on-you-ka-mi for-mo-voch-noy co-ki (with the help of special press-press-ni-kov and stamps), weld-ki vna-whip and me-to-house pa-ke-ti-ro-va-nia. On Ura-le and in C-bi-ri Zh. v. earlier than everything (by the middle of the 1st millennium BC) on-stepped in the steppe, forest-steppe and mountain-forest regions. In the tay-ge and on the Far East Vos-to-ke and in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e. fak-ti-che-ski continued the Bronze Age, but on-se-le-nie was closely connected with the cul-tu-ra-mi Zh. v. (except for northern tea. part of tai-gi and tun-d-ru).
In China, the development of black metal-lur-gy went separately. Because of you-so-tea-she-th level of bron-zo-li-tei-no-go pro-from-water-st-va J. v. started here not earlier than ser. 1st millennium BC e., although ore-noe-le-zo would-lo from-west-but long before that. Whale. mas-te-ra per-you-mi na-cha-whether tse-le-on-right-len-but pro-from-to-dit chu-gun and, using it, easy-to-float- bone, from-go-to-la-li pl. from de-liya not co-coy, but pour-eat. In Ki-tai, rise-nick-la prak-ti-ka you-ra-bot-ki of co-ko-go-le-za from chu-gu-on the way reduce-the-same-niya so-der -niya corner-le-ro-yes. In Korea Zh. on-step-drank in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e., in Japan - approx. 3-2 centuries, in Ying-do-ki-tai and Ying-do-ne-zii - to ru-be-zhu er or a little later.
In Af-ri-ke Zh. v. earlier than all-go mustache-ta-no-vil-sya in the Middle-di-earth-but-sea (by the 6th century). All R. 1st millennium BC e. he began on the territory of Nu-bii and Su-da-na, in a number of districts of the Zap. Af-ri-ki; in East-precise-noy - on ru-be-same er; in the South - closer to the middle. 1st millennium AD e. In a number of districts of Af-ri-ki, in Amer-ri-ke, Av-st-ra-lea and on the islands of Ti-ho-go, approx. J. c. on-stu-drank with the arrival of the ev-ro-pey-tsev.
The most important cul-tu-ry ran-not-go-lez-no-go-ve-ka for pre-de-la-mi qi-vi-li-za-tsy
Following the st-vie of the shi-ro-koi race-pro-country-nen-no-sti and compare-no-tel-noy-no-no-no-no-ko-sti of the development of iron ores bronze -li-tey-nye centers-try in step-pen-but ut-ra-chi-va-li mo-no-po-lyu on pro-from-in-metal-la. Many earlier regions from the old regions became-whether to-know according to tech-no-logic. and so-qi-al-no-eco-no-mich. level-nu old cultural centers. Co-from-vet-st-ven-but from-me-no-moose paradise-they-ro-va-nie oh-ku-me-ny. If for the era of early-not-go-metal-la, an important cultural-tu-ro-ob-razu-ing fact-rum would be belonging to metal -lur-gi-che-sky province or to the zone of its influence, then in Zh. in the for-mi-ro-va-nii cul-tur-no-is-to-rich. in general, the role of et-no-y-zy-ko-vyh, ho-zyay-st-ven-no-kul-tour-nyh and other connections has been strengthened. Shi-ro-some race-pro-country-non-ef-fek-tiv-no-go vo-ru-same-niya from iron -nyu pl. communities in gra-bi-tel-skie and for-grab-nich. howl-us, co-pro-in-g-give-mas-so-you-mi mi-gra-tion-mi. All this led to the card-di-nal-ny from-me-not-no-pits of et-but-cultural-tour-noy and military-en.-po-li-tich. pa-no-ra-we.
In a number of cases, on the basis of the data of lin-gwis-ti-ki and letters. is-toch-no-kov can-but talk about do-mi-ni-ro-va-nia within the framework of op-re-de-lyon-ny cul-tours-but-is-to- rich. general-no-stey J. in. one or a group of people close in language, sometimes even linking a group of ar-heo-logich. pa-myat-ni-kov with a concrete-ny on-ro-house. One-to-one written sources for many others. re-gio-new are scarce or from-sut-st-vu-yut, yes-le-ko, not for all communities it is possible to get data, I-let-ly- co-from-not-sti them with the lin-gvis-ti-che-class-si-fi-ka-qi-her na-ro-dov. It should be borne in mind that but-si-te-li pl. languages, maybe, yes, whole families of languages, not os-ta-vi-whether direct their from-no-she-nie to the well-known et-but-I-zy-ko-y-you general-no-ties gi-po-te-tich-but.
Southern, Western, Central Europe and the south of the Baltic region. After the collapse of the Cri-to-Mi-Ken-sky qi-vi-li-za-tion, the beginning of the Zh. century. in Ancient Greece coincided with the temporary decline of the "dark ages". Subsequently, shi-ro-something out-dre-nie-le-for-s-s-s-in-va-lo but-in-mu-e-mu-e-mu eco-no-mi-ki and society, with -leading to the for-mi-ro-va-niyu an-tich-noy qi-vi-li-za-tion. On the territory of Italy for na-cha-la Zh. v. you de la ut many ar-heo-lo-gich. cul-tu-ry (not-some-rye of them sfor-mi-ro-va-lis in the bronze ve-ke): on the se-ve-ro-for-pas-de - Go- la-sec-ka, co-from-no-si-muyu with a part of li-gu-ditch; on average those-che-nii river. By - Ter-ra-mar, on the se-ve-ro-vos-to-ke - Es-te, co-post-tav-lyae-muyu with ve-not-that-mi; all in. and center. parts of the Apen-nin-sko-th peninsula - Vil-la-no-va and others, in Kam-pa-niya and Ka-lab-rii - "pit-nyh in-gre-be-ny" , pa-myat-ni-ki Apu-lii is connected with me-sa-na-mi (near-ki il-li-riy-tsam). In Si-qi-lii from west-na kul-tu-ra Pan-ta-li-ka and others, in Sar-di-nii and Kor-si-ke - nu-rag.
On the Pi-re-nei-sky peninsula, su-sche-st-vo-va-li are large centers of pre-chi-non-ferrous metals, which ob-slo-vi-lo long-term pre-ob-la-da-nie from de-lie from bronze (cult-tu-ra Tar-tess, etc.). In the early Zh. here fik-si-ru-yut-sya are different in ha-rak-te-ru and in-ten-siv-no-sti waves of mi-gra-tsy, they appear-la-yut-sya pa -mint-no-ki, from-ra-zhayu-shchy me-st-nye and priv-not-sen-nye-tra-di-tions. On the basis of these traditions, sfor-mi-ro-va-las was the culture of the ple-men of the Iber-ditch. In the greatest step-pe-neither its-ob-ra-zie tra-di-tsy-stored-elk in the pri-at-lan-ti-che-sky regions (“kul -tu-ra go-ro-disch ", etc.).
For the development of a cultural tour of the Middle-di-earth-but-sea-rya, a strong influence of the eye-for-whether fi-ni-ki-sky and Greek. ko-lo-ni-za-tion, the color of the culture and the ex-pan-sia of et-ru-skov, the second of the cel-ts; later Middle-earth m. became an internal-ren-nim for Rome. im-pe-rii (see Ancient Rome).
On means. hour Zap. and Center. Ev-ro-py re-re-move to J. c. pro-is-ho-dil in the era-hu Gal-state. Gal-shtat-sky cultural-tur-naya region de-lit-Xia on mn. cultural groups and cultural groups. Some of them are in the East. zo-not co-from-no-syat with groups-pa-mi il-li-riy-tsev, in the west - with kel-ta-mi. In one of the regions of the app. zones of sfor-mi-ro-va-las kul-tu-ra La-ten, then ras-pro-country-niv-shay-sya on the big-rum-noy ter-ri-to-rii in ho -de ex-pan-si and the influence of the Celts. Their dos-ti-same-nia in metal-lur-gy and metal-lo-about-ra-bot-ke, for-im-st-in-van-nye sowing. and east. co-se-dya-mi, ob-us-lo-vi-whether the state of iron-lez-nyh from de-ly. Epo-ha La-ten op-re-de-la-et is a special per-ri-od ev-rop. is-to-rii (c. 5-1 centuries BC), its fi-nal is associated with ex-pan-si-her Ri-ma (for ter-ri-to-riy to se- ve-ru from the culture of La-ten this era is still called “pre-Roman”, “early iron-lez-no-go-ka”, etc. P.).
On the Bal-ka-nah, east of the il-li-riy-tsev, and to the north to the Day-st-ra, the culture-tu-ry, ties- vae-mye with fra-ki-tsa-mi (their influence-i-nie dos-ti-ha-lo of the Dnieper, Sev. wa). To designate at the end of the Bronze Age and at the beginning of the Zh. century. the generality of these cultures is used by the term “Fra-Ky-sky Gal-State”. OK. ser. 1st millennium BC e. usi-li-va-et-sya own-ob-ra-zie of the “Fra-ki-sky” cultural tour of the sowing. zones, where warehouses-va-yut-sya ob-e-di-non-niya get-tov, then yes-kov, in the south. zo-not ple-me-on fra-ki-tsev enter-pa-whether in close contacts-so-you with gre-ka-mi, move-gav-shi-mi-sya here-yes group- pa-mi-ski-fov, kel-tov, etc., and then would-whether we-so-di-ne-na to Rome. im-pe-rii.
At the end of the Bron-zo-vo-th century in Yuzh. Scan-di-on-wii and from-part-to-the-south-her fic-si-ru-yut drop-dock culture-tu-ry, and a new rise in connection-zy-wa-yut with race-pro -stra-not-no-eat and shi-ro-kim is-pol-zo-va-ni-eat same-le-za. Many cultures Zh. v. to the se-ve-ru from the cel-ts it is impossible to co-from-not-sti with the well-known groups-pa-mi on-rod-dov; more-more-reliably-but co-posting for-mi-ro-va-niya of the Germans or their significant part from the Yas-torf culture -Roy. To the east-ku from its area-la and the top-ho-viy El-by to the bass-this-on the Vis-la, the passage to Zh.v. pro-is-ho-dil within the framework of the Luzhitsy-koi-cul-tu-ry, at the later stages of the groin-some-swarm-whether-va-elk-of-a-ra-zie lo- calcium groups. On the basis of one of them, there was a formation of mi-ro-va-las in the sea culture-tu-ra, ras-pro-country-niv-shay-sya in the middle. 1st millennium BC e. on a significant part of the Lu-zhits-to-area-la. Closer to the end of the La-ten era in Polish. In the sea, sfor-mi-ro-va-las ok-syv-skaya kul-tu-ra, to the south - pshe-vor-skaya kul-tu-ra. In the new era (within the framework of the 1st-4th centuries AD), according to the best names. “Roman-im-per-sky”, “pro-vin-tsi-al-no-Roman-influences”, etc., to the se-ve-ro-east-to-ku from gra- prostrate Im-pe-rii ve-du-schey with the power of a hundred-but-vyat-sya decomp. unification of the Germans.
From Ma-zur-th Po-lake-rya, part of Ma-zo-via and Pod-lya-shya to the lower-zo-viy Pre-go-whether in La Ten-time you- de la ut so-called. kul-tu-ru zapad-but-Baltic kur-ga-nov. Her co-from-no-she-nie with the next-blowing-mi-cul-tu-rams for a number of re-gio-new disputes. In Rome. time here fic-si-ru-yut-sya cul-tu-ry, connected-zy-vae-my with na-ro-da-mi, from-but-si-we-mi to ball-there, in the number of someone-ryh - ga-lin-dy (see Bo-ga-chev-skaya cul-tu-ra), su-da-you (su-di-ny), es-tii, co- post-tav-lyae-my with sam-biy-sko-na-tan-gskoy kul-tu-swarm, etc., but for-mi-ro-va-nie pain-shin-st-va from-west- nyh na-ro-dov app. and the eastern ones (“le-to-li-tov-sky”) bal-tov from-no-sit-sya already to the 2nd floor. 1st millennium AD e., i.e., late-no-mu-lez-no-mu-ku.
The steppes of Ev-raz-zia, the forest zone and the tun-d-ra of Eastern Europe and Si-bi-ri. To na-cha-lu Zh. v. in the steppe belt of Ev-razia, pro-tya-nuv-shem-sya from Wed. Du-naya to Mon-go-liya, it was ko-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-t-o. Mobility and or-ga-ni-zo-van-ness, along with the mass-co-s-tu of effective-no-go (including iron-lez- but-go) weapons and sleep-rya-zhe-niya, became-whether at-chi-noy in-en.-po-li-tich. signifi-c-mo-sti ob-e-di-non-niy ko-chev-ni-kov, not-rarely ras-pro-country-nav-shih power to neighboring settled ples- me-na and the former-shih-ser-ez-noy-ug-ro-zoy for the state-states from the Middle-di-earth-but-sea-rya to the Far-not-go Vos-to-ka.
in european rap. steppe with ser. or con. 9 to early 7th century BC e. do-mi-ni-ro-va-la commonality, with someone swarm, according to me, a number of research-sle-do-va-te-lei, connected with kim-me- rii-tsy. With her on-ho-di-lissed in a close con-so-those ple-me-on le-so-step-pi (black-no-les-sky cul-tu-ra, bon-da-ri- Khin-skaya kul-tu-ra, etc.).
By the 7th c. BC e. from Pri-du-na-vya to Mont-go-liya sfor-mi-ro-val-sya "ski-fo-si-bir-sky world", within the framework of someone-ro-go you-de -la-yut Scythian ar-heo-lo-gi-che-skuyu kul-tu-ru, sav-ro-mat-skuyu ar-heo-lo-gi-che-skuyu cul-tu-ru, sa- ko-mas-sa-get-sko-go kru-ga cul-tu-ry, pa-zy-ryk-kulk-tu-ru, yuk-kulk-tu-ru, ta-gar cul-tu -ru (single-st-ven-nuyu, so-preserved-niv-shui pro-of-you-so-ko-ka-che-st-vein-bron-zo-out-of-de-ly) and others, in a different step-pe-ni co-from-but-si-my with ski-fa-mi and on-ro-da-mi "ge-ro-to-to-howl" Ski-fii , sav-ro-ma-ta-mi, sa-ka-mi, mas-sa-ge-ta-mi, yuech-zha-mi, usu-nya-mi, etc. Pre-hundred-vi-te-li this community would be pre-im. ev-ro-peo-i-dy, ve-ro-yat-but, it means. some of them go-vo-ri-la in Iranian languages.
In close con-so-those with the "Kim-Me-riy-sky" and "Scythian" common-no-stay-were there a tribe on the Crimea and from-li-chav- neck-sya you-with-kim-level metal-lo-about-ra-bot-ki on-se-le-nie Sev. Kav-ka-za, south-no-ta-hedgehog-no-go Vol-go-Ka-mya (ki-zil-ko-bin-skaya kul-tu-ra, me-ot-skaya ar-heo-lo -gi-che-skaya kul-tu-ra, ko-ban-skaya kul-tu-ra, anan-in-skaya kul-tu-ra). Significantly, the influence of the “Kim-Me-riy-sky” and the Scythian cultural tour on the na-se-le-nie of the Middle and Lower Po-du-na -vya. That's why you-de-lyae-we are "kim-me-ry-sky" (aka "pre-Scythian-sky") and "Scythian" epoch is used-pol-zu-yut-sya when researching, before-va-nii, not only the cul-tour of the steppe.
In the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. in the steppes of Ev-ro-py, Kazah-sta-on and South. For-hurray-lea to replace the Scythian and Sav-ro-ma-tskaya par-ho-dyat Sar-mat-skie ar-heo-lo-gi-che-cult-tu-ry, op-re - de-laying epoch-hu, sub-raz-de-laying-muyu for early, middle, late periods and lasting up to the 4th century. n. e. Means. the influence of the Sar-Mat-sky cultural tours about-follow-zh-va-et-sya on the North. Kav-ka-ze, which from-ra-zha-et both re-re-se-le-nie part of the step-no-go on-se-le-niya, and trans-for-ma-tion under his influence-ni-eat me-st-nyh cultures. Sar-ma-you about-no-ka-li and yes-le-ko in the le-so-steppe regions - from the Dnieper-ro-vya to the North. Kazakh-sta-on, in various forms of con-so-tee-ruya with the local on-se-le-ni-em. Large sta-tsio-nar-nye in-se-le-niya and re-mess-len-nye centers to the east from Wed. Du-naya are connected with sar-ma-ta-mi Al-fol-da. From-hour-to-continuing tra-di-tion of the pre-she-st-vuyu-schey epoch, in the mean-chit. step-pe-ni sar-ma-ti-zi-ro-van-naya and el-li-ni-zi-ro-van-naya, the so-called. late-Scythian kul-tu-ra was preserved in the lower-calls of the Dnieper and in the Crimea, where the kingdom arose with a hundred tsey in Ne-apo-le Scythian, part of the Scythians, according to the letters. is-toch-no-kam, skon-tsen-tri-ro-va-las on the Lower Danube; to the “late-non-Scythian” a number of studies-before-va-te-lei from-no-syat and some-some groups of pa-myat-nik-kov east.-ev- rop le-so-step-pi.
To the Center. Asia and South. C-bi-ri end of the era "ski-fo-si-beer-sko-go mi-ra" is associated with the rise-higher-ni-em volume-e-di-ne-niya hun - well, in the con. 3 in. BC e. under Mao-du-ne. Ho-tya in ser. 1 in. BC e. it dis-pas-moose, south. hun-nu-pa-li in or-bi-tu kit. influence, and sowing. hun-well, would windows-cha-tel-but once-thunder-le-na to ser. 2 in. n. e., the "Xiongnu" era-hu pro-dle-va-yut to ser. 1st millennium AD e. Pa-myat-ni-ki, co-from-but-si-mye with xion-nu (hun-nu), from-west-na to mean-chit. part of Za-bai-ka-lya (for example, Ivol-gin-sky ar-heo-lo-gi-che complex, Il-mo-vaya pad), Mon-go-li, steppe Noah Man-chzhu-rii and wi-de-tel-st-vu-yut about the complex eth-no-cultural-tour co-hundred-ve of this association. On-row-du with pro-nick-but-ve-ni-em hun-nu, in the South. C-bi-ri continued the development of local traditions [in Tu-ve - noise-rak-skul-tu-ra, in Kha-ka-si - Te-sin-sky type (or stage) and Tash-tyk-skaya culture, etc.]. Eth-nothing and in-en.-po-li-tich. is-th-riya Center. Asia in Zh. v. in many ways based on the sve-de-no-yah whale. letters. is-point-no-kov. You can follow the same movement of one or more volumes of e-di-no-ko-chev-ni-kov, dis-pro-country -shih power over vast expanses of countries, their disintegration, absorption of the next-blowing-mi, etc. (dun-hu, tab-ga- chi, zhu-zha-not, etc.). The complexity of the composition of a hundred of these volumes is e-di-non-ny, the weak study of a number of regions of the Center. Asia, labor-no-sti da-ti-rov-ki, etc. de-la-yut their comparison with ar-heo-logic. pa-myat-no-ka-mi very gi-po-te-tich-ny-mi.
The next epoch of the is-to-rii of the steppes of Asia and Europe is connected with do-mi-ni-ro-va-ni-em but-si-te-ley Turk -skih languages, about-ra-zo-va-ni-em Türk-ko-go ka-ga-na-ta, replacing his other Middle Ages. in-en.-po-li-tich. ob-e-di-non-ny and state-su-darstvo.
Culture-tu-ry settled-lo-go on-se-le-niya le-so-step-pi Vost. Ev-ro-py, Ura-la, Si-bi-ri not-rarely enters-di-whether in “ski-fo-si-bir-sky”, “sar-mat-sky”, “hun-sky "" "worlds", but could it make up cultural communities with the forest-we-ple-me-na-mi or about-ra-zo-you-va-li own. cultural regions.
In the forest zone of the Upper-no-go Po-no-ma-nya and Pod-vi-nya, Po-dnepr-ro-vya and Po-ochya tradition of bron-zo-vo-go -ka pro-dol-zha-la stroke-ho-van-noy ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tu-ra, on the basis of-no-ve pre-im. local cultures were formed by the Dnieper-ro-Dvin-skaya cul-tu-ra, Dyakovskaya cul-tu-ra. At the early stages of their development, the same-le-zo ho-cha and it was-lo-ra-pro-country-not-but, but did not become-lo-mi-ni-ruyu-schim raw materials -eat; pa-myat-no-ki of this circle-ha ar-heo-lo-gi according to the mass-co-you-on-the-walk-kams of the kos-ty-nyh from de-ly on the main. object-ek-tah ras-ko-pok - go-ro-di-shah ha-rak-te-ri-zo-wa-li as “kos-te-nos-nye go-ro-di-sha”. Mas-co-use-pol-zo-va-nie is the same-le-for here on-chi-on-et-xia ok. con. 1st millennium BC e., when they pro-is-ho-dyat from-me-not-niya and in other areas of culture, from-me-cha-yut-sya mi-grace. In this way, for example, in from-no-she-nii kul-tour shtri-ho-van-noy ke-ra-mi-ki and dia-kov-is-sle-do-va-te- do you de-la-yut as different about-ra-zo-va-niya co-from-vet-st-vu-shchy "early" and "late" cultures.
According to the pro-is-ho-zh-de-nia and ob-li-ku of the early dia-kov-kul-tu-re near the pri-we-kav-shay from the east-ka-go-ro -dets-kaya kul-tu-ra. To the ru-be-zhu er pro-is-ho-dit su-sche-st-ven-noe race-shi-re-nie of its area to the south and north, to those regions in re-whose Vet-lu-gi. Eye-lo ru-be-zha er in her are-al about-mov-ga-et-sya on-se-le-nie because of the Volga; from Su-ra to rya-zan-sko-go Po-ochi for-mi-ru-ut-sya cultural groups associated with tra-di-qi-ey An-d- re-ev-sko-go chicken-ha-on. On their foundations, cul-tu-ry of the late Zh. -kov.
South the zone of the forest-no-go Po-Dnep-ro-vya for-ni-ma-li mi-lo-grad-skaya cul-tu-ra and Yukh-novskaya cul-tu-ra, in which trace-va- et-sya means. the influence of the Scythian culture and La-te-na. Several waves of mi-graces from the Vist-lo-Oder-region-on led to the appearance on Vo-ly-no in the sea and psh-vor- skoy cultural tour, for-mi-ro-va-niyu on the b. part of the south of the forest-no-go and le-so-step-no-go Po-dnep-ro-vya for-ru-bi-nets-koy kul-tu-ry. Her, on-a-row with Ok-Ksyv-skaya, Pshe-Vor-Skoy, Poya-Nesh-ti-lu-Ka-shev-Kul-tu-swarm, you-de-la-yut in the circle "la -te-ni-zi-ro-van-nyh ”, from me-tea, the special influence of the La-ten culture. In the 1st century n. e. for-ru-bi-nets-kaya kul-tu-ra ne-re-zhi-la dis-pad, but on the basis of its traditions, with the participation of more sowing. on-se-le-niya, for-mi-ru-yut-sya pa-myat-no-ki late-not-for-ru-bi-net-go-go-ri-zon-ta, lay down in the OS-no-woo of the Kiev culture-tu-ry, op-re-de-lyav-shey cultural appearance of the forest-no-go and part of the le-so-step-no th Po-Dnep-ro-vya in the 3rd-4th centuries. n. e. On the basis of the Vo-Lyn-sky pa-myat-ni-kov of the Pshe-Vor-kul-tu-ry in the 1st century. n. e. for-mi-ru-et-sya tooth-retz-kay kul-tu-ra. With cul-tu-ra-mi, re-taking-shi-mi com-po-nen-you in a maritime cul-tu-ry, pre-zh-de everything according to the so-called. for-ru-bi-net-coi-lines, explore-follow-to-va-te-whether connections-zy-va-yut for-mi-ro-va-nie slav-vyan.
All R. 3 in. n. e. from the Lower Danube to the Northern Don, there was a black-nya-khov-ska cul-tu-ra, in what is the significant role of the play-ra- la vel-bar-sky kul-tu-ra, ras-pro-stra-non-nie-some-swarm to the south-east is connected with mi-gra-tsiya-mi go-tov and ge -pi-dov. The collapse of society-in-li-tich. structures-tour, correlated with the black-nya-khov-sky kul-tu-swarm, under the blow-ra-mi of the gunns in the con. 4th c. n. e. signified on-cha-lo a new-howl of the epoch in the history of Ev-ro-py - We-whether-to-re-re-se-le-niya on-ro-dov.
On the se-ve-ro-east-to-ke Ev-ro-py na-cha-lo Zh.v. connection-for-but with Anan-in-sky kul-tu-r-but-historical. area. On the territory of the north-west. Russia and parts of Finland-land-dia races-pro-countries of culture-tu-ry, in some com-po-nen-you anan-in-sky and tech-style- noy ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tour pe-re-ple-ta-yut-sya with me-st-ny-mi (luu-kon-sa-ri-ku-do-ma, late car- go-pol-sky cul-tu-ra, late-not-white-lo-sea, etc.). In the basins of the rivers Pe-cho-ry, You-che-gdy, Me-ze-ni, Sev. Move-we-yav-la-yut-sya pa-myat-ni-ki, in ke-ra-mi-ke some-ryh-long-did-moose development-vi-tie gre-ben-cha -that or-on-men-tal-noy tra-di-tion, connected with the Le-byazh-sky kul-tu-swarm, while the new ornamental mo-ti- you testify to mutually-mo-de-st-vii with pri-kam-ski-mi and beyond-Ural-ski-mi groups on-se-le-niya.
By the 3rd c. BC e. on the basis of the Anan-In-storage warehouse-dy-va-yut-sya of the community of the Pya-no-Bor culture-tu-ry and the glya-de-novskaya culture (see . Look-but-in). The upper-her gra-ni-tsey kul-tour of the pya-no-bor-sko-go-kru-ha row is-sle-to-va-te-lei count-ta-yut ser. 1st millennium AD e., others you de la ut for 3-5 centuries. ma-zu-nin-skul-tu-ru, aze-lin-skul-tu-ru, etc. A new stage is-to-rich. development is associated with a number of mi-graces, including in-yav-le-ni-em pa-myat-ni-kov circle Ha-ri-no, at- leading to the for-mi-ro-va-niyu middle-age. cultural tour associated with no-si-te-la-mi modern. Permian languages.
In the mountain-but-forest and ta-ezh-nyh districts of Ura-la and Zap. CBC in the early J. century. would there be a race-pro-country-not-us of the cross-howl ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tu-ra, it-kull cul-tu-ra, gre-ben-cha-to-yamoch -noy ke-ra-mi-ki kul-tu-ra za-pad-but-si-bir-sko-th-circle, Ust-po-lui-skaya kul-tu-ra, ku-lay-skaya kul -tu-ra, be-lo-yar-sky, but-vo-che-kin-sky, bo-go-chanov-sky, etc .; in the 4th c. BC e. here the ori-en-ta-tion was preserved on the colored metal-lo-ob-ra-bot-ku (the center is connected with the - zhav-shi pl-rays, including steppe, raw materials and from de-li-mi from copper), in some cultures of races - pro-country of black metal-lurgy from-no-sit-Xia to the 3rd third of the 1st millennium BC. e. This cultural circle of connection-zy-va-yut with the pre-ka-mi but-si-te-lei part of the modern. Ugric languages and Sa-mo-Diy languages.
To the south of it, there was a region of forest-steppe cultures Zap. CBC, Sev. pe-ri-fe-rii mi-ra ko-chev-ni-kov, connections-zy-vae-may with the south. vet-view ug-ditch (vo-rob-yov-ska and no-si-lov-sko-bai-tov-skaya cul-tu-ry; their change is sar-gat-skaya cul-tu-ra , go-ro-hov-skaya kul-tu-ra). In the forest-steppe-nom Pri-Ob in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e. races-pro-countries of ki-zhi-rov-sky, old-ro-alei-sky, ka-men-sky cul-tu-ry, some-rye sometimes ob-e-di- nya-yut in one-well generality. Part of the le-so-step-no-go on-se-le-niya was-la in-vle-che-na in mi-gra-tion ser. 1st millennium AD e., the other part along the Ir-ty-shu re-re-moved-well-laid to the north (pot-che-your-kul-tu-ra). Along the Ob to the south, up to Al-tai, there was a ra-pro-country of the Ku-Lai-kul-tu-ry (upper-not-Ob-kul-tu-ra). Ost-av-neck-sya on-se-le-nie, connected with the tra-di-tion-mi of the Sar-gat and Ka-men-sky cultural tour, in the era of the Middle -ve-ko-vya would-lo tur-ki-zi-ro-va-no.
In the forest cultures of Vost. Si-bi-ri (late ymy-yakh-takh-skaya kul-tu-ra, pya-sin-skaya, tse-pan-skaya, Ust-mil-skaya, etc.) from de-lia from bron -zy not-many-numbers-len-us, pre-im. im-port-nye, about-ra-bot-ka-leza-yav-la-et-sya not earlier con. 1st millennium BC e. from the Amur and Primorye. These cul-tu-ry os-tav-le-ny under-vizh-ny-mi groups-pa-mi hunters and fish-bo-lo-vov - ancestors of yuka-gir, sowing. hour-ti tun-gu-so-Manchurian peoples, chuk-chey, ko-rya-kov, etc.
Eastern regions of Asia. Grew up in culture. Far from the East, se-ve-ro-east-to-ka of China and Korea, the bronze age is not as bright as in Si- bi-ri or in more south. districts, but already on the ru-be-same 2-1st millennium BC. e. here on-cha-moose os-voi-zhe-le-za within the framework of the Uril-kul-tu-ry and Yan-kovskaya kul-tu-ry, and then replacing them ta-la-kan-sky, ol-gin-sky, pol-tsev-sky cul-tu-ry and other cultural tours close to them from the ter-ri-to-rii of China (wan-yan- he, gong-tu-lin, feng-lin) and Ko-rei. Some of these cultures are connected with the pre-southern ones. hour-ti tun-gu-so-Manchurian peoples. More sowing. pa-myat-ni-ki (Lakh-tin-skaya, Okhot-skaya, Ust-Bel-skaya and other culture-tu-ry) yah-tah-sky culture-tu-ry, some in the middle. 1st millennium BC e. dos-ti-ga-yut Chu-kot-ki and, mutually-mo-dey-st-vuya with pa-leo-es-ki-mo-sa-mi, teaching-st-vu-yut in for-mi- ro-va-nii of the ancient-not-be-rin-go-marine culture. About the presence of iron incisors of the sw-de-tel-st-vu-yut pre-g-de of everything made with their help in the mouth -nye on-ko-nech-no-ki bone gar-pu-nov.
On the ter-ri-to-ri Ko-rei from-go-to-le-ni-tools from stone pre-ob-la-da-lo on the pro-ty-the-same-bron-zo-vo- go ve-ka and na-cha-la J. v., from metal-la de la-li in the main. weapons, some-some-rye types of uk-ra-she-niy, etc. Ras-pro-country-no-le-le-for from-but-syat to ser. 1st millennium BC e., when there are warehouses-dy-va-moose association Cho-son; more later history of these cultures is connected with the whale. for-how-wa-niami, for-mi-ro-wa-ni-em and the development of local states (Ko-gu-ryo, etc.). On the Japanese Islands, the same-le-zo po-moose and-lu-chi-lo races-pro-country-not-nie in the course of the development of the Yayoi culture, within the framework of someone swarm in the 2nd century. n. e. folded tribal unions, and then the state. about-ra-zo-va-nie Yama something. In the South East. Asian na-cha-lo G. v. when-ho-dit-sya on the epo-hu for-mi-ro-va-niya of the first states.
Africa. In the mid-earth-but-sea regions, that means. part of the bass-this-on Ni-la, at the Kras-no-go m. pro-is-ho-di-lo on the os-no-ve cul-tour bron-zo-vo-go-ve-ka, within the framework of qi-vi-li-za-tsy (Egi-pet Ancient, Me-roe), in connection with the emergence of co-lo-ni from Phi-ni-kiya, the race of Kar-fa-gen-na; to con. 1st millennium BC e. middle-di-earth-but-sea Af-ri-ka became a part of Rome. im-pe-rii.
Especially-ben-no-stu development-vi-tia more south. cultural tour yav-la-et-sya from-day-st-vie bron-zo-vo-th-ve-ka. Pro-nick-but-ve-nie metal-lur-gyi zhe-le-za south of Sa-kha-ra part of the study-to-va-te-lei connection-zy-va-yut with influence - no-eat Me-roe. More and more ar-gu-men-tov speaks out in favor of other points of view, according to some important role in this game -cut Sa-haru. So-ko-you-mi could be “do-ro-gi ko-forest-nits”, re-con-st-rui-rue-my on-rock-pictures-bra-same-ni-pits , could they pass through Fets-tsan, and also where the ancient state of Ga-na was formed, etc. In a number of cases, cha-ev about-from-in-the-le-for-could-lo-so-mid-to-that-chi-vat-sya in sp-tsia-li-zir. district-onakh, mo-but-po-li-zi-ro-va-sya their lives-te-la-mi, and kuz-not-tsy - about-ra-zo-you-vat castles-well-tye with -general-st-va; ob-schi-us different eco-no-mich. sp-tsia-li-za-tion and the level of development of co-sed-st-in-va-li. All this, as well as the weak ar-geo-lo-gich. the study of the con-ti-nen-ta de-la-yut is our representation of the development of the Zh.v. here. all-ma gi-po-te-tich-nym.
In Zap. Af-ri-ke of the ancient-shie svi-de-tel-st-va pro-from-water-st-va-iron-nyh from-de-liy (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC AD) connections with the cul-tu-swarm Nok, its co-from-no-she-nie with synchronous-mi and later-no-mi cul-tu -ra-mi in many ways is not clear, but not later than the 1st floor. 1st millennium AD e. same-le-zo would-lo from-west-but in the whole Zap. Af-ri-ke. One-on-one, yes, on pa-myat-ni-kah, connected with the state. about-ra-zo-va-niya-mi con. 1st thousand - 1st half. 2nd millennium AD e. (Ig-bo-Uk-wu, Ife, Be-nin, etc.), from-de-ly from zhe-le-for not-much, in-lo-ni-al-ny per-ri- once it was one of the pre-meth imports.
To the east in-be-re-zhe Af-ri-ki to J. c. from-no-syat of the culture of Aza-niya, moreover, in their from-no-she-nii there is information about them-por-the same-le-za. An important stage in the history of the region is connected with the development of trade settlements with the participation of walkers from the south app. Asia, pre-g-de of all mu-sul-man (such as Kil-wa, Mo-ga-di-sho, etc.); centers for pro-from-water-st-vu same-le-for-west-us for this time by letters. and ar-heo-lo-gich. is-tot-no-kam.
In bass-this-not Kon-go, ext. district-onah Vost. Af-ri-ki and south-her races-pro-country-not-the same-le-for connection-zy-va-yut with kul-tu-ra-mi, at-above-le-zha-schi-mi tra-di-tions “ke-ra-mi-ki with a bent bottom” (“pit-koy at the bottom”, etc.) and close-ki-mi to her tra-di-tion-mi. Na-cha-lo metal-lur-gyi in otd. the places of these regions are from-no-syat to different cut-offs of the 1st floor. (not later than se-re-di-na) of the 1st millennium AD. e. Mi-grants from these lands, ve-ro-yat-but, for the first time brought the same-le-zo to the South. Af-ri-ku. A number of rising “empires” in the basin of the rivers Zam-bezi, Kon-go (Zim-bab-we, Ki-ta-ra, etc.) would be connected us with ex-port of gold-lo-ta, layer-new-bone, etc.
A new stage in the history of Af-ri-ki south of Sa-kha-ra is associated with the appearance of ev-rop. ko-lo-ny.
Additional literature:
Mon-gait A. L. Ar-geo-logia of Western Europe. M., 1973-1974. Book. 1-2;
Coghlan H. H. Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World. Oxf., 1977;
Waldbaum J. C. From bronze to iron. Gott., 1978;
The coming of the age of iron. New Haven; L., 1980;
Iron Age Af-ri-ki. M., 1982;
Ar-geo-logia of Za-ru-beige Asia. M., 1986;
Steppe of the European part of the USSR in ski-fo-sar-mat-time. M., 1989;
Tylecote R. F. A history of metallurgy. 2nd ed. L., 1992;
Steppe in-lo-sa of the Asian-At-th part of the USSR in the ski-fo-sar-mat-time. M., 1992;
Shchu-kin M. B. On the rub-be-same er. SPb., 1994;
Essays on the history of the ancient same-le-zo-ob-ra-bot-ki in Eastern Europe. M., 1997;
Collis J. The European Iron age. 2nd ed. L., 1998;
Yal-çin Ü. Early iron metallurgy in Anatolia // Anatolian Studies. 1999 Vol. 49;
Kan-to-ro-vich A. R., Kuz-mi-nykh S. V. Early Iron Age // BRE. M., 2004. T.: Russia; Tro-its-kaya T. N., No-vi-kov A. V. Ar-geo-logia of the West-Siberian equal. But-in-Sib., 2004.
Illustrations:
Iron knives from gre-be-niya near Mount Olympus. 11th-8th centuries BC e. Ar-heo-lo-gi-che-sky museum (Di-on, Greece). BDT archive;
BDT archive;
BDT archive;
Sword in a scabbard with an anthropomorphic handle. Je-le-zo, bronze. Culture Laten (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC). Met-ro-po-li-ten-mu-zey (New York). BDT archive;
Para-rad-ny battle-howl then-por from chickens-ha-on Ke-ler-mes-1 (Ku-ban). Zhe-le-zo, zo-lo-that. Con. 7 - early 6th century BC e. Er-mi-tage (St. Petersburg). BDT archive;
Iron-on-ko-nech-nick arrows, in-kru-sti-ro-van-ny gold and silver-rum, from kur-ha-on Ar-zhan-2 (Tuva). 7th c. BC e. Er-mi-tage (St. Petersburg). BDT archive;
Iron iz-de-liya from the mo-gil-ni-ka Bar-sov-sky III (Sur-gut-skoe Pri-Ob). 6th-2nd/1st centuries BC e. (according to V. A. Bor-zu-no-wu, Yu. P. Che-mya-ki-nu). BRE archive.
The Iron Age is a historical and cultural period in the development of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools and weapons. The Iron Age succeeded the Bronze Age at the beginning of the first millennium BC; the use of iron stimulated the development of production and accelerated community development. All countries of the world at different times passed the period of mastering the production of iron, and in a broad sense, the entire history of mankind from the end of the Bronze Age to the present day can be attributed to the Iron Age. But in historical science the Iron Age includes only the cultures of primitive peoples who lived outside the territories of ancient states that arose in the Eneolithic and Bronze Ages (Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, India, China). In the Iron Age, the majority of the peoples of Eurasia experienced the decomposition of the primitive system and the formation of a class society.
The idea of three epochs in the development of mankind (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age) arose in the ancient world. This conjecture was expressed by Titus Lucretius Car. In scientific terms, the term "Iron Age" was based on archaeological material in the middle of the 19th century by the Danish archaeologist K.Yu. Thomsen. The Iron Age, compared with the Stone Age and the Copper Age, is relatively a short time. Its beginning is attributed to the 9th-7th centuries BC. e. Traditionally, the end of the Iron Age in Western Europe was associated with the first century BC, when the first detailed written sources about barbarian tribes appeared. In general, for individual countries, the end of the Iron Age can be associated with the formation of the state and the emergence of their own written sources.
iron metallurgy
In contrast to the relatively rare deposits of copper and especially tin, iron ores are found almost everywhere on Earth, but usually in the form of low-grade brown iron ore. The process of obtaining iron from ore is much more complicated than the process of obtaining copper. The melting of iron occurs at high temperatures, which were inaccessible to ancient metallurgists. They obtained iron in a doughy state using a cheese-blowing process, which consisted in the reduction of iron ore at a temperature of about 900-1350 ° C in special furnaces - forges with air blown by blacksmith bellows through a nozzle. At the bottom of the furnace, a kritz was formed - a lump of porous iron weighing 1-5 kg, which had to be forged for compaction, as well as removal of slag from it. Raw iron is a soft metal; tools and weapons made from it were of little use in Everyday life. But in the 9th-7th centuries BC. beat the discovery of methods for producing steel from iron and its heat treatment. The high mechanical qualities of steel products, the general availability of iron ores ensured the displacement of bronze and stone by iron, which were previously the main materials for the production of tools and weapons.
The spread of iron tools greatly expanded human capabilities, it became possible to clear forest areas for crops, expand irrigation and reclamation facilities, and improve land cultivation. The development of crafts accelerated, woodworking was improved in construction, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots), and the manufacture of utensils. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of handicraft and agricultural hand tools (except screws and articulated scissors), which were later used both in the Middle Ages and in modern times, came into use.
The development of productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time, led to the transformation of social life. The growth of labor productivity served as an economic prerequisite for the collapse of the tribal primitive system, the emergence of the state. In many Iron Age tribes, social organization took the form of a military democracy. One of the sources of the accumulation of values and the growth of property inequality was the expansion of trade relations during the Iron Age. The possibility of enrichment through robbery gave rise to wars, in response to the threat of military raids by neighbors at the beginning of the Iron Age, fortifications were built around the settlements.
Distribution of iron products in the world
Initially, only meteoric iron was known to people. Iron objects, mainly ornaments, dating back to the first half of the third millennium BC. found in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor. However, a method for obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the second millennium BC. It is believed that the cheese-making metallurgical process was first discovered by tribes living in the Antitaurus mountains in Asia Minor in the 15th century BC. From the end of the second millennium BC. iron is known in Transcaucasia (Samtavr burial ground). The development of iron in Racha (Western Georgia) dates back to ancient times.
For a long time, iron was not widely used and was highly valued. It became more widely used after the 11th century BC. in the Near and Middle East, in India, in the south of Europe. In the 10th century BC. iron tools and weapons penetrate north of the Alps and the Danube, into steppe zone Eastern Europe, but begin to dominate in these areas only from the 8th-7th centuries BC. In Transcaucasia, a number of archaeological cultures of the late Bronze Age are known, which flourished in the early Iron Age: the Central Transcaucasian culture, the Kyzyl-Vank culture, the Colchis culture, the Urartian culture. The appearance of iron products in the agricultural oases and steppe regions of Central Asia is attributed to the 7th-6th centuries BC. Throughout the first millennium BC. and until the first half of the first millennium AD. the steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan were inhabited by the Sako-Usun tribes, in whose culture iron became widespread from the middle of the first millennium BC. In agricultural oases, the time of the appearance of iron coincides with the emergence of the first state formations (Bactria, Sogd, Khorezm).
Iron appeared in China in the 8th century BC. e., and spread widely from the 5th century BC. e. In Indochina and Indonesia, iron began to predominate only at the turn of our era. In the African countries neighboring Egypt (Nubia, Sudan, Libya), iron metallurgy has been known since the 6th century BC. In the second century BC. the iron age has come Central Africa, a number of African peoples moved from the Stone Age to iron metallurgy, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia, Oceania, iron became known in the 16-17 centuries AD. with the advent of European colonialism.
In Europe, iron and steel as a material for the manufacture of tools and weapons began to play a leading role from the second half of the first millennium BC. The Iron Age in Western Europe is divided into two periods according to the names of archaeological cultures - Hallstatt and La Tène. The Hallstatt period (900-400 BC) is also called the early Iron Age (the first iron wreath), and the La Tene period (400 BC - the beginning of AD) is called the Iron Age (the second Iron Age). ). The Hallstatt culture was spread over the territory from the Rhine to the Danube, was created in the western part by the Celts, and in the east by the Illyrians. The Hallstatt period also includes cultures close to the Hallstatt culture - the Thracian tribes in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula; Etruscan, Ligurian, Italic tribes on the Apennine Peninsula; Iberians, Turdetans, Lusitanians in the Iberian Peninsula; late Lusatian culture in the Odra and Vistula river basins. The beginning of the Hallstatt period is characterized by the parallel circulation of bronze and iron tools and weapons, the gradual displacement of bronze. In economic terms, the Hallstatt period is characterized by the growth of agriculture, in social terms - by the collapse of tribal relations. In the north of Europe at this time there was a Bronze Age.
From the beginning of the 5th century on the territory of Gaul, Germany, in the countries along the Danube and to the north of it, the La Tene culture, characterized by a high level of iron production, spread. The La Tène culture existed until the Roman conquest of Gaul in the first century BC. La Tène culture is associated with the tribes of the Celts, who had large fortified cities, which were the centers of the tribes and places of concentration of crafts. In this era, bronze tools and weapons are no longer found among the Celts. At the beginning of our era, in the areas conquered by Rome, the La Tène culture was replaced by the provincial Roman culture. In the north of Europe, iron spread almost three hundred years later than in the south. The end of the Iron Age includes the culture of the Germanic tribes that lived in the territory between the North Sea and the rivers Rhine, Danube, Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and archaeological cultures, the carriers of which are considered the ancestors of the Slavs. In the northern countries, iron tools and weapons began to predominate at the beginning of our era.
Iron Age on the territory of Russia and neighboring countries
The spread of iron metallurgy in Eastern Europe dates back to the first millennium BC. The most developed culture of the early Iron Age was created by the Scythians, who lived in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region (7th century BC - first centuries AD). Iron products were found in abundance in the settlements and mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical production were found during excavations of Scythian settlements. The largest number of remains of iron-working and blacksmithing was found in the Kamensky settlement (5-3 centuries BC) near Nikopol. Iron tools contributed to the development of crafts and the spread of arable farming.
The Scythians were replaced by the Sarmatians, who previously lived in the steppes between the Don and the Volga. The Sarmatian culture, also belonging to the early Iron Age, dominated the Black Sea region in the 2nd-4th centuries AD. At the same time, in the western regions of the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper, Transnistria, there were cultures of "burial fields" (Zarubinets culture, Chernyakhov culture) of agricultural tribes who knew iron metallurgy; probably the ancestors of the Slavs. Iron metallurgy appeared in the central and northern forest regions of Eastern Europe in the 6th-5th centuries BC. In the Kama region, the Ananyino culture (8-3 centuries BC) was widespread, which is characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools. The Ananyino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pyanobor culture (the end of the first millennium BC - the first half of the first millennium AD).
The Iron Age of the Upper Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve is represented by the settlements of the Dyakovo culture (middle of the first millennium BC - middle of the first millennium AD). To the south of the middle reaches of the Oka, to the west of the Volga, in the basins of the Tsna and Moksha rivers, the settlements of the Gorodets culture (7th century BC - 5th century AD) belong to the Iron Age. The Dyakovo and Gorodets cultures are associated with the Finno-Ugric tribes. Settlements of the Upper Dnieper region and the southeastern Baltic region of the 6th century BC - 7th century AD belong to the East Baltic tribes, later assimilated by the Slavs, as well as to the Chud tribes. Southern Siberia and Altai are rich in copper and tin, which led to a high level of development of bronze metallurgy. For a long time, the culture of bronze here competed with iron tools and weapons, which became widespread in the middle of the first millennium BC. - Tagar culture on the Yenisei, Pazyryk burial mounds in Altai.
Reconstruction appearance representative of the Ananyino culture and some archaeological finds
iron age
Iron Age - a period of development humanity which occurred in connection with the manufacture and use of iron tools labor and weapons. Changed bronze age in AD I millennium BC In contrast to the relatively rare deposits of copper and especially tin, low-quality iron ores (brown iron ore) are found almost everywhere. But getting iron from ores is much more difficult than copper. The smelting of iron was beyond the reach of ancient metallurgists. Iron was obtained in a doughy state using a cheese-blowing process, which consisted in the reduction of iron ore at a temperature of approx.
Carthage. Spanish weapons IV-II centuries. BC 1 - saunion - a heavy iron dart with a serrated edge. From Almedinilla. 2 - tip of a pilum-type dart from Arkobriga. 3 - spearhead from Almedinilla (Cordoba). 4 - falcata (falcata) from Almedinilla. 5 - straight piercing-chopping sword (gladius hispaniensis) from Aguila de Angwita. 6 - dagger from Almedinilla. 7 - Spanish dagger from Numantsia. 8 and 9 - spears. 10 - a knife of this type was attached to the falcata sheath. All weapons are shown on a scale of 1: 8.11 - a tombstone of a Spanish mercenary found in Tunisia, which depicts his shield, helmet, sword and two spears. 12-15 - reliefs from Osuna in southern Spain. 12 - a swordsman with a Celtic-type shield and a headdress made of veins. 13 - a headdress of the same type. 14 - a warrior with a Spanish shield, a falcata and a cap made of veins .15 - a cap of the same type. 16 - a warrior depicted on a vase from Liria. 17 - a bronze figurine of a Spanish horseman of the 3rd century. BC. in a headdress made of veins. He is armed with a round shield and falcata. Museum of Valencia de don Juan. Madrid. 18 - front view of the figurine, allowing you to see how such a shield was held, as well as a wide belt of a warrior. 19 - a sculptural image of a horse, on which a bit and sweatshirt are visible. From El Cigarrelejo. 4th century BC. Meeting Wed. E. Cuadrado, Madrid.20 - reconstruction of the appearance of the Spanish horseman of the time of Hannibal. He wears a veined headdress and a white tunic trimmed with a crimson stripe. He is armed with a round shield with a handle located in the center, a spear and a falcata.21 - a reconstruction of the appearance of a Spanish infantryman from the time of Hannibal. At the beginning of his campaign, the Carthaginian commander gathered more than 70,000 of them, they served as the main " consumable". The infantryman wears a vein cap adorned with a horsehair crest and a white tunic trimmed with dark red. He has a Celtiberian oval shield with a vertical rib, a spear, a saunion, and a falcata. Instead of the latter, he may have been armed with a double-edged straight Spanish sword. 22 and 23 are two types of Spanish bits found at Aguila de Anguita in southern Spain
At the bottom of the furnace, a cry was formed - a lump of porous iron weighing 1-5 kg, which had to be forged for compaction, as well as removal of slag from it. Raw iron is a very soft metal; tools and weapons made of pure iron had low mechanical qualities. Only with the discovery in the IX-VII centuries. BC. methods of manufacturing steel from iron and its heat treatment, the wide distribution of the new material begins. The higher mechanical qualities of iron and steel, as well as the general availability of iron ores and the cheapness of the new metal, ensured the displacement of bronze, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools in the Bronze Age. In Europe, in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. iron and steel began to play really essential role as a material for the manufacture of tools and weapons.
Artifacts of the Ananyino culture. 1 - stone pseudoanthropomorphic tombstone depicting a battle ax and a dagger; 2 - bronze belt with pendant plaques and a stone whetstone (reconstruction); 3, 4 - iron and bronze spearheads; 5, 6, 8 - bronze arrowheads; 7 - iron arrowhead; 9 - bone arrowhead; 10 - bronze ax - "Celt"; 11 - bimetallic dagger; 12 - bronze pick with a zoomorphic rim; 13 - iron dagger; 14 - ceramic vessel; 15 - bronze bracelet; 16 - a bronze ax with a zoomorphic bushing and butt; 17 - bronze bridle plaque in the form of a coiled predator
The technological revolution caused by the spread of iron and steel greatly expanded power man over nature: it became possible to clear large forest areas for crops, expand and improve irrigation and reclamation facilities and improve land cultivation in general. Development accelerates crafts, especially blacksmith and weapons. The processing of wood for the purposes of housebuilding, the production of vehicles, and the manufacture of various utensils is being improved. Artisans, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received better tools. K n. our era all the main types of handicraft and agricultural hand tools (except screws and hinged scissors) used in the Middle Ages, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads was facilitated, improved military technology, exchange expanded, metal coins spread as a means of circulation. Development productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time led to the transformation of the entire public life.
Artifacts of the Dyakovo culture. 1-4 - bone arrowheads; 5, 6 - iron arrowheads; 7, 8 - iron knives; 9, 10 - iron sickles; 11 - iron ax - "Celt"; 12 - iron bits; 13 - iron fishing hook; 14, 15 - bronze ornaments-threads; 16 - bronze noisy pendant; 17-20 - ceramic objects ("Dyakov type weights"); 21-25 - ceramic vessels
As a result of the growth of labor productivity, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served economic prerequisite for the emergence exploitation man man, decay tribal primitive communal building. One of the sources of accumulation values and growth wealth inequality there was an exchange that expanded during the Iron Age. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of robbery and enslavement. At the beginning of the Iron Age, fortifications were widespread. In the era of the Iron Age, the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system, were on the eve of the emergence class society and states. The transfer of certain means of production to private property the ruling minority, the emergence of slavery, the increased stratification of society and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already features typical of early class societies.
Ancient Greece. 1 - part of a drawing from a Greek vase, which shows two different types ridge bases.2 - Greek raised ridge base. From Olympia.3 - Italian raised crest base. Both the first and second types were fixed with double pins. 4-7 - evolution of the Greek sword. 4,5 - two late Mycenaean (type II) bronze swords from Kallithea. OK. 1200 BC 5a - sword hilt of the same type from Italy. 6 - early Greek iron sword from Ceramics. OK. 820 BC 6a - a bronze hilt of a sword of the same type. 7 - an iron sword and a Greek-type sheath for it, trimmed with bone, from the Campovalano di Campi necropolis. OK. 500 BC Cheti Museum.8 - Greek type iron spearhead from the Campovalano necropolis. Cheti Museum.9 - Greek bronze spearhead from the British Museum
In many tribes, the social structure of this transitional period took political the form of the so-called. military democracy. The spread of iron metallurgy in the territory Russia refers to the 1st millennium BC. V steppes Northern Black Sea region in the 7th century BC - the first centuries. AD tribes lived Scythians who created the most developed culture early Iron Age. Iron products were found in abundance in the settlements and mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical production were discovered during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest number of remains of iron-working and blacksmithing was found in the Kamensky settlement (V-III centuries BC) near Nikopol on Ukraine, which was, apparently, the center of a specialized metallurgical region of ancient Scythia. Iron tools contributed to the wide development of various crafts and the spread of plowed agriculture among the local tribes of the Scythian time. The next after the Scythian period of the early Iron Age in the steppes of the Black Sea region is represented by Sarmatian culture that dominated here from the II century. BC. until the 4th century AD In the previous period from the 7th c. BC. Sarmatians (or Sauromatians) lived in the Don and the Urals.
Ancient Rome. 1 - bronze sword with "antennas" from Fermo. 2 - antenna-type sword with bronze scabbard from Fermo. 3 - antenna-type bronze saber sword from Bologna. 4, 6, 7 - bronze tips of antenna-type sword scabbards. 5 - fragments of wooden scabbards sword antenna type. The scabbard is wrapped with bronze wire and has a bronze tip. 8 - an iron dagger with a bone handle and a bronze scabbard with a bone mouth from Veyev. 9, 9a - a bronze dagger and scabbard from Tarquinia. 10 - a bronze spear tip and a wire that fastened it to the shaft. Veii.11, 12 - bronze tip and spearhead from Tarquinia.13 - giant bronze tip from Tarquinia.14 - bronze darthead found in Latium15 - bronze ax from Tarquinia.Scale 1:5
In the first centuries AD. one of the Sarmatian tribes - Alans- began to play a significant historical role and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name of the Alans. By the same time, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the Northern Black Sea region, there are cultures of "burial fields" that spread in the western regions of the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper and Transnistria Chernyakhiv culture and etc.). These cultures belonged to agricultural tribes who knew the metallurgy of iron, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors Slavs. The tribes living in the central and northern forest regions of the European part of Russia were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th-5th centuries. BC. In the VIII-III centuries. BC. in the Kama region was distributed Ananyino a culture that was characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. The Ananyino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pyanobor culture (late 1st millennium BC - first half of the 1st millennium AD). In the Upper Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve, the settlements of the Dyakovo culture (from the 1st millennium BC - from the 1st millennium AD) belong to the Iron Age, and in the territory south of the middle reaches of the Oka, west of the Volga, in the basin of the river. Tsna and Moksha, settlements of the Gorodets culture (VII century BC-V century AD), which belonged to the ancient Finno-Ugric tribes.
Celtic artifacts. 1-17 - the evolution of the Celtic helmet. It is impossible to clearly trace the evolution due to the fact that all these helmets come from very distant places from each other. However, in some cases (for example, 2-6-12) the path of development is quite obvious. 1 - bronze helmet from the Somme peat bogs, France. Museum Saint-Germain, 2 - bronze helmet from Dürnberg an der Hallen, Austria. Salzburg Museum. 3 - iron helmet from Hallstatt. Austria, Vienna Museum. 4 - bronze helmet from Montpellier. France. 5 - bronze helmet from the Senon burial. Italy. Museum of Ancona. 6 - helmet made of bronze and iron from the Senonian necropolis in Montefortino. Museum of Ancona. 7 - iron helmet from Umbria. Berlin Museum. 8 - Etruscan bronze helmet of Montefortino type. Villa Giulia Museum. 9 - bronze helmet, possibly of Italian work, from Montefortino. Museum of Ancona. 10 - bronze helmet from Waden (Marne). France, Museum Saint-Germain. 11 - Kenoman bronze "cap-shaped" helmet. Museum of Cremona. 12 - iron helmet from Castelrotto in the Italian Alps. Innsbruck Museum. 13 - iron helmet from Batina, Yugoslavia. Museum of Vienna. 14 - iron helmet from Sanzeno in the Italian Alps. Museum of Trento. 15 - a bronze helmet, which was found near Siel (department of Saone and Loire). Museum of Chalon-on-Son. 16 - iron helmet from Port-on-Nidau, Switzerland. Zurich Museum. 17 - iron helmet from Giubiasco, Ticino, Swiss Alps. Zurich Museum. 18 - bronze horned helmet, which was found in the Thames. British museum. 19 - bronze cheek-pieces from Carniola. Yugoslavia, Ljubljana Museum. 20 - iron cheek-pieces from Alesia. Museum of Saint Germain. 21 - two horned helmets depicted on an arch in Orange, southern France. 22 - in the IV century. BC. the Gallic Zante wore such finely decorated gold and bronze ceremonial helmets