We are accustomed to approach the concept of " Crimea» as the name of a place where you can have a great vacation summer days, have a good rest on the seashore, making a couple of trips to attractions located nearby. But if you approach the issue globally, look at the peninsula from a distance of centuries and knowledge, it becomes clear that the Crimea is a unique historical and cultural territory, striking in antiquity and a variety of natural and “man-made” values. Numerous Crimean cultural monuments reflect religion, culture and historical events of different eras and peoples. Story the peninsula is the interweaving of the West and the East, the history of the ancient Greeks and the Golden Horde Mongols, the history of the birth of Christianity, the appearance of the first churches and mosques. For centuries, different peoples lived here, fought with each other, concluded peace and trade agreements, settlements and cities were built and destroyed, civilizations appeared and disappeared. Inhaling the Crimean air, in addition to the notorious phytoncides, you can feel in it the taste of legends about life Amazons, Olympic gods, Taurians, Cimmerians, Greeks…

The natural conditions of the Crimea and the geographical location, favorable for life, contributed to the fact that the peninsula became the cradle of mankind. Primitive Neanderthal people appeared here 150 thousand years ago, attracted by the warm climate and the abundance of animals that were their main food base. In almost every Crimean museum you can find archaeological finds from grottoes and caves, which served as natural shelters for primitive man. The most famous sites of primitive man:

• Kiik-Koba ( Belogorsky district);
• Staroselye (Bakhchisarai);
• Chokurcho (Simferopol);
• Wolf Grotto (Simferopol);
• Ak-Kaya (Belogorsk).

About 50 thousand years ago, an ancestor of modern people appeared on the Crimean peninsula - a man of the Cro-Magnon type. Three sites from this era have been discovered: Syuren (near the village of Tankovoye), Aji-Koba (slope of Karabi-Yaila) and Kachinsky canopy (near the village of Predushchelnoye, Bakhchisaray district).

Cimmerians

If before the first millennium BC, historical data only slightly open the veil from different periods of human development, then information about a later time allows us to speak about specific cultures and tribes of the Crimea. In the 5th century BC Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, visited the Crimean shores. In his writings, he described the local lands and the peoples living on them. It is believed that among the first peoples who lived in the steppe part of the peninsula in the XV-VII centuries BC, there were Cimmerians. Their warlike tribes were driven out of the Crimea in the 4th-3rd centuries BC by no less aggressive Scythians and lost in the vast expanses of the steppes of Asia. Only ancient names remind of them:

• Cimmerian walls;
• Kimmerik.

Taurus

The mountainous and foothill Crimea in those days was inhabited by tribes taurus, distant descendants of the Kizil-Koba archaeological culture. In the descriptions of ancient authors, the Tauri look bloodthirsty and cruel. Being skilled sailors, they traded in piracy, robbing ships passing along the coast. Captives were thrown into the sea from a high cliff from the temple, sacrificing to the goddess Virgo. Refuting this information, modern scientists have established that the Taurians were engaged in hunting, collecting shellfish, fishing, farming and raising livestock. They lived in huts or caves, but for protection from external enemies they built fortified shelters. Taurus fortifications found on the mountains: Cat, Uch-Bash, Kastel, Ayu-Dag, on Cape Ai-Todor.

Another trace of the Taurus is numerous burials in dolmens - stone boxes, consisting of four placed on edge flat slabs and covered with a fifth. One of the unsolved mysteries about the Tauris is the location of the cliff with the Temple of the Virgin.

Scythians

In the 7th century BC, Scythian tribes came to the steppe part of Crimea. In the 4th century BC, the Sarmatians pushed back Scythians to the lower Dnieper and Crimea. At the turn of the 4th-3rd centuries BC, a Scythian state was formed on this territory, the capital of which was Naples Scythian(in its place is modern Simferopol).

Greeks

In the 7th century BC, strings of Greek colonists reached the Crimean shores. Choosing convenient places for living and sailing, Greeks based on them city-states - "polises":

• Feodosia;
• Panticapaeum-Bosporus (Kerch);
• (Sevastopol);
• Mirmekiy;
• Nymphaeum;
• Tiritaka.

The emergence and expansion of Greek colonies served as a serious impetus for the development of the Northern Black Sea region: political, cultural and trade ties between the local population and the Greeks intensified. The indigenous inhabitants of the Crimea learned to cultivate the land in more advanced ways, they began to grow olives and grapes. The influence of Greek culture on the spiritual world of the Scythians, Taurians, Sarmatians and other tribes that came into contact with it turned out to be enormous. However, the relationship between the neighboring peoples was not easy: peaceful periods were followed by years of wars. Therefore, all Greek policies were protected by strong stone walls.

4th century BC was the time of foundation of several settlements in the west of the peninsula. The largest of them are Kalos-Limen (Black Sea) and Kerkinitida (Evpatoria). At the end of the 5th century BC, immigrants from the Greek Heraclea founded the policy of Chersonesos (modern Sevastopol). A hundred years later, Chersonesus became a city-state independent of the Greek metropolis and the largest policy of the Northern Black Sea region. In its heyday it was a powerful port city, a cultural, handicraft and trade center of the southwestern part of Crimea surrounded by fortified walls.

Around 480 BC, the independent Greek cities united to form Bosporan kingdom, whose capital was the city of Panticapaeum. A little later, Theodosia joined the kingdom.

In the 4th century BC, the Scythian king Atey united the Scythian tribes into a strong state, which owned the territory from the Dniester and the Southern Bug to the Don. From the end of the 4th century BC and especially in the 3rd century BC Scythians and the Tauri, under their influence, exerted strong military pressure on the policies. In the III century BC, Scythian villages, fortifications and cities appeared on the peninsula, including the capital of the kingdom - Scythian Naples. At the end of the 2nd century BC, Chersonese, besieged by the Scythians, turned for help to the Pontic kingdom (located on the southern coast of the Black Sea). The troops of Ponta lifted the siege, but at the same time captured Theodosia and Panticapaeum, after which both the Bosporus and Chersonesos became part of the Pontic kingdom.

Romans, Huns, Byzantium

From the middle of the 1st century to the beginning of the 4th century AD, the entire Black Sea region (including Crimea-Taurica) was within the sphere of interests of the Roman Empire. The stronghold of the Romans in Taurica became Chersonese. In the 1st century, on Cape Ai-Todor, Roman legionnaires built the fortress of Kharaks and connected it with roads with Chersonese, in which the garrison was located. The Roman squadron was stationed in the harbor of Chersonesos.

In 370, hordes of Huns came to the Crimean lands. They wiped out the Bosporan kingdom and the Scythian state from the face of the earth, destroyed Chersonese, Panticapaeum and Scythian Naples. After the Crimea, the Huns went to Europe, bringing the death of the great Roman Empire. In the IV century, the Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern (Byzantine). The southern part of Taurica entered the sphere of interests of the Eastern Empire. Chersonese became the main base of the Byzantines in the Crimea, which became known as Kherson. This period was the time of the penetration of Christianity into the peninsula. According to church tradition, Andrew the First-Called became his first messenger. The third bishop of Rome, Clement, exiled in 94 to Cherson, also actively preached the Christian faith. In the 8th century, an iconoclasm movement appeared in Byzantium: all images of saints were destroyed - on icons, in temple paintings. The monks fled from persecution on the outskirts of the empire, including in the Crimea. In the mountains of the peninsula, they founded cave monasteries and temples:

• Kachi-Kalyon;
• Chelter;
• Uspensky;
• Shuldan.

At the end of the 6th century, new wave invaders - the Khazars, the ancestors of the Karaites. They occupied the entire Crimea, except for Kherson. In 705, Kherson recognized the Khazar protectorate and separated from Byzantium. In response, Byzantium sent a punitive fleet in 710 with a small army on board. Kherson fell, and the Byzantines treated its inhabitants with unprecedented cruelty. But as soon as the imperial troops left the city, it rebelled: uniting with the Khazars and part of the army that had changed the empire, Cherson captured Constantinople and put his emperor at the head of Byzantium.

Slavs, Mongols, Genoese, Theodoro Principality

In the 9th century, a new force actively intervenes in the course of Crimean history - Slavs. Their appearance on the peninsula coincided with the decline of the Khazar state, which was finally defeated in the 10th century by Prince Svyatoslav. In 988 - 989 Kherson was captured by Prince Vladimir of Kyiv. Here he adopted the Christian faith.

In the XIII century, the Tatar-Mongols of the Golden Horde invaded the peninsula several times, thoroughly plundering the cities. From the middle of the XIII century, they began to settle in the territory of Taurica. At this time, they captured Solkhat and turned it into the center of the Crimean yurt of the Golden Horde. It received the name Kyrym, subsequently inherited by the peninsula.

In the same years, an Orthodox church appeared in the Crimean mountains. Principality of Theodoro with its capital at Mangup. The Genoese had disputes with the Principality of Theodoro about the ownership of the disputed territories.

Turks

In early 1475, Kafa had a fleet Ottoman Empire. Well-fortified Kafa withstood the siege for only three days, after which it surrendered to the mercy of the winner. By the end of the year Turks captured all the coastal fortresses: the rule of the Genoese in the Crimea ended. Mangup held out for the longest time and surrendered to the Turks only after a six-month siege. The invaders brutally treated the captive Theodorians: the city was devastated, most of the inhabitants were killed, and the survivors were taken into slavery.

Crimean Khan became a vassal Ottoman Empire and a conductor of the aggressive policy of Turkey in relation to Russia. Raids on the southern lands Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania and Russia have become permanent. Russia sought to protect its southern borders and gain access to the Black Sea. Therefore, she repeatedly fought with Turkey. The war of 1768-1774 was unsuccessful for the Turks. In 1774 between the Ottoman Empire and Russia was concluded Kuchuk-Kainarji Treaty about peace, which brought independence to the Crimean Khanate. Russia received the fortresses of Kin-burn, Azov and the city of Kerch in the Crimea along with the Yeni-Kale fortress. In addition, Russian merchant ships now have free access to navigation in the Black Sea.

Russia

In 1783 Crimea was finally annexed to Russia. Most Muslims left the peninsula and moved to Turkey. The edge has fallen into disrepair. Prince G. Potemkin, the governor of Taurida, began to resettle here retired soldiers and serfs from neighboring regions. So the first villages with Russian names appeared on the peninsula - Izyumovka, Mazanka, Clean... This move of the prince turned out to be correct: the Crimean economy began to develop, agriculture was revived. The city of Sevastopol, the base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, was founded in an excellent natural harbor. Near the Ak-Mechet, a small town, Simferopol was being built - the future "capital" of the Tauride province.

In 1787 Empress Catherine II visited Crimea with a large retinue of dignitaries of foreign states. She stayed in travel palaces specially built for this occasion.

Eastern war

In 1854-1855, Crimea became the scene of yet another war, called the Eastern War. In the autumn of 1854, Sevastopol was besieged by a united army France, England and Turkey. Under the leadership of Vice Admirals P.S. Nakhimov and V.A. Kornilov's defense of the city lasted 349 days. In the end, the city was destroyed to the ground, but at the same time glorified throughout the world. Russia lost this war: in 1856, an agreement was signed in Paris prohibiting both Turkey and Russia from having navies on the Black Sea.

Health resort of Russia

In the middle of the 19th century, the doctor Botkin recommended royal family to acquire the Livadia estate, as a place with an exceptionally healthy climate. This was the beginning of a new, resort era in the Crimea. Villas, estates, palaces belonging to the royal family, rich landowners and industrialists, court nobility were built along the entire coast. For several years, the village of Yalta has become a popular aristocratic resort. Railways, which connected the largest cities of the region, further accelerated its transformation into a resort and summer resort of the empire.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the peninsula belonged to the Taurida province and was an agrarian region with several industrial cities in economic and economic terms. These were mainly Simferopol and port Kerch, Sevastopol and Theodosius.

Soviet power established itself in the Crimea only in the autumn of 1920, after the German army and Denikin's troops were expelled from the peninsula. A year later, the Crimean Autonomous Socialist Republic. Palaces, dachas and villas were given over to people's sanatoriums, where collective farmers and workers from all over the young state were treated and rested.

The Great Patriotic War

During the Second World War, the peninsula courageously fought the enemy. Sevastopol repeated his feat, surrendering after a 250-day siege. The pages of the heroic chronicle of those years are full of such names as "The Tierra del Fuego of Eltigen", "Kerch-Feodosiya operation", "The feat of partisans and underground fighters"... For the courage and stamina shown, Kerch and Sevastopol were awarded the titles of hero cities.

February 1945 brought together the heads of the allied countries in the Crimea - USA, UK and USSR- at the Crimean (Yalta) conference in the Livadia Palace. During this conference, decisions were made to end the war and establish a post-war world order.

Postwar years

Crimea was liberated from the invaders at the beginning of 1944, and the restoration of the peninsula immediately began - industrial enterprises, rest houses, sanatoriums, agricultural facilities, villages and cities. The black page in the history of the peninsula of that time was the expulsion of Greeks, Tatars and Armenians from its territory. In February 1954, by decree of N.S. Khrushchev, the Crimean region was transferred to Ukraine. Today, many believe that it was a royal gift ...

During the 60-80s of the last century, the growth of Crimean agriculture, industry and tourism reached its peak. Crimea received the semi-official title of an all-Union health resort: 9 million people annually rested in its health resorts.

In 1991, during the putsch in Moscow, the General Secretary of the USSR M.S. was arrested. Gorbachev at the state dacha in Foros. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Crimea became Autonomous Republic, which became part of Ukraine. In the spring of 2014, after the all-Crimean referendum, the Crimean peninsula seceded from Ukraine and became one of the subjects of the Russian Federation. started recent history Crimea.

We know Crimea as a republic of relaxation, sun, sea and fun. Come to the Crimean land - let's write the history of our resort republic together!

The era of the Middle Ages in the Crimea is represented mainly by nomadic burials in the mounds of ancient mounds in the steppe regions (Portovoye, Sary-Bulat, Martynovka), as well as the remains of temporary sites and small settlements. Among the steppe antiquities, the Polovtsian “stone women” are considered the most valuable monuments. They were located on the tops of mounds at the entrance to the sanctuaries (Water drinking, Voskhod, Chokrak). Now they are kept in museums.

Among the most remarkable monuments of the 5th-7th centuries, in the rest of the Crimea, except for Chersonese, one can single out the ruins of Aluston (now Alushta) and Gorzuvit (Gurzuf). There were strategically important Byzantine fortresses here. A similar building of a defensive type of the 6th century. known in Sudak.

In the southwestern part of the Crimea, in the Middle Ages, "cave cities" appeared. Among them: Eski-Kermen, Kalamita (Inkerman), Kachi-Kalyon, Bakla, Syuren, Chufut-Kale, Tepe-Kermen, Kyz-Kermen… They were located on the rocks dominating mountain gorges and valleys. The largest cities occupied an area of ​​10-15 hectares (Kyz-Kermen, Chufut-Kale, Eski-Kermen), the rest were smaller - about 1-2 hectares (Syuren fortification, Tepe-Kermen).

Bakla is considered the northernmost "cave city". He appeared earlier than others - in IV. in. n. e. Located in the interfluve of Bodrak and Alma, near the village of Skalisty. On the slopes of the rocks, numerous utility rooms, casemates, grain pits, temples, and tombs are carved. On the plateau - the ruins of the fortress, (walls and towers), the remains of religious buildings of residential and outbuildings.

The “cave city” of Chufut-Kale on the southeastern outskirts of Bakhchisarai has been well preserved. Ground buildings, fortifications, etc. have been preserved here.

Near Bakhchisaray is Tepe-Kermen - a feudal castle and a fortified monastery, represented by multiple "casemates" carved into the rock and a church of the 8th-9th centuries.

The settlement and monastery of Kachi-Canyon near the village of Predushchelny is represented by monastic premises, cells of monks, a cave temple located in cliffs and in separate blocks. Lots of grape presses.

The largest and most popular is the "cave city" Mangup-Kale or Mangup, which in the XIV-XV centuries. was the capital of the Principality of Theodoro. Many artificial caves, the citadel and ground buildings are well preserved.

The medieval city of Eski-Kermen was located 7 km from Mangup. Cave temples and other structures, both carved into the rocks and above ground, have survived.

Researchers believe that the emergence of the "cave cities" of the Crimea was associated with the political and economic situation that developed in southwestern Taurica after the invasion of the Huns, and confirms the emergence of a feudal society. Most of them died as a result of raids by late nomads, a small part continued to exist - Mangup and several monasteries.

At the same time, stone walls were built on the passes of the main mountain range. They can be found near Chigenitra on Karabi-yayle (near the village of Privetnoye), Tash-Khabakh, Karatau, between North and South Demerdzhi... Researchers believe that the walls were erected by order of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. They are believed to have been destroyed in VIII-IX centuries, as a result of the Khazar raid.

In Feodosia (Medieval Cafe) a Genoese fortress is well preserved. Particularly notable is the tower of St. Constantine (1382-1448) near the railway station on the embankment and the tower of Clement VI (1348), above the Quarantine settlement.

The most interesting architectural and archaeological monument of the Crimea can be called a fortress in the city of Sudak (Sugdeya - Greek, Sourozh - Russian, Soldaya - Genoese). This is a large settlement, fortified and surrounded by two tiers of defensive walls and towers. Initial work according to the construction of the fortress, they are attributed to the Byzantine time, and the later, main one, to the Genoese (XIV-XV centuries). In this regard, the fortress is usually called the Genoese.

An open settlement on the Tepsen hill in the town of Planersky is also attributed to medieval times. On the coast between Sudak and Alushta, settlements of the 8th-9th centuries were discovered. (Kanakskaya beam, Choban-Kule, Vorop).

Some fortifications on the southern coast of Crimea should be mentioned: Krestovaya over Alupka, Kastel near Alushta, Seraus, Uchan-Su-Isar near Yalta, Psar-Kaya near Gaspra, Pakhkal-Kaya, Biyuk-Isar near the village. Landslide. Some of them were large settlements, others were sentinel points.

Medieval monuments have been preserved in the upper reaches of the Belbek and Kacha rivers: Boyka, Basman, Sandyk-Kaya, Syuyuru-Kaya. Remains of defensive walls, utility and residential buildings, ruins of stone fences and towers, terraces, fragments of roads, foundations of buildings, estates, crypts, grain pits, tombstones and much more have been found here.

According to the remains of the monastery of Surb-Khach, founded in the XIV century. near Stary Krym one can judge the high level of culture of the Armenian colony in the eastern Crimea in the Middle Ages. The painting of the 15th century has survived in the monastery. The ruins of a Muslim spiritual school have been preserved in Stary Krym. Nearby is the Kurshum-Jami mosque of the 14th century.

It is worth mentioning the mosque of the XIV century. - Eski-Saray, which is located near the village of Pionerskoye, Simferopol region.

Late medieval monuments include the former khan's palace in Bakhchisarai, which is especially popular. This period includes the remains of the Turkish fortress Yeni-Kale, located 14 km northeast of Kerch. On the northern border of the peninsula, along the narrow isthmus of land between the Karkinitsky Gulf of the Black Sea and the Sivash, the Perekop ditch and rampart passed. Its origin is associated with the Scythian time. The ground floor of another Tatar-Turkish fortification, Or-Kapu, has been preserved here. Late medieval monuments can be found in Evpatoria: a Turkish bath, the Juma-Jami mosque; flowing dervishes (Muslim monastery), the only such monument in the Crimea; medieval Karaite buildings - houses, temples.

After the seedling of the Roman Empire, the Crimean coast turned out to be in the sphere of political influence of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire.

In the middle of the 6th century, as the historian of that time Procopius testifies, Byzantium built fortresses on the southern coast of Crimea, as well as fortifications on the passes of the Main Ridge to the sea (“long walls”). The outpost of Byzantium in the Crimea was Kherson (as Chersonesos began to be called).

The main occupation of the population of the mountainous and southern coastal Crimea, which consisted mainly of the descendants of the mixed ancient inhabitants of the peninsula (Taurians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Greeks, etc.), was agriculture and cattle breeding.

During the Middle Ages in the Crimea, in connection with the development of new, feudal relations, numerous fortifications arose, including the so-called "cave cities": Inkerman, Chufut-Kale, Eski-Kermen, Bakla, etc. Near these fortified cities, castles and monasteries villages were located.

At the end of the VI century. most of the peninsula was captured by the Khazars, who came from the northeast. The local population fought both against the oppression of their own feudal lords and against the newcomers - the Khazars.

In the VI-IX centuries. the connection of the Crimea with the agricultural population of the East European Plain was not interrupted, the trade of the population of the peninsula with the Slavs did not stop. From the VIII-IX centuries. Kievan Rus began to play an active role in the history of the Crimea. Under Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, the city of Kherson (medieval Khersones, Korsun according to Russian chronicles) was included in the sphere of influence of Kievan Rus. Soon Korsun was returned to Byzantium at the cost of a trade agreement beneficial for Russia and the politically important marriage of a Russian prince to a Byzantine princess. A lively trade with Kievan Rus, Byzantium and the countries of the East was conducted by the city of Sugdeya (Sudak), known in ancient Russian sources under the name of Surozh. The Arabs called the Black Sea the Russian Sea. In the same period, the Tmutorokan principality arose on the Taman and Kerch peninsulas with the capital Tmutorokan on Taman. The Tmutorokan princes owned the city of Korchev (Kerch) - the former Panticapaeum.

At the turn of the IX-X centuries. the steppe expanses of the Crimea were occupied by the nomadic hordes of the Pechenegs, and then the Polovtsians.

The development of the economy and culture of the Crimea and its growing rapprochement with Russia in the XII century. were stopped for a long time by the Tatar-Mongol invasion. In the middle of the XIII century. on the peninsula, a province of the Golden Horde was formed, later, from 1443, an independent Crimean Khanate.

At the same time, colonies of the Italian trading cities-republics of Venice and Genoa settled on the coast of the Crimean peninsula. The city of Kafa (now Feodosia) became the center of the Genoese possessions in the Crimea. The Genoese turned the coastal cities into slave markets, where the Tatars sold captives - men, women and children, captured by them in predatory raids on Ukrainian, Russian, Polish lands.

In the southwestern, mountainous part of the peninsula at the end of the XIII century. a politically independent Christian principality of Theodoro arose with its capital on Mount Mangup. In the XIV-XV centuries. it was a force on the peninsula that the Tatars and Genoese could not ignore. The principality had ties with the Muscovite state, which at that time had already freed itself from the Tatar yoke and enjoyed great political influence in Eastern Europe. But in 1475, the troops of Sultan Turkey invaded the Crimean peninsula. With the help of the Tatars, they captured the Genoese colonies, captured and ruined the Principality of Theodoro. The Crimean Khanate became a vassal of Turkey. The collection of tribute from the conquered lands was the main means of enriching the Turkish and Tatar feudal lords.

The struggle of Ukraine and the Muscovite state against the invaders was long and hard. The Zaporizhzhya and Don Cossacks and Russian troops more than once inflicted crushing blows on the Khan's hordes. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia in 1654 greatly increased the strength of the two fraternal peoples and predetermined their victory.

PART II.

MEDIEVAL TAVRICA IV-XII centuries.

Crimea is an amazing treasury, a natural museum that keeps the secrets of millennia.

(A. S. Griboyedov)

EARLY MEDIEVAL TAURICA (IV-VII centuries)

The socio-economic and political development of Taurica in the early Middle Ages (IV-VII centuries) was notable for its unevenness. In the eastern regions of the region, profound transformations are taking place, associated primarily with the invasion and settlement of various “barbarian” tribes and peoples here. The western part of the peninsula is developing more steadily, where late antique traditions are still preserved.

A sharp change in the socio-economic and political development of Taurica marked the beginning of the invasion of the Goths and the Huns.

THE INVASION OF THE GOTHS AND THE HUNS

At the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 4th century, an intensive migration of tribes and peoples in Europe begins, which lasted several centuries and is known as Great Migration of Nations. It led to significant changes in the destinies of peoples. These events also affected our peninsula, the peoples who inhabited it, drastically changing their fate.

Germanic tribes are ready to invade Taurica.

The ancestral home was the Scandinavian Peninsula. As the Goths strengthened, they began to settle, and at the turn of our era they already found themselves on the opposite coast of the Baltic. Then the Goths rush to the south, and in the III century they reach the Northern Black Sea region, invade Crimea. They manage to defeat the Scythians, and then over the Bosporan kingdom. Having captured the Bosporan fleet, the Goths make sea voyages up to the Mediterranean Sea. Subsequently, the Goths settle in the Crimea. Questions about the number of Goths and their place of settlement on the peninsula are very complex. Obviously, they settled in the southwestern part and on the southern coast. Many authors refer to this area as Gothia.

A difficult test for the peoples of Taurica was invasion in the second half of the 4th century. on the peninsula of the Huns. These were the Central Asian Turkic tribes. In the III-II centuries. BC e. the tribes of the Huns (according to Chinese sources - "Xiongnu") began to unite in the territory of the Southern Baikal region and Mongolia.

Having created large paramilitary associations, these tribes begin their advance into the Volga and Donetsk steppes. In their progress, these tribes, conquering peoples, included some of them in their army. So, in particular, they attracted warlike Alanian tribes into their army. This further strengthened the Huns. They succeed in the IV century. defeat the Goths and conquer the steppe and foothill Crimea.

Judging by the sources, the Hunnic hordes made a terrible impression. Even outwardly they differed from the Turkic peoples already familiar to Europeans. These conquerors terrified with their cruelty. Here is how one of the contemporaries describes the Huns: “The tribe of the Huns... lives behind the Maeotian swamp... and surpasses every measure in its savagery... They live out their lives without a beard, ugly, like eunuchs... Their members are muscular and strong, thick necks, a monstrous and terrible appearance, so that they can be mistaken for two-legged beasts ... ”The Huns received such unflattering reviews because of their cruelty and, obviously, because in terms of their level of development they were much lower than those peoples who lived at that time in Taurica.

Carefully studying the sources, one can state with sufficient certainty that the basis of the Huns' economy was nomadic cattle breeding. Hunting was a big help for them. During this period, the Huns experienced property differentiation, and wealthy and noble people appeared.

Not having conquered the mountainous Crimea, the Huns continued their advance into Europe in 450. Their detachments, led by Attila, devastated Central Europe. But in 453, after the death of Attila, the union of the Huns, which seemed invincible, breaks up. A significant part of these tribes returned to the Crimea and the Black Sea steppes. This return of the Huns was disastrous for the peoples of Taurica. The Bosporan kingdom was finally defeated, and the state of the late Scythians also perished. The surviving inhabitants of the steppe and foothill Crimea fled to the mountainous regions of the peninsula.

Having inflicted huge damage to the region, the Huns were unable to fortify themselves in Taurica. Their tribal associations proved to be fragile. Soon most of them left Taurica.

Questions and tasks

1. What important event takes place at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 4th century?

2. What did you learn about the Goths?

3. When do the Goths invade the Crimea?

4. In what areas of Taurica did the Goths settle?

5. When did the Huns appear in Taurica?

6. What did you learn about the Huns?

7. Why couldn't they stay in Taurica?

8. What were the consequences for Taurica of the invasion of the Goths and the Huns?

UNDER THE RULE OF BYZANTIA (V-VII centuries)

The large state of the ancient era, which occupied a significant area on the Kerch and Taman peninsulas - the Bosporus kingdom - was unable to cope with the invasion of the Huns and actually ceased to exist. The economy, trade, crafts and culture are in complete decline. Cities and settlements were largely destroyed and depopulated for a century. And only later, life in this area gradually begins to revive, part of the surviving local population returned, "aliens" - primarily the Sarmatians - settled.

The end of the Hunnic rule falls at the beginning of the 6th century, when, under Emperor Justinian I, the Bosporus passes under the rule of Byzantium. But the Byzantines could not completely oust the Huns from this region. In addition, the Byzantine emperors, having assessed the alignment of forces on the peninsula, decided to use the once formidable, a now greatly weakened the Huns for their own purposes. The Byzantines tried to attract this force to their side, using the Huns as a mercenary army. To strengthen its influence, Byzantium created a number of fortified areas in which it deployed its garrisons.

The invasion of the barbarians did not have such catastrophic consequences for Chersonesus as the Bosporan kingdom experienced. Chersonese turned out to be aloof from the movement of the barbarians and from their main attack. At the same time, the development of the city could not but be affected by the results of the invasion of the "alien" - in fact, Chersonesos was in a hostile environment. The extremely difficult situation changed after Byzantium began its penetration into the peninsula, immediately appreciating the significance of Chersonesus. It was a strategically important foothold in the Black Sea basin and an intermediary in sea and land trade with the barbarian tribes of the northern Black Sea steppes.

Gradually, the power of Byzantium over Chersonesos is being strengthened, the Byzantine garrison is stationed here. The attitude of Chersonesos to the empire during this period was contradictory. The city was interested in close economic ties with Byzantium, the military construction activities of the Byzantine administration of the city, which protected it from numerous enemies, were of great importance. Ethnic kinship, the unity of language, and cultural commonality were of no small importance. Therefore, despite the fact that Chersonesus strove for greater independence, at the same time, of course, he was not interested in breaking with Byzantium. The dependence of Chersonesos was expressed in the fact that already at the end of the 5th century there was a Byzantine garrison here, which was supported by local funds; existed vicarate- an institution that collected taxes and trade duties from the population; Byzantine administration combined military and civil power. At the same time, a large fortification began in the city, indicating the importance of the city as a Byzantine outpost in the Northern Black Sea region. Particularly extensive construction of fortress walls was carried out in the VI century, under Emperor Justinian I; it was at this time that a powerful coastline of walls was probably built, the rest of the defensive structures were strengthened and built on in accordance with the Byzantine wall-building practice of that time.

Chersonese becomes the center of a relatively large area of ​​a settled agricultural population that occupied the southwestern highlands of Taurica. The city is also becoming a large trading center. Here there is an exchange of agricultural products for handicrafts, both local and imported, agricultural tools, jewelry, pottery. During this period, the need for food in Chersonesos sharply increases - the population of the city increases, a Byzantine garrison and a huge army of builders appear. In addition, part of the products is exported to Byzantium.

All this leads to an economic upsurge, which is especially evident in the VI century, when the city begins to mint its own coin again. The overall favorable situation also contributed to the rise in the economy - a certain calm that came in the 6th century in the Northern and Southern Black Sea coast.

Byzantine rulers also built fortresses on the approaches to Chersonesus. In addition, according to Procopius, Justinian I built two fortifications on the southern coast - Aluston (present-day Alushta) and in Gorzuvity (present-day Gurzuf). Both cities were large settlements, predominantly Alanian. The fact that the Gorzuvits were not a Greek city in terms of their ethnic composition is confirmed by the vast Suuk-su burial ground, which will be discussed later. Gorzuvits and Aluston acquired the importance of strategically important Byzantine fortresses, as well as Mangup and Eski-Kermen. These fortresses were designed not only to protect the Byzantine possessions of the steppes, but also to fulfill the goals of internal Byzantine policy in Taurica - to consolidate the dependence of the population of this region on Byzantium and suppress its possible resistance.

The same political goal was served by increased propaganda and the planting of Christianity among the population of Taurica. Already at the beginning of the 4th century, the Kherson diocese was founded, even earlier Christianity began to penetrate the Bosporus; in the 4th century there already existed a Christian community.

But Christianity was accepted primarily by the social elite of society. It was to this circle that Savag and Faisparta belonged, whose rich Christian tomb, built in 491, was discovered in Kerch. Wealthy citizens also owned a rich necropolis of the 4th century in Chersonese. The bulk of the population continued to remain pagan for a long time.

In the 5th and especially in the 6th century, the propaganda of Christianity in Taurica intensified sharply and acquired for Byzantium the importance of the most important state task. The planting of Christianity required the mass construction of churches, baptismal centers, which the Byzantine rulers, apparently, did not skimp on. Capacious temples in the form of basilicas (elongated three-part halls) were built in huge numbers for that time; some of them were decorated with marble and mosaics. Temples-basilicas were erected in all large settlements of the region; they were discovered by excavations on Mangup, Eski-Kermen, in Partenit (on the southern coast), in the area of ​​the Bosporus (in Tiritak). But most of the temples were built in Chersonese - the then "capital" of Taurica.

The persistent planting of Christianity, of course, could not be unsuccessful. But the farther from Chersonesus, the weaker was the cultural influence of Byzantium. The varying degree of this influence in different regions of the region and the disunity of many of them led to the heterogeneity of the culture of early medieval Taurica and to clearly felt contrasts.

Questions and tasks

1. What are the consequences of the Hun invasion for the Bosporan kingdom?

2. What was the relationship between Byzantium and the Huns?

3. Describe the position of Chersonesos by the 5th century.

4. What were the relations between Chersonesus and Byzantium?

5. What was the dependence of Chersonese on Byzantium?

6. Tell us about the development of Chersonese in the 5th-7th centuries.

7. What determined the political position of Chersonese in the 5th-7th centuries?

8. What is a vikarat?

9. Why did Byzantium build powerful fortifications around Chersonese?

10. What role was the Christianity spreading in Taurica supposed to play?

11. Give examples that testify to the spread of Christianity in the Crimea.

DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE IN V-VII centuries.

The heterogeneity and specific features of the culture of various regions of Taurica can be judged by the objects of decoration from the necropolises of the Bosporus, Gorzuvit, Chersonesos and other places in the region. Antiquity left a remarkable legacy here - a fully formed, developed and original style of jewelry: personal adornments, precious vessels, richly trimmed horse harness and weapons. They widely used inlay with precious stones or only colored glasses in convex nests, which gave the name to this style - polychrome. The early stages of its development (the first half of the 4th century) are characterized by golden objects, as if showered with precious stones (more often red), which effectively stand out against a golden background. Things of this kind were found in various areas of the Black Sea region, but most of all in the necropolis of the Bosporus and on the routes of advancement of diverse tribes squads to Eastern Europe and further to the West. The style of these bright decorations was most likely created in the Greek-Sarmatian workshops of the Bosporus on the basis of the achievements and traditions of Hellenistic art. During the period of antiquity and the Middle Ages, the polychrome style underwent changes: the relief inlay was replaced by a planar one, but polychrome was strengthened. Figured colored plates, most often red, green, purple, made of dark amber, garnet, a vitreous mass of various shades or pieces of colored glass covered the surface of the object, placed in partition cells that formed an ornamental pattern. Bosporan jewelers, who had achieved high skill in creating spectacular items, preferred the play of bright colors.

At the turn of the 4th-5th centuries, during the period of even greater barbarization of the Bosporus and the beginning of the decline of the city, the polychrome style began to degenerate.

The cemeteries of this period consist of earthen graves with wooden coverings, graves lined or covered with massive stone slabs, and family burial vaults - earthen crypts with three benches (one on each side). The buried were laid on their backs in an extended position, sometimes on their sides, with their heads to the west. A non-Greek (barbarian) appearance is given to the buried by the often occurring deformation of their skull, so characteristic of the Sarmatians. Numerous ornaments were found on the clothes and heads of the buried: large gold earrings with a multifaceted bead adorned with precious stones and colored glasses, silver bracelets, the ends of which often depict snake heads , various rings, etc. But the massive bronze or silver brooches and large belt buckles are especially interesting.

The underside of the brooches (a semicircular shield) is usually decorated with bird and snake heads; the upper end ends with the head of a snake-monster, on the sides of which a bird's head is placed. In addition, the brooches are inlaid with red colored glass and stamped ornaments in the form of scrolls.

In these rich decorations, polychrome has already lost its former significance. Animal images came to the fore, which gave the old decorations a medieval look. These images were also inherited from antiquity, but "barbarian" antiquity - Scythian-Sarmatian, in which, long before the 5th century, we found images of birds and snakes. Serpentine images on brooches and buckles personified pagan beliefs, rooted in the deep antiquity of the Scythian-Sarmatian world. The bird personified the element of the sky, the snake - the element of the earth. On brooches and buckles, the main forces of nature, which man worshiped, were depicted. But gradually this high art begins to degenerate, and from the 6th century this process intensified. Products become simplified.

What explains such a simplification and coarsening that Bosporan samples of the 5th century underwent in the 6th century? Most likely, this phenomenon was due to the rather intensive growth of settlements on the southern coast in remote areas of Taurica. Local needs caused the local production of jewelry, which led to the simplification and coarsening of Bosporan samples in order to reduce their cost. As can be seen, despite the persistent planting of Byzantine culture, local traditions and local art continued to dominate.

In the era of the early Middle Ages, Byzantine culture determined the entire appearance of Chersonesos. The city inherited from antiquity the correct layout with rectangular quarters and straight narrow streets. True, in the 5th-6th centuries this ancient layout underwent some changes - many quarters were united, due to which they increased in size, but this did not violate the general principle of planning. The unification of quarters is explained by the growth of the population of Chersonese and, accordingly, the increase in the density of buildings.

The main street, about a kilometer long, crossed the city from the southwest to the northeast, passed through acropolis- the central square of the city, where the market and two temples were located, with its northeastern end it rested on a large temple-basilica and the area in front of it, lined with large slabs, southwest - at the entrance gate. The main street was a little wider than the others (6-7 m), had a sewer in the form of gutters and water supply from clay pipes. A large palace, carved into the rock, overlooked the main street with its facade. cave mausoleum, belonged to one of the noble families. The layout of the mausoleum followed the old Palestinian tradition, which came from those regions from which Christianity also came to Chersonesus. The mausoleums of the Chersonesos nobility in the form of a ground cruciform building with a dome on the middle of the cross rose in other parts of the city. They were attached to basilica temples or built separately. One such mausoleum was erected outside the city at the end of the 5th century, among the rich Christian necropolis, and in the 6th century it was rebuilt into the church of the out-of-town monastery of the Virgin of Blachernae. This temple is remarkable for its mosaic floor. In the center of it is a square, which depicts a large vase with a vine growing from it and two peacocks on the sides of the vase, personifying, according to ancient Christian symbolism, immortality and heavenly life. The square is surrounded by many woven circles, each of which contains images of birds, animals, fish, fruits, etc., conditionally reproducing the biblical Garden of Eden with all the diversity of flora and fauna.

But at the same time, in the mosaic floors of Chersonesos, as in other Byzantine mosaics and in early Byzantine art in general, a departure from realism is clearly felt.

Realism in painting gave way to conditional and static, as if frozen, images that personified Christian symbols, or only ornaments. This approach was an expression of the new tasks set before art by the Christian Church, which required rigor and asceticism, reflecting the spirit of belief.

Chersonesos is especially characterized by numerous Christian basilica churches, which in the full sense of the word were public buildings of the Middle Ages. These are large elongated halls, divided by two rows of columns, as if into three corridors ( nave), of which the middle, ending in an altar semicircle (apse), was almost twice as wide as the side ones and towered above it. Their covering was wooden, rafter.

In all likelihood, each district of the city, which united several quarters, had its own temple-basilica. Basilicas stood in the most prominent places, mainly along the coast and in the main squares. The largest of them, located on the seashore in the Feona quarter and built back in the 5th century, was, presumably, the main temple of the city; a wider street led here than emphasized the significance of the building. The basilica had a large courtyard (the so-called atrium) with galleries along the walls and with phialom(fountain) in the center; here they rested and had conversations; mausoleum adjoined the temple.

Questions and tasks

1. What is the role of ancient culture in the development of Crimean culture in the 5th-7th centuries?

2. Tell us about the polychrome style. What changes did it undergo at the beginning of the Middle Ages?

3. What were the cemeteries of Crimea in the 5th-7th centuries?

4. What is the process of degeneration of high jewelry art, its simplification and coarsening connected with?

5. Tell us about the early medieval Chersonese.

6. What is an acropolis, necropolis, basilica, apse, nave, atrium?

7. Tell us about the religious buildings of Chersonese.

8. What is the reason for the departure from realism in art?

9. What facts testify that Christianity was actively penetrating Chersonese?

Taurica in the VIII-IX centuries.

From the middle of the 6th century, Byzantium experienced an economic and political crisis, which immediately affected its possessions in Taurica.

The decline of Chersonese is evidenced by a sharp reduction in trade, the transition to the naturalization of the economy, and the cessation of issuing its own coin. The situation of the city was further worsened by the invasion of the Khazars, which led to the disruption of economic and trade ties with neighboring peoples.

The decline in the economy is evidenced by a sharp decline in fishing. Large fish-salting tanks are disappearing, giving way to small domestic fish storages. In connection with the decline of this industry and maritime trade, shipbuilding, which played a significant role in the city's economy, suffered the same fate. The scale of urban crafts, in particular, the production of tools, which were marketed in the southwestern and steppe Taurica, sharply decreased. This led to the plight of artisans - the main part of the city's population. The former significance of the city as a craft, trade and cultural center was lost for centuries. How difficult the situation in the city was, an eyewitness testifies: “... In these parts, hunger and need are such that bread is known here only by name, but you can’t even see it by sight ... Never, really, I could not buy in the local the edge of bread ... likewise, and edible products of any kind, except ... from ships that occasionally come here in order to leave with a cargo of salt.

Obviously, the influence of Byzantium on Chersonesos is weakening. In the 7th - early 8th centuries, there was local self-government headed by protivonom(leading). In order to strengthen their shaky positions in Chersonese, Byzantium under Justinian II sent several punitive expeditions here. But they could not achieve their goal, as the local population of the empire rebelled, called on the help of the Khazars and proclaimed in 711 the exiled Armenian Vardan Philippik the new emperor of Byzantium. After these events, the Byzantine emperors did not touch the privileges of Chersonese for a long time, which they received from Vartan Philippic.

In the second half of the 9th century, minting of its own coin resumed in Chersonese. And although this coin was a copper, small change and was intended for retail trade in the internal markets and markets closest to the city, the very fact of its minting suggests that Chersonese again acquired a prominent trade and craft significance among other early medieval cities of the southwestern Crimea. The growth of trade, both internal and external, is evidenced by the remains of the 9th-10th century shopping malls on its main street.

The role of the Black Sea trade and the Black Sea land roads began to increase in the 8th century, as the Arabs closed the waterway through the Red Sea, which previously connected Byzantium with the eastern markets. In this regard, the role of Chersonesos also increases, where Byzantium seeks to strengthen its influence.

If earlier only representatives of the imperial power in the person of tribunes and commercials, now it establishes strategy something like a governor-general. And an area of ​​indeterminate size, economically and politically stretching towards the city, turned into theme- a kind of military-administrative district. This eventually led to the fact that soon the Byzantine strategists of the Chersonesus theme nullified the role of city self-government. Even though the title protevons remained in Chersonese for a long time, all the administrative management of the city was, apparently, completely subordinated to strategists.

From the second half of the 9th century, the prosperity of Chersonesos increased markedly. This can be seen not only in the expansion and strengthening of its trade and political ties, but also in the development of crafts and art, in the scope of construction work and the strengthening of the defense of the city.

At the end of the 10th century, Chersonesus was a commercial and aristocratic republic. Around it there are no noticeable traces of large land ownership. This is probably why Constantine Porphyrogenitus, a Byzantine author of the 10th century, pointed out that Chersonese could not live without bread imported from the Southern Black Sea region. Crafts and especially intermediary trade were, as before, the basis of the city's economy.

A significant role in the trade of the city was played by the sale of salted and dried fish, which fishermen have been catching for a long time. Numerous cisterns and pithoi with the remains of salted fish, found during excavations of commercial premises on the main street and in other places of the city, confirm the data of written sources.

An equally important source of income for Chersonesos was the resale of livestock products. Merchants of the city bought them in the steppe regions and exported them to Asia Minor. The suppliers of these products were first the Pechenegs, and later the Cumans.

As for crafts, they began to play, apparently, a secondary role in comparison with trade. There are no data of that time about the intensity of the sale of handicraft products by Chersonese. The only exceptions were agricultural tools and, perhaps, building materials such as shingles and brick, as well as trade packaging - amphoras. However, the distribution of amphorae outside the city was most likely associated with the sale of goods in them, and not with the sale of themselves as a commodity. Archaeological excavations in a number of other places in the Crimea opened pottery and ceramic workshops. Consequently, this production was developed not only in Chersonesos, and therefore it is unlikely that the city played an exclusive role in supplying the Crimean settlements with handicrafts. But in the trade in imported products of artistic crafts, luxury goods and other goods that were not produced in the Crimea, Chersonese, apparently, occupied the first place.

Questions and tasks

1. What was the decline of Chersonese in the 8th century? What was it about?

2. Tell us about the management structure of Chersonesos in the 9th century.

3. What was the rise of Chersonese in the 9th century?

CHANGES IN THE ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION OF THE CRIMEA IN THE MIDDLE AGES

In the early Middle Ages, there was a rapid change in the ethnic composition of the population of Taurica. This started Great Migration of Nations as a result, the Goths and Huns invaded the peninsula.

In the VIII century, the peoples of Taurica saw new conquerors - the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Khazars.

In the 7th century, the tribes create their own state - the Khazar Khaganate on the lands of the Lower Volga and the North Caucasus. From the end of the 7th century, the Khazars begin their advance towards Sea of ​​Azov, capture the Northern Black Sea region and invade Taurica. The local population of the peninsula waged a desperate struggle with them, but the forces were unequal. The Khazars manage to capture a significant part of the region and even Sugdeya (Sudak) and Chersonese. True, soon Chersonesus managed to free himself.

Despite the fact that the Khazars already had a state, they remained pagans. The main deity of the Khazar tribes was Tengri Khan, but there was no single deity. They "offered sacrifices to fire and water, worshiping some of the gods of the ways, also the moon and all the creatures that seemed amazing to them."

One of the Khazar rulers - Ali-Alitver - managed to convert some of his subjects to Christianity. But the new religion was introduced with great difficulty. And the Khazar rulers themselves did not show much perseverance in this. This fact, obviously, can be explained by the fact that the top of the Khazars did not want to spread the influence of Byzantium.

At the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th century, Hagan Obadiah accepts the Jewish faith. The top of the kaganate followed him. The common people were also reluctant to accept this religion.

In the second half of the 10th century, the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khazar Khaganate, and by the end of the 10th century this state ceased to exist. Part of the Khazars remained in the Crimea and assimilated with the local peoples. Many researchers consider the Karaites to be the descendants of the Khazars in the Crimea.

In the VIII-IX centuries. Proto-Bulgarians appear in Taurica.

Their main settlements on the peninsula were in the steppe and foothill regions. These tribes penetrate into Taurica from the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov. These were Turkic-speaking nomadic tribes who gradually switched to a settled way of life.

At the end of the 9th century, new conquerors appeared in Crimea - the Turkic-speaking nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs.

They captured a significant part of the peninsula, including the Bosporus and Chersonese. A significant part of the conquerors remains in the Crimea. During this period, the Pechenegs had great influence in the region. But by the middle of the XI century, they suffered a series of crushing defeats from the Polovtsians. Most of the Pechenegs leave Taurica, but some of them remain on the already inhabited lands. At the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century, the Polovtsy invaded Taurica(by the name of one of the main Polovtsian tribes they are also called Kypchaks). By this time, they had already captured a significant territory from the Tien Shan to the Danube. These are also Turkic-speaking nomadic tribes. They did not yet have a single state, but large tribal associations were created, headed by khans. The Polovtsy differed from their "predecessors" - the dark-haired Pechenegs - in that the majority were fair-haired and blue-eyed.

The Polovtsy captured a significant territory of Taurica. The Arab historian Elaini considered Sugdeya "the largest of the Kypchak cities". In the 11th century, the bulk of the Polovtsians adopted a single religion - Islam.

Since the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th century, a significant part of the Polovtsy leaves the Crimea.

The appearance in Taurica of more and more new tribes and peoples was associated not only with military invasions, but also with resettlement. So, settlers from the Caucasus appear on the peninsula - primarily Armenians.

From ancient times (according to a number of historians - in the II-I centuries BC) Jews appeared in Taurica. Their numbers increased significantly in the 7th century, when they were persecuted in the Byzantine Empire. Especially many Jews settled in the cities, where they begin to play a certain role. The rulers of the Khazar Khaganate even borrowed their religion - Judaism. The Jews were mainly engaged in various crafts, and mainly in trade.

The invasion of Taurica by various tribes and peoples did not go unnoticed. It has had a significant impact on all areas of life. These peoples were at different levels of development, had features in culture, economy, and way of life. That part of them that remained on the peninsula did not disappear without a trace, it significantly influenced, first of all, the formation of the ethnic composition of the population of Taurica.

KRYMCHAKS

In the Middle Ages, a small Turkic-speaking people formed in Taurica - Krymchaks. It had its own distinctive features and, at the same time, adopted a lot from the peoples around it. Krymchaks mostly lived compactly (community) in various regions of our region (Bakhchisaray, Belogorsk, Feodosia, Stary Krym, Evpatoria).

Their main occupations for many centuries were crafts, petty trade, gardening, and agriculture. Krymchaks were famous as excellent tanners, saddlers, hatmakers, shoemakers, gardeners, saddlers, upholsterers, etc.

This is how Pierre Lyakub described the Krymchaks: "Krymchaks are almost all tall, swarthy in color, stately and slender. Directness is expressed in their gaze and posture. They are polite and affectionate. Their lifestyle is extremely simple and restrained."

Krymchaks built their houses from local stone. The windows of the houses overlooked the courtyard, and such a house turned to the street like a solid wall. The masonry was covered with clay both outside and inside, and then whitewashed. Thus, the houses of the Krymchaks had a simple, but at the same time neat appearance. Such a house most often had two or three rooms (women's and children's rooms, a kitchen and a living room, which also served as the bedroom of the head of the family). The decoration of the rooms, even among rich Krymchaks, was simple. The Krymchaks were distinguished by great industriousness: "... even the richest do not have servants with them, finding it superfluous for themselves. A Krymchak woman herself milks, cooks, washes dishes and even does laundry herself. In rare cases, she hires a day laborer, precisely only when she needs to whitewash the walls and ceilings, since this work is no longer her strength, and it is difficult to do without outside help.

Krymchaks lived very friendly with the peoples surrounding them. At the same time, they enjoyed great respect among the latter. This was facilitated by the characteristic features of this people. They were very trusting friendly. Various transactions concluded with someone were based on the honesty of a person. The Krymchaks themselves, under any circumstances, fulfilled their promises and obligations: "Krymchak will deny himself the most necessary, but he will steadily fulfill his word, trying with all his might not to remain in debt by the deadline. About usury ... they have no idea."

Krymchaks tried to avoid any quarrels. If they did occur, then they were analyzed by the heads of families, and in especially important cases - by rabbis.

The Krymchaks were modest and temperate in life: "A drunkard among them is a rarity. Such a subject is considered by them to be a worthless person, loses all confidence and, if he is poor, loses the right to support from the public fund."

A characteristic feature of the Krymchaks was the full support of their fellow tribesmen. To this end, they create a public fund, which is constantly replenished with contributions and donations. The Krymchaks considered it a shame for themselves if a beggar and a beggar appeared among them.

The purity of morals in all spheres of life for the Krymchaks was of paramount importance. Marriage unions, in the absolute majority, were concluded only in the circle of their fellow tribesmen. The wedding ceremony of the Krymchaks went like this: “Beginning the wedding, the Krymchak rabbi performs, first of all, the rite of cleansing sins ... The rite of purification consists precisely in the fact that ... the rabbi takes a cooked rooster or chicken and circles them several times over the heads of the bride and groom. After the ceremony of purification, the young are showered with small coins: the rich - silver, the poor - copper.At this time, it is considered necessary to do some kind of good deed... The wedding evening ends with dancing... They become dancing in pairs - one couple against the other. and the women dance against each other separately from the men.Before the dance begins, the rabbi blesses the newlyweds with wine and then reads the prayers set for this occasion.The newlywed pronounces ... a solemn vow to be in complete obedience to her husband ... Krymchaks do not require a dowry from the bride. it is not customary for them to talk about this during matchmaking. Only after the engagement, the bride and groom give gifts to each other, according to their condition.

Krymchak families strictly observe patriarchal orders, in which the wife and children obey their husband and father unquestioningly. In general, respect for elders is sacred for Krymchaks.

All aspects of the life of the Krymchaks are greatly influenced by their religion - Judaism.

Krymchaks performed religious rites quite strictly, performing prayers twice a day, in the morning and in the evening, in synagogues. They perform their prayers with reverence and, unlike the Jews, they read them quietly and calmly.

In the synagogues of the Krymchaks, there are a lot of all kinds of decorations and religious objects. The rabbi, who acts as their spiritual shepherd, butcher, and mentor, and even a doctor, enjoys great authority among the Krymchaks. Treating the rabbi with respect, the Krymchaks add the title "rabbi" to his name.

KARAIM

In the Middle Ages, a small Turkic people appeared in Taurica - the Karaites. Self-name: karai(one Karaim) and Karaylar(Karaites). Thus, instead of the ethnonym "Karaim" it is more correct to say "karay". Their material and spiritual culture, language, way of life and customs are of great interest.

Researchers do not have a single point of view about the origin of the Karaites. But analyzing the available anthropological, linguistic and other data, a significant part of scientists see the Karaites as descendants of the Khazars. At the same time, a number of materials also point to the genetic connection of the Karaites with the pre-Khazar population of Taurica.

Even the name of the people "Karaim" is translated by researchers in different ways. The most widely accepted interpretation is that it is a religious term meaning "those who read the Holy Scriptures".

The language of this people is peculiar, it belongs to the Kypchak group of Turkic languages.

The Karaites, for the most part, are people of medium height, stocky, broad-faced, swarthy brunettes.

It is very difficult to determine the number of Crimean Karaites in the Middle Ages. It can only be noted that at the time of the annexation of Crimea to Russia, there were about 4,000 of them.

This people settled mainly in the foothills and mountains of Taurica. The settlement of Chufut-Kale was a peculiar center.

The Karaites were a very hardworking people: they were engaged in gardening, agriculture and trade. Carefully cultivating and irrigating their plots, they received good harvests. Fruits from the gardens of the Karaites were excellent palatability. The well-known agronomist L.P. Simirenko called the Karaites "the first gardeners".

The culture, way of life and worldview of the Karaites were typically oriental. The family played a big role. Marriages of the Karaites concluded in most cases between fellow tribesmen. Karaites treat their children with great love, devoting a lot of time to their upbringing. Here is how one of the researchers describes the attitude of adult Karaites towards their children: “Karaites love their children very much, so that even in synagogues [kenasses - temples] they constantly talk, joke with children. Little ones play carelessly on soft carpets, ... or laying their heads on their father's knees, caressing him. Often you can see how the father, putting aside the Bible, gently kisses his naughty son and persuades him not to frolic too much and not to break the common prayer. "

The Karaites revered their elders. A sense of respect for each other and for the peoples around them was developed.

Meat (mutton) and flour foods predominated in the diet of the Karaites. And today the famous Karaite pies with meat or cherries (et-ayaklachik and fishne-ayaklachik), cabbage rolls in grape leaves (sarma) and other national dishes are famous.

The Karaites had their own folklore - fairy tales, legends. In their religion, they rely on the ancient creed without any later additions. Taking as a basis the original version of the Holy Scriptures, the Karaites founded their own religion, rejecting the Talmud and Jewish rituals. Religion of the Karaites - Karaimism- peculiar in rituals, dogmas, calendars. Karaites are distinguished by religious tolerance towards other religions.

Living side by side for a long time, the peoples of Crimea, as already noted, borrowed a lot from each other. This was especially evident in clothing. It is very difficult for an uninitiated person to find differences in the costumes of Krymchaks and Karaites, Karaites and Crimean Tatars. The clothing style of the Karaites, like that of most Crimean residents, was oriental.

Contemporaries noted that the Karaites dressed very neatly. The fact that the Karaites paid great attention to clothing is evidenced by their laconic proverb: "A tree is decorated with leaves, a person is decorated with clothes." What was the clothing of the Karaites?

Men wore shirts and trousers over their underwear. Over them was put on a long, often striped, caftan with a small straight collar, with hook-and-loop fasteners on the chest, from the neck to the waist. They were belted with a sash or a woven or twisted leather belt. A short (to the waist), not fastened jacket with sleeves just below the elbow was put on the caftan. The clothes were completed by a long, to the toe, or a short upper caftan. In winter it was covered with a fur coat.

On their feet they wore boots or shoes with leather galoshes or boots. Festive shoes were soft morocco boots.

The national headdress is a low black round lamb hat - Karaite, as it was called in the Crimea. They also wore the so-called Turkish cone-shaped fez with a flat bottom, usually crimson in color.

Unlike everyday, festive men's clothing was sewn from expensive, often lighter, material. It was embroidered with gold or silver in front, decorated with national ornaments.

The women's costume consisted of an undershirt, an overdress, a blouse and an overcoat. Trousers were often worn at home. The quality of matter was determined by the level of wealth. The dress was long to the toe, the bottom hem was edging. They girdled with a wide belt, often with round double silver buckles.

The jacket is short (to the waist), with a wide sleeve, lowered just below the elbow, open at the chest and decorated with multi-colored ornaments. The chest under the jacket was covered with an openwork white mesh embroidered with pearls or beads. The lower edge of the grid was decorated with coins.

They put on stockings with beautifully embroidered garters and shoes or light, embroidered, morocco boots. In inclement weather, they wore high wooden blocks or shoes like sandals with thick wooden soles. In the festive version, these shoes were decorated with carvings, inlaid with dark-colored wood and mother-of-pearl.

An apron with embroidery was sometimes worn over the dress. Favorite colors of dresses - dark blue, dark green, coffee. Festive dresses were of lighter colors, sometimes red.

The head was covered with a low round cap - fez (fezze), most often red; from above it was decorated with a lace cape, embroidered with pearls, beads, gold and silver, with a fringe. From the sides of the hat were decorated with coins. When leaving the house, the fez was half covered with a scarf that fell to the shoulders, or a shawl.

Festive clothes were decorated with a necklace made of coins. Hair was braided into numerous small pigtails. A feature of the hairstyle of a married woman was curls - zilif, which were produced on whiskey, which distinguished a Turkic woman from a girl. Elderly married women wore a scarf tied in a special way - jaiber.

Everyday clothes of a Karaite woman were simple and modest, and festive and weekend clothes were very elegant. It was sewn from brocade, silk, velvet, suede, embroidered with pearls, gold and silver. On the occasion of holidays and celebrations, they put on elegant belts, necklaces, bracelets and other jewelry. Rich festive dresses and decorations were inherited from generation to generation.

Not far from Chufut-Kale there is a small Jehoshaphat Valley- so the Karaites called it in honor of the valley of burials near Jerusalem. Here is the oldest Karaite cemetery. The valley of Jehoshaphat was for the Karaites the most ancient and revered burial place, where the dead were brought even from other regions. Centuries-old sacred oaks grew here, cutting which was strictly forbidden: it is no coincidence that the Tatars called the cemetery Balta-Timez, which means "the ax does not touch". Various tombstones with inscriptions and ornaments were placed on the graves. Unfortunately, as a result of the barbaric attitude of subsequent generations, these monuments are almost completely destroyed. And now in the dense thickets you can see very few traces of the "city of the dead".

Remember! Josaphat Valley is a sacred place of the beautiful Crimean people - the Karaites.

Questions and tasks

1. What tribes and peoples appeared in Taurica in the Middle Ages?

2. What do you know about them?

3. What impact did they have on the life of our region?

4. Tell us about the activities, customs, culture and life of the Krymchaks. Why are you interested in this people?

5. Tell us about the occupations, customs, culture and life of the Karaites. Why are you interested in this people?

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECONOMY

AGRICULTURE

The cultivation of cereals was of paramount importance in the agriculture of the inhabitants of Taurica. This is confirmed by numerous finds of charred grains of wheat, millet, barley and other cereals. Straw of these grain crops was also found.

The main tool of labor was the plow. For plowing, mainly oxen were harnessed to the plow. To obtain higher yields, the fields were manured and the fields were sown alternately with various cereals: if in the first year wheat was sown on the site, then in the second year - barley, in the third - millet, and even for some time this site was not sown - giving the land "gain strength".

Harvesting was done with sickles. The crop thus harvested was then threshed using horses. For this purpose, a round platform was being prepared, which was well compacted. Then, in the center of the site, a stake was driven in, to which a rope was attached, and a horse was tied to it. Sheaves were laid out all over the site, along which the horse was driven. The horse, walking in a circle, threshed the sheaves over the entire area, since with each circle the rope was wound around a stake. Then the horse was driven in the opposite direction, and so on until the grain was completely threshed out of the sheaves.

Then the collected grain was dried well, constantly stirring with wooden shovels. After that, the grain was sifted through leather sieves and stored in pithoi, and most often in special grain pits, which were prepared very carefully. Such holes were dug in the ground, then they were coated with clay, which was fired. If it was necessary to obtain flour, the grain was ground in hand mills built from two stone millstones. Groats and millet were prepared using stone or wooden mortars.

Straw was also widely used. She went not only to feed livestock, but also for construction.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

An important branch of the economy was animal husbandry, especially in the mountainous regions of Taurica. The local population raised oxen, cows, horses, goats, sheep, pigs and other domestic animals.

An indispensable assistant in the economy was oxen, which was used in plowing as a draft force, when transporting various goods. The centuries-old experience of the local population made it possible to create two-wheeled carts - arbs and four-wheeled mazhars, unsightly in appearance, but very convenient when transporting goods in mountainous areas.

The most common animals were sheep and goats. They gave local residents food - meat, milk. A variety of products were made from milk, but primarily cheeses. In addition, these animals also "dressed" their owners. Homespun woolen fabrics and knitting were widely used.

One of the proofs of the large number of different peoples and tribes that lived on the peninsula at that time, the preserved features in culture and everyday life are the most diverse types of woolen fabrics, their color, and various patterns. Their diversity emphasizes the multinational composition of the population of medieval Taurica.

On the peninsula, a peculiar breed of cows was bred, distinguished by their small stature, but giving a high fat content of milk.

Domestic animals were grazed on mountain pastures.

Questions and tasks

1. What crops were grown in Taurica?

2. Tell us about the tools of the farmers.

3. How was the grain harvest collected and stored?

4. Tell us about the domestic animals of the inhabitants of Taurica.

GARDENING

Since ancient times, the inhabitants of Taurica, using favorable natural and climatic conditions, have been engaged in gardening. This industry developed primarily in the foothill areas, in river valleys, where it was possible to systematically water gardens.

One of the most important traditions was passed down from generation to generation - respect for water. Wherever possible, springs were used, wells were dug, reservoirs were built. People made great efforts to save even the smallest source of water. It was literally cherished - it was cleaned of pollution, fences were built, trees and shrubs were planted.

In those villages where there were no sources, water was supplied through water pipes from ceramic pipes or stone slabs. A system of small canals was used to irrigate the gardens.

Another important tradition was the careful and reasonable use of the fertile land of Taurica. Gardens were planted not only in narrow valleys, but also on the slopes of mountains and even in forest clearings.

Mountain gardening required huge labor costs from a person. People on the slopes of the mountains created special terraces - they brought land, built retaining walls.

Until now, in the forests of Crimea you can meet fruit trees. These are traces of the activities of our ancestors, who either planted fruit trees in forest glades, or grafted on wild-growing rootstocks. Such gardens are called tea gardens.

The land of Taurica generously rewarded people for their work with a good harvest of beautiful fruits: pears, apples, plums, peaches, apricots, almonds, sweet cherries, quince, walnuts, dogwood, mulberry, medlar. At the same time, a large number of varieties of various fruits were bred.

Perhaps one of the most common and beloved industries since ancient times has been viticulture and winemaking. For many centuries, the population of Taurica has gained vast experience in growing this sunny berry.

The laying of the vineyard was carried out as follows. Using a plow, deep furrows were plowed. Then, holes were made with stakes, in which they planted chibouks with five or six "eyes", leaving only two "eyes" above the ground, covered them with good earth and generously poured water. The cuttings were constantly watered with water until they took root. In the spring, the land on the plantation was dug up and ditches were made for irrigation. Grapes were grown with the help of layering.

Gradually, a significant number of excellent grape varieties were bred in Taurica. For this purpose, first of all, grafting was used, which made it possible to improve varieties and quickly propagate them.

Over the centuries, the processing of the grape harvest has also been improved, on which the quality of the resulting products largely depended.

After careful harvesting, most of the grapes entered the winepress - tarapany. Some of the tarapans have survived to the present - on Eski-Kermen, Mangup and in other places. They were cut down in a large stone slab or directly in the rock. Grape juice was first squeezed out with the feet (this juice was of the best quality, since bitterness from the seeds did not get into it), and then a special press was used.

Syrups were made from part of the grapes. Grapes were also dried in the sun and dried in ovens. Special carefully prepared pits and pithoi were used to store wine.

The inhabitants of Taurica were also engaged in field cultivation, successfully growing onions, garlic, cucumbers, and a large number of various greens.

Beekeeping continued to develop on the peninsula. Honey and wax were of high quality.

The generous nature of the region gave large yields of various wild-growing fruits, which possessed not only high taste qualities, but also healing properties. The inhabitants gathered fruits of blackberry, cornelian cherry, barberry, blackthorn, wild pear, sour apple-tree, wild rose, mountain ash, walnut.

There were a variety of ways to harvest both wild and cultivated fruits. Such fruits were used to prepare thick fruit syrups and various drinks. The fruits were also dried using sheds, as well as on the rocks and roofs of dwellings. Pears and plums were smoked.

Questions and tasks

1. What traditions of the peoples of Taurica do you remember? Why?

2. Tell us how horticulture and viticulture developed.

3. What, in your opinion, was the main branch of the economy among the peoples of Taurica during this period? Justify your point of view.

CRAFTS AND INDIVIDUALS

A significant number of handicraft products were supplied to various regions of Taurica by the large craft center of the region - Chersonesos, they were also brought from Byzantium. At the same time, a large number of the most necessary products were produced locally.

Blacksmithing, carpentry, leather craft developed. For the most part, these crafts were of a primitive, domestic character. So, in the villages, a rough processing of leather was carried out, and a more thorough one, which made it possible to obtain high-quality products, most likely in such craft centers as Mangup.

Pottery made by hand and poorly fired was also primitive. And only in some settlements this product was of higher quality. Obviously, there were real hearth furnaces here, which burned not only pottery, but also tiles, flat bricks - plinth. Such craft centers supplied the whole district with their products.

Archaeological finds suggest that spinning, knitting and weaving were widely developed in Taurica. Many clay whorls, primitive spindles in the form of a top, combs and combs for processing wool, and the simplest home looms were found.

Questions and tasks

1. What crafts developed in Taurica?

2. Tell us about the most common crafts.

3. What role did crafts and trades play in the life of the peoples of Taurica?

Dwellings and Settlements

A number of factors influenced the type of housing constructions in Taurica. These are natural and climatic conditions, and the availability of material for construction, and the traditions of the peoples who lived on the peninsula.

Most often, wild stone, clay and various types of wood were used for buildings: oak, pine, beech, hornbeam, hazel.

Rural estates of that time were mainly one-story buildings of one or two rooms with a shed, often very flat roof on sloping rafters. In most cases, such houses were covered with straw and clay or brushwood.

But there were also one- and two-story houses with a four-pitched tiled roof on a plank formwork with a wide extension of the ends of the rafters, closed from the bottom with a plank filing. Such roofs in the hot season gave shade.

The lower floor was most often used for household needs, the upper one was intended for housing.

During this period, there were two main types of settlement planning. Some settlements were located in close proximity to fields, orchards and vineyards, others - at some distance from cultivated land. Such settlements are found in the foothills and mountainous Crimea.

The first settlements resemble farmsteads and are distinguished by their irregular and scattered planning. Estates of the second type form crowded settlements. Some of them have a regular, radial or rectangular, layout of narrow streets and quarters, while others, later, are intricate.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about the housing buildings of the inhabitants of Taurica.

2. What types of settlements are found in the Crimea?

3. How do climatic conditions affect the type of housing buildings?

SLAVES IN CRIMEA

The Slavs appeared in the Crimea in the first centuries of our era. Some historians attribute their appearance on the peninsula to Great Migration of Nations in the III-VIII centuries AD.

The most expressive traces of Slavic culture, identified by archaeologists, date back to the times of Kievan Rus. For example, during excavations on the Tepsen hill (near the current urban-type settlement of Koktebel (Planerskoe)) it was found that Slavic settlements existed there for a long time, which arose in XII-XIII centuries. The church, opened on a hill, is close in its plan to the churches of Kievan Rus, and the oven excavated in one of the dwellings resembles an old Russian one. The same can be said about the ceramics found during excavations.

Remains ancient Russian churches identified in various regions of the peninsula, most of them are located in the eastern Crimea. Fresco paintings and plaster, judging by the fragments found in these ruins, are close to similar material in Kyiv cathedrals of the 11th-12th centuries.

Written sources testify that as early as the beginning of the 9th century, the Crimea fell into the sphere of influence of the Old Russian princes. For example, "The Life of Stefan Surozhsky" tells that in the first quarter of the 9th century, the Russian prince Bravlin attacked the Crimea, took possession of Kherson, Kerch and Sudak (some historians consider this episode semi-legendary).

BRAVLIN HIKING

(Legend)

Shortly after the death of St. Stephen of Sypozhsky, therefore, at the end of the 8th or beginning of the 9th century, the Russian prince Bravlin attacked Sourozh, now Sudak. He came from Novgorod and before besieging Surozh , devastated the entire coast from Korsun to Kerch. The siege of Surozh continued for ten days, but on the eleventh day, when the iron gates were forced open, the city fell and was plundered. With a sword in his hand, Bravlin himself rushed to the church of St. Sophia, where the relics of St. Stephen rested in a precious shrine, cut open the doors of the church and seized its treasures. But then a miracle happened. At the shrine of the saint, the prince was paralyzed. Understanding the punishment from above, Bravlin returned the loot to the temple, and when this could not help, he ordered his soldiers to clear the city, gave St. Stephen all the church utensils stolen in the Crimea, and finally decided to be baptized.

St. Stephen's successor, Archbishop Philaret, co-serving with the local clergy, immediately baptized the prince, and then his boyars. After that, Bravlin felt relieved, but he received complete healing only when, on the advice of the clergy, he vowed to release all the prisoners captured on the Crimean coast. Having made a rich contribution to St. Stephen and honoring the local population with his greetings, Prince Bravlin withdrew from the Sourozh limits.

In the middle of the 9th century, the ancient Rus began to settle in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, take possession of the Greek city of Tamatarkha, and later Tmutarakan, the capital of the future Old Russian principality. Sources give reason to believe that by the middle of the 10th century, the power of the Kyiv princes extended to part of the lands in the Crimea and, above all, to the Kerch Peninsula.

In 944, Prince Igor of Kyiv installed his governor in the Crimea, near the Kerch Strait, ousting the Khazars from there. It is difficult to accurately establish the boundaries of Russian lands in the Crimea during this period. But the text of the agreement concluded by Igor with Byzantium after the unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople in 945 testifies to the increased influence of the Rus in Crimea: does not submit to you," i.e. Kyiv prince. With this treaty, Byzantium sought to limit the influence of the Russian princes in the Crimea, using the defeat of the Rus in 945. With the same treaty, the Kyiv prince undertook to protect the Korsun land from the black Bulgarians, which was possible only if Igor retained a certain territory in the eastern part of the Crimea or in Taman, where the future Tmutarakan principality was taking shape at that time.

Igor's son Svyatoslav managed to strengthen the influence of the Kyiv princes in the Crimea, especially in the period 962-971. Only the unsuccessful campaign of Svyatoslav in Bulgaria forced him to promise the Byzantine emperor not to claim "neither the power of Korsun, and there are many of their cities, nor the country of Bolgar."

But this was a temporary retreat of Russia in the Crimea. The son of Svyatoslav Vladimir carried out a campaign against Korsun (Kherson) in 988 and captured the city.

HOW THE CHRISTIAN FAITH COME TO US

(Legend)

The old gods served the prince well. He did not know defeat, and the neighbors regularly paid tribute to him. Good luck accompanied Vladimir not only in battles: the granaries of Kyiv were full of selected grain, the merchants willingly brought goods to the city, knowing that the prince would not let them offend. From his grandmother Olga, Vladimir inherited wisdom and firmness of character. Princess Olga often told him about the ancestor - Prophetic Oleg, about his campaigns and his unfortunate death from a snakebite. She also told about the wonders and beauty of distant lands, about what gods people worship in other lands.

Coming into years, Prince Vladimir did not forget about these stories about faith. And there were three faiths, in any case, so the merchants said: Jewish, Christian, Muslim. Not in a forest glade, not under the paws of dark fir trees, Jews, Christians, Muslims prayed to their gods.

The merchants shrugged their hands, raised in delight, and sweetly closed their eyes, describing the magnificence of the churches of Constantinople, the harmony and sonority of the minarets of Mecca, and the stern grandeur of the houses where the Jews prayed in their Jerusalem.

At such moments, the prince's own gods seemed helpless and miserable.

Of all the churches, of all faiths, on reflection, Vladimir chose the brightest - the Christian one. And all those close after the prince nodded importantly: we must hurry to Constantinople for faith, “Christian faith is glorious, it is elegant ... In a thousand candles, I heard they praise the Lord, so will the prince.”

But how can you make sure that you accept the new faith, and not stoop before the requests, before the bows before the emperors of Constantinople? And Vladimir decided to go on a campaign against the city of Korsun ....

Korsun is the same Chersonese, which stood on the territory of present-day Sevastopol. Vladimir came with his retinue under the walls of Korsun and besieged it.

The Greeks of Chersonesus did not expect, did not know such a misfortune. They didn’t offend Vladimir in any way, they traded peacefully with Kyiv, with other cities, and such a grief: an enemy squad stands under the walls. Will the city have enough courage and food for a long time? One hope in God...

However, the city was in no hurry to give up. We went on an attack, as we had already gone more than once. But the attack failed, although a lot of blood was shed. The prince became stern, and the young Russian, on his orders, shouted to the besieged that they would stand, besieging the city, to the bitter end. And a month, and a year, and three years! They buried the dead, and in the evening they kindled memorial bonfires, roasted whole young bulls, rams, beaten off right there in the villages surrounding Chersonese. There was a smell of lard dripping on the coals. They commemorated with mash, mead, shouted loudly. The prince deliberately did not move a sazhen from the walls: let the besieged hear mighty cries, and even more so - the satisfying smell of meat. Let them think about their fate!

Then they began to pour earth against the wall in order to have an advantage in battle - like a step for a run. But things were not going well: in the morning, look, look, and the earth settled, as if it had not been poured for ten nights in a row. They scratch their heads: what's the matter?

And the fact is that it is not for nothing that the Greeks are known as the most cunning people. They dug from that city wall, and everything that Vladimir's warriors poured, they carried away inside the fortress ...

The Greeks are cunning and hungry, while the Russians are stubborn. And the siege is already going on neither less nor more - the ninth month. Already the squad was tired, after all, they survived the autumn in the open air, and the winter. What is it like in the city?

And then the moment came when among the besieged there was a man who could not stand the difficulties of the siege. The Greek Nastas shot an arrow into the camp of Vladimir with a letter in which he opened main secret besieged: pointed out where the sources of drinking water. Rusichi, having found these sources, blocked them. Left without water, the besieged were forced to surrender, especially since Vladimir promised to save the lives of all the inhabitants of the city.

Having taken the city, Vladimir sent a message to the Byzantine emperors: “I heard that you have a sister in girls, if you don’t give her away for me, then your city will be the same as with Korsun.”

The emperors, after long conversations and doubts, decided: "Be baptized, and we will send your sister to you."

And this is just what Vladimir needs. He did not drop himself: he turned to the emperors as a winner - with a demand. In addition to the pompous, coveted faith, to get their friendship and family ties with the most influential family of Palaiologos, perhaps in the whole earth.

Whether the conversations were long or short, Anna was taken to Korsun. The winged ship quickly ran across the blue sea. Anna herself did not know: would she want to finish the journey as soon as possible, since such a lot had fallen? Or, on the contrary, does she want to extend it? After all, after all, a ship is a continuation of the native land... There are still customs here, but what will happen there, but not in the Christian and understandable Chersonese, but in the forests of the Kyiv principality?

And finally, white, low, indented shores opened up. The pier and the road to the square were cleaned with red carpets. tall people in helmets and chain mail shining in the sun stood on both sides of the carpets. And in front of all stood the one who, obviously, was intended for her husband.

His blond hair, evenly parted, stood in a high hat. The wind slightly stirred the rings of his short beard. The man's eyes looked wary. But in a moment, they opened wide, in admiration. They absorbed the silhouette of the ship, and the brilliance of the brocade on the clothes of the clergy, and the richness of her wedding attire. And then those eyes, under even, dark brows, met her gaze - and warmed up.

And suddenly Anna realized: the main thing is that the prince liked her beauty. That, among other things, she is just a woman, and he is just a man, and now they should be one, give birth to children, rule the house, share hardships and triumph together. And her faith will become his faith, and she will strengthen him in this faith.

This is how, according to legends and chronicles, Christianity came to us. First Vladimir himself was baptized, and then all the other Russians.

He stands with a cross in his hands over Kyiv on Mount Vladimir the Red Sun, and in Chersonese, on the site where the prince converted to Christianity, stands the Cathedral of St. Vladimir.

Byzantium had to sign an agreement with the Kyiv prince, which recognized his possessions in the Crimea and the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov. Thanks to this treaty, Kievan Rus received access to the Black Sea and strengthened the Tmutarakan principality dependent on it. After the Korsun campaign, the city of Bospor with the district was attached to this principality, which received the Russian name Korchev (from the word "korcha" - a forge, the current Kerch).

Throughout the 11th century, the Tmutarakan principality, including its lands on the Crimean peninsula, belonged to Ancient Russia. At the end of the 11th century, mention of Tmutarakan disappears from the annals, but, obviously, even before the middle of the 12th century, the Kerch Peninsula and Taman were Russian.

In the second half of the 12th century, the Tmutarakan principality fell under the blows of the Polovtsy, who roamed the Northern Black Sea region.

The fact that the lands on the Kerch Peninsula belonged to the Kyiv princes is evidenced by a number of written sources. The Arab geographer al-Idrisi called the Kerch Strait "the mouth of the Russian River" and even knew a city in this region with the name "Russia" (it can be assumed that this is the Russian Korchev, which, according to a Byzantine source in 1169, was called "Russia" for some time "). On the medieval European and Asian maps of Crimea, many names of cities have been preserved, indicating a long and long stay on the peninsula of the Rus: “Cosal di Rossia”, “Rossia”, “Rossofar”, “Rosso”, “Rosika” (near Evpatoria), etc.

The Polovtsian, and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion cut off the Crimea from Kievan Rus for a long time.

Questions and tasks

1. From what sources do we learn about the appearance of the Slavs in Taurica?

2. For what purpose did Prince Vladimir besiege Chersonese?

3. Determine the boundaries of the Tmutarakan principality and name the time of its existence.

"CAVE CITIES"

In medieval Taurica, on the high plateaus of the mesas, a whole network of cities arose, surrounded by impregnable rocks and formidable defensive walls with battle towers. Most often in the historical literature, these cities are referred to as "cave cities". Originating in the early Middle Ages, these cities are of great scientific interest. The vast majority of them are concentrated in the southwestern region of the Inner, or Second, ridge of the Crimean Mountains, which separates the mountainous part of the peninsula from the foothills and the steppe. This ridge has gentle northwestern slopes, falling into a longitudinal valley, and to the southeast it faces steep rocky cliffs.

News about some "cave cities" appeared in historical sources more than a millennium ago. Their descriptions have been preserved, compiled by both famous scientists and various kinds of travelers, lovers of antiquities. The term "cave cities" appears in the 19th century, but already at that time it was questioned by scientific researchers. The study of these cities showed that the breams were only auxiliary buildings that served mainly for economic and defensive purposes. There were churches among them.

There are a number of hypotheses and points of view about the time and circumstances of the origin of the "cave cities". Two main ones stand out among them.

Some researchers see in these monuments the result of the active foreign policy of the Byzantine Empire, which sought to strengthen the borders of its territory with fortresses and fortified lines. Byzantium really carried out such measures in a number of subject territories. Supporters of this view refer to the data of literary and epigraphic (inscriptions on stones) sources, as well as to the appearance of the material culture of the early medieval Chersonese, which was an outpost of Byzantine influence in Taurica. Its defense was organized by creating a line of fortifications in the form of "cave cities" in the mountainous southwestern Crimea. The time of this construction is determined by the end of the 5th or the first half of the 6th century.

Unfortunately, the supporters of this view have to use for proof only a few excerpts from the works of Byzantine authors that have come down to us. At the court of Emperor Justinian I (527-665), the historian and military leader Procopius of Caesarea wrote a treatise "On Buildings". Speaking about the activities carried out in Taurica, Procopius reports the existence there of a certain country of Dori, inhabited by Goths-farmers, former military allies of Byzantium. To protect them from enemy attacks, the emperor ordered the construction of "long walls".

Unfortunately, according to the text of the passage, it is impossible to accurately determine the area in which the country of Dori was located. There has been controversy on this issue for a long time. Researchers who connect the "cave cities" with the activities of the Byzantines see it in the southwestern part of the Crimean Mountains in the space between the Outer and Main Ridges. Indeed, if you look at the map, then to some extent they resemble a chain of fortifications that closed the mountain passes. But this hypothesis has a number of vulnerabilities. Not all "cave cities" were fortresses. Only Mangup, Eski-Kermen and Chufut-Kale turned out to be real fortresses with significant garrisons capable of defending mountain valleys. The rest either did not have fortifications at all, or, in terms of their size, could only be shelters and castles that provided shelter to the inhabitants of the area.

Researchers who put forward a different point of view argue that "cave cities" are cities, villages, castles and monasteries that arose as a result of the development of feudal relations among the Crimean mountain population. This process took place over the course of centuries and ended by the 10th-12th centuries. For almost half a millennium, centers of crafts and trade, residences of the feudal administration, monastic cloisters, and settlements of peaceful farmers were formed.

Some researchers place the Dori country on the southern coast of Crimea, starting from Sudak to Foros. Back in the 30s of the 19th century, academician P. Koeppen saw the ruins of structures on the passes of the Main Ridge, which he identified with the "long walls" of the Byzantines. The same point of view is defended in their articles by O. I. Dombrovsky, E. I. Solomonik and a number of other researchers.

The "cave cities" are being explored now, and let's hope that scientists will be able to solve most of the mysteries of their history.

CHUFUT-KALE

One of the most famous "cave cities" is Chufut-Kale, located three kilometers from Bakhchisarai. It is located on a plateau of a mountain spur dominating three valleys. Man used the top of the rock prepared by nature itself, reinforcing it with economical and thoughtful defensive structures. Opinions differ about the time of the founding of the city, which has not yet been sufficiently studied: some researchers attribute it to the 6th century, others to the 11th century, while agreeing that the foundation of the defensive system was preceded by a settlement and, apparently, a fortified shelter. This is evidenced by the fragments of amphoras, molded dishes of late antique and early medieval times found during excavations. The environs of Chufut-Kale have long been inhabited by the Sarmatian-Alans. In the graves were found deformed skulls characteristic of them and various decorations - earrings, rings, brooches, iron knives. The fact that the district was inhabited by Alans is unanimously reported by Greek, Arabic, and Turkish sources. One of them is curious: “Alans live near Kherson, as much by their own will as by the desire of the Kherson people, like a kind of fence and protection.”

In the old days the city was called Kyrk-Or; one of its earliest descriptions belongs to the Arab geographer Abulfede, who visited here in 1321: “Kyrk-Or is located in the country of Ases [Alans], its name means forty fortresses in Turkish; it is a heavily fortified castle built on an impregnable mountain. At the top of the mountain there is a square where the inhabitants of the country find refuge in moments of danger. At the end of the 13th century, the fortress was captured by the Tatar troops under the command of Nogai. At the end of the 14th century, having moved their headquarters (capital) here, the Crimean khans turned the city into a citadel. Its Turkic name Kyrk-Or (Kyrk-Er) - “forty fortresses” sounds strange when applied to one fortress: apparently, the fact is that this expression was used to characterize the entire mountainous region and was transferred to the city. What the fortress was originally called, we do not know. A number of researchers, starting with A. L. Berthier-Delagard, tend to see in it the early medieval Fully - a name mentioned in a number of sources, which gave the name of the diocese and, however, remained unassociated with any settlement. But this version has not yet been supported by sufficiently strong evidence.

The Tatars placed their garrison in the fortress. During the struggle of the Crimean khans with the Golden Horde for independence, it served as a fortified residence for the Gireys during civil strife. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, Chufut-Kale lost its importance and Mengli-Girey moved to the newly rebuilt capital - Bakhchisarai. The abandoned fortress is inhabited by Karaites, and gradually the name of Chufut-Kale - "Jewish fortress" - is assigned to the city.

According to travelers, in the middle of the 19th century there were 300 houses and 1600 inhabitants in Chufut-Kale; however, already in the second half of the century, most of them leave the city on the rock.

Let's make an exciting journey with you and get to know the "dead city" in more detail. The road to it leads from the outskirts of Bakhchisaray, gradually deepening into the gorge along the steep cliffs.

Usually people climb the fortress along an ancient stone-paved road (partially surviving on the last two marches) that leads to the city through the Small, or Southern, gates: they are also called “secret”, since they are not visible until you come close to them . The gate was probably built in the 14th century, on the site of older ones: massive oak doors are covered with iron, and the upper part of the wall was rebuilt and equipped with loopholes for firing guns. These gates were a real trap: from the outside, the approach to them was covered by a defensive wall, along which the last march of the road runs. The enemy approached the gate, facing the wall with his right, unprotected side, since the shield was held in his left hand. Breaking through the inside of the fortress, he found himself in a narrow corridor carved into the rock, which once had a ceiling, on which the defenders of the city were located. For defense purposes, they could also use the caves at the end of the corridor, located in four tiers.

The rocky path rises to the left, where, behind the ruins of several residential buildings, there is a wall that separated from the city the undeveloped part of the flat top of the rock - the wasteland Burunchak. Burunchakskaya street leads there, passing along the northern plateau; apparently, arbs and carts moved along it, entering the city through the Eastern Gate, to the market, located in a wasteland. In case of military danger, residents of the surrounding area could hide their livestock and property here.

In the middle of the city runs the Middle Street, impassable, accessible only to pedestrians and beasts of burden. Along the southern edge of the plateau passes Kenasskaya street, on which there are Karaite prayer houses - kenasses. Located in a small courtyard behind a high fence, two rectangular buildings with gable roofs surrounded by arcades.

The large cathedral kenesa was erected in the 14th century: ten columns of its arcade rest on a parapet made of massive slabs, decorated with rosettes carved in stone. In it solemn festive services were arranged.

The second, Malaya kenassa (it was called the "meeting house") - presumably the same age as the first, but was overhauled at the end of the 18th century. It was intended for ordinary services and for meetings where various matters of the Karaite community were decided. The interior decoration of the kenasses was the same: they were covered with carpets, crystal and copper chandeliers hung from the ceiling oak beams, religious utensils, Torah scrolls were kept in carved cabinets. In a small room, closer to the exit, separated by a partition from the rest of the hall, old people could sit on benches upholstered in leather during the service. Over this part of the temple hangs a balcony with the remains of a thick wooden lattice - women were accommodated here. The first Karaite printing house, founded in 1731, was located not far from the kenasses.

All three streets converge on a small square where the remains of a mosque built in 1346 are visible. Immediately behind the square stands an almost completely preserved mausoleum of the 15th century - a wonderful example of Asia Minor, "Seljuk" architecture. This is a monumental octahedral structure, decorated with carved columns along the edges of the faces, with a high portal covered with carvings.

In the depths of the mausoleum, on a stepped elevation, there is a tombstone with an Arabic inscription: “This is the tomb of the famous empress Neneke-jan-khanym, daughter of Tokhtamysh-khan, who died in the month of Ramadan 841” (1437).

Several beautiful legends are associated with the name of Janyke. Here is one of them.

THE LEGEND ABOUT DZHANYK FROM KYRK-ORA

(Legend)

Look, the strong walls of Kyrk-Ora, wow, how strong! Even if you spread your arms like this, you still won’t hug the wall. Thick walls, strong fortress. And iron gates, and locks, probably each with a pood. And who lived behind the walls, you know?

Tokhtamysh Khan. What to say about him? Tokhtamysh Khan is not enough to say! What was Khan? They don’t want to look at the eyes, it was so terrible. He - people said - his body was overgrown with wool, he was red, his head was like that of a ram, his pupils stood across his eyes, such eyes do not exist in a person.

He never shouted, Tokhtamysh Khan, but people were even afraid of his whisper. Tokhtamysh was rich. Where did you see the poor Khan? He had everything. In its stone caves there were rich chests, chests with large locks. But, woman, you better not open the lids of these chests. If you open it, stupid, you will think that the sun was stolen and hidden in a chest, you look and you go blind. This is not the sun, these are rich clothes with precious stones, gold is sewn on clothes. Just don't touch them with your hands, don't, let them lie. They are sticky, because the wealth of Tokhtamysh Khan came along the rivers of blood, came and lay in the chests. These chests are guarded by stone caves, stone walls and the stone heart of Tokhtamysh Khan.

Tokhtamysh Khan did not love anyone, but which Khan loves whom?

He had a girl in his harem, her name was Janyke. Indeed, she was dzhanyke - sincere. She was kind, affectionate, like a child, like a mother, affectionate to everyone.

Dzhanyke was beautiful. Only in Dzhanyke's chest some kind of bird always huddled. Janyke thought so. She didn’t know, stupid, that she had a great ailment in her chest, a terrible disease. She didn’t have a father, she didn’t have a mother, but Tokhtamysh bought her in Bakhchisarai, downstairs, bought a girl and hid her like a pigeon in a cage, and raised her for himself in his harem, and so that people would not say bad things, he called her daughter.

Everyone was afraid of Tokhtamysh, and little Dzhanyke was afraid. Tokhtamysh will come to the harem and ask how you live? I live, says Dzhanyke. The khan would place a large red hand on her head, and it seemed to Dzhanyka that the head would fall off.

Tokhtamysh has a lot of everything, but the most important treasure is Dzhanyke.

One day trouble came to Tokhtamysh. The Kyrk-Or fortress was surrounded by enemies, they were coming from both sides. Big army. They beat vdaul, they shouted, they were already rejoicing. The enemies knew: there is no water in the fortress, but how will you live without water? The enemies knew that they did not need to knock their heads on stones. Wait, they said, we have a lot of time! We have water, we have bread, and when we force Tokhtamysh Khan, he himself will open his iron gates, he himself will take out the keys on a silk pillow and ask: accept, everything is yours. That's what the enemies said. And behind the wall, Tokhtamysh Khan walked like a wild beast, like an evil, scary leopard.

There is no water, but the days go by, and the Klaft bird never once opened its wings over Kyrk-or, and people soon began to fall, as autumn leaves fall. Tokhtamysh had a stone heart. He was afraid for his treasures, but he did not spare people. He made them throw stones down at. enemies, and angrily said to his people:

Do you think I can open the gate with my own hands? If I don't have enough stones, I'll throw your heads at the gate.

At first people were afraid, and then they didn’t feel anything, they didn’t care. Will you live without water?

And it became quiet in the Kyrk-Or fortress, no one sang songs. Mothers have not only milk from their breasts - you can’t squeeze blood out, and small children fell faster than all. How sorry they were! And there is still no water. Dzhanyke in the harem wondered: why is it so quiet in Kyrk-Ora, why no one says anything, why even the dogs do not bark? And the nannies only shrugged their shoulders in response; the nannies knew, but it was impossible to say. Then a boy, the shepherd Ali, came to Dzhanyka in the garech. He came, humbly lowered his head and said this:

Listen, Janike. You see, I am a man, and do not look at you, let my eyes not offend you, girl. Do not be afraid, listen to me, I have come from the people. Listen, Janyke, people say about you that you never told a lie, that your pink lips didn't offend anyone. Listen, Dzhanyke, people still say, - Ali said, trembling with fright, - that you are not the daughter of Tokhtamysh, that you are ours, from there, from Eski-Yurt, that Tokhtamysh bought you. If so, Dzhanyke, then how can your heart endure, how can you not help the people? Listen to what I'll tell you: it's far away, but don't be afraid, the water sings there, let's go...

Why is water needed? Janyke asked.

You do not know? There is not a drop of water in the whole Kyrk-ore, small children fall, die, and no one can save them. I wanted to crawl to where the water is, but I have broad shoulders, and you - people talk about you, you are thin as a twig, you will penetrate everywhere - you will crawl into a crevice and get water from there, she sings there, and I will carry her into the pond. Let's go, you're ours.

What are you, boy, - answered Dzhanyke, - do I dare, I'm a girl, I can't be with you, boy. The sky will curse me, everyone will curse me, everyone will turn their backs on me, even you, when you grow up and become a big man, you will point your finger at me, and then I will have to die.

Don't be afraid, Dzhanyke, - the boy asked, - let's go, Dzhanyke, let's go, we will do it so that no one will see us, and I will take all the sin upon myself.

All night the girl and the boy were carrying water in small skins into the city reservoir, and there was already as much water in the reservoir as in a small sea, and they still carried it, and still carried it, and then, when the sun had already splashed, when it became good in the sky, suddenly from a bird flew away from the girl’s labor, even little Dzhanyke saw how she flew high, high into the sky. Then it became very painful for her and she fell down.

And she fell on her face to the ground. Dzhanyke fell face down, she began to complain to the mother of all mothers - to the earth.

When it became light, people came. The first to appear were small people - children. They saw the water and said simply, like the wise men: “Look, water!”, and began to drink. And then they ran everywhere and shouted: “Water! Water!" And the big people didn't believe it, but the little people kept saying, “Look, water! Water!"

And everyone cheerfully repeated this word and began to drink water. And then they saw that Ali the shepherd was crying near some body that was lying on the ground, so small and thin.

When they turned him face up, they saw and were afraid:

Janyka!

And then the people understood everything, and then the people said:

Here lies the fairest of the beautiful, the rose of the Garden of Eden. O people, prepare a better place for her in your hearts!

Not far from the mausoleum is the Middle, the earliest defensive wall with gates, which crossed the plateau from one edge of the cliff to the other. After the construction of the Eastern defensive wall, the Middle Wall lost its combat character and underwent numerous alterations. With the help of the archaeological work carried out, it was possible to identify the original design of this section of defense. The wall itself was up to 5 meters thick and up to 8 meters high. At 10-15 meters from it there was a large fortress moat 65 m long, 4 m wide, 2 m deep, which was filled with rainwater flowing down the grooves cut in the rock. The large ditch did not reach the edge of the northern cliff - here there was a climbing gate in the wall. Towers closed the wall at the northern and southern edges.

There was a mint near the Middle Wall - smoked stones are visible, cuttings for the beams that supported the roof. A local minted silver coin with a large admixture of copper, with the inscription "Kyrk-or", was not highly valued.

Beyond the gates of the Middle Wall begins Main Street. Carts moved along this street, drawn by slow, but reliable bulls on mountain roads. Huge creaking wheels rubbed deep ruts in the rock, which deepened even more under the influence of snow and rain waters. Historians aptly refer to this road as the "road of millennia". Narrow pavements made of stone slabs, well preserved, served for pedestrians. To the right, behind a low wall, are two residential buildings of the 18th century. The well-known Karaite scientist Avraam Samuilovich Firkovich (1786-1874) lived in one of them until the end of his days.

The city is closed by the Eastern defensive wall, built in the XIV-XV centuries. Its length is 128 m, it has corner towers near the southern and northern cliffs; on the outside, above the gate, there is a marble slab depicting a horn and a shield. Outside, in front of the fortress wall, a large pool was carved to collect melt and rain water. There was a market in the square in front of the gate.

Inhabited since ancient times, the market retains traces of the peoples who inhabited it, and with a careful look, you, like once the poet M. A. Voloshin, will see:

... in the masonry of the walls of the cordon post
Among the cobblestones numb
Patterned Turkish Plate
And the corner of the Byzantine capital.

Questions and tasks

1. What does the concept mean« cave cities» ?

2. How did« cave cities» ?

3. Where was the country of Dory?

4. Tell us about Chufut-Kale.

CAVE MONASTERIES

The emergence of cave monasteries in the Crimea is associated with iconoclasm in Byzantium. In the VIII-IX centuries, the Byzantine clergy became so strong that a significant part of the land was concentrated in the hands of monasteries and churches. Emperors Leo III and Constantine V began the persecution of the clergy and monks under the pretext of fighting icon veneration. The church council of 754 condemned icon veneration. By order of the authorities, churches with murals were destroyed, icons were destroyed, and lands were confiscated from monasteries. During the 8th-11th centuries, the monasteries were closed, and the monks, and secular worshipers of icons, fled from Byzantium, in particular to the north, to the Crimea. Numerous monasteries appear here in the river valleys in impregnable rocks - Uspensky, Kachi-Kalyon, Shuldan, Chilter-koba, Chilter-marmara and etc.

Assumption Monastery.

The Dormition Monastery (near Bakhchisaray) supposedly arose at the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th century and existed intermittently for about a thousand years. The monastery is located in a picturesque valley on a sheer cliff, at the bottom of which caves have been preserved. His ground buildings have been preserved: the abbot's house by the road, the ruins of a small chapel, the remains of a fountain, two buildings of the monastery hotel. A wide staircase, gradually cutting into a rock mass, leads to a platform of the second tier, from here a narrower staircase leads to the main Assumption Church, carved into a sheer rock. A vast bright hall with walls whitewashed with lime is decorated with four columns, behind which traces of late painting are visible; Opposite in the wall are window openings from which a view of the gorge and the remains of the Greek settlement of Mari-ampol opens. Outside, above the church, in a special niche, decorated with twisted columns, and on the sides of it, there is a painting of the middle of the 19th century, made right on the rock.

After the invasion of the Crimea by the Mongol-Tatars, many monasteries fell into decay, while the Assumption Monastery managed to remain the center of the Christian church in the Crimea. This role passed to him after the capture of Mangup by the Turks (1475). The Russian state provided patronage to the monastery, sent him material assistance.

After the resettlement of the Crimean Christians in the Azov region in 1778, when the inhabitants of the village of Mariampol, located opposite the monastery, left the Crimea, these places fell into disrepair.

Shuldan. In the Shulskaya valley leading to the village of Ternovka, above the upper edge of a rocky slope, in a rocky cliff, caves carved in it are visible from afar: this is the Shuldan (“Echoing”) monastery, which probably arose in the 8th century. On the slope, overgrown with forest, the road rises in a zigzag manner to the plateau; from here to the right, along a rocky cliff, a path heavily overgrown with grass leads to the monastery. In the nearest natural grotto, apparently, there was a source: this is evidenced by a hole in the rock, a groove carved by water and a recess in the form of a bowl. Today, the water has chosen a different path for itself - the source breaks out of the earth a little further and lower. In the next grotto, a major collapse occurred along with the caves in it, in the right corner the remains of a stone staircase that once led to the temple hung. Following further along the cliff, we find ourselves in a labyrinth of caves of natural and artificial origin and then unexpectedly go up the stairs to the upper tier - a kind of balcony, steeply falling down, from where a magnificent view of the Shulskaya valley opens. On the left, there is a regular-shaped basilica carved into the rock with a narthex separated by two columns, from which stone foundations with a duct vault and a central apse are visible, along the semicircle of which there is a two-tiered bench with an episcopal chair in the altar. On the walls are still visible traces of painting, which dates back to the XII-XIII centuries. On the south side of the temple adjoins the chapel with a font in the apse.

Questions and tasks

1. What is the reason for the emergence of cave monasteries in Taurica?

2. What cave monasteries of Crimea do you know?

3. Tell us about the Assumption Monastery.

CULTURE OF TAVRIKA IN VIII-IX centuries.

Throughout the territory of Taurica in the 8th-9th centuries, essentially similar forms of material culture dominated: the composition of ceramics was almost identical, the forms of dwellings and burial rites were similar.

Of course, there are also specific features in the material culture of individual regions, reflecting their place and fate in the history of the entire Northern Black Sea region in that era, but these features stand out clearly against the background of a certain commonality.

The ceramic complex revealed by the excavations is quite stable. It is sharply divided into two main groups: pottery, which is a handicraft product, and stucco, made by hand at home.

Pottery- these are mainly vessels that served as containers: egg-shaped amphoras, produced in bulk in the pottery centers of that time (in Chaban-Kul, Kanakskaya beam, in the mountains above Miskhor and in the Bakhchisarai region), jugs with a flat handle, flasks and pithoi, pitho-shaped pots with continuous corrugation.

But, as excavations have shown, in the life of the rural population, at least in South-Western Taurica, not pottery, but molded dishes prevailed - specific village ceramics - mainly pots that served as the main type of kitchen utensils, less often - bowls.

The study of this material shows that ceramics of settlements are weakly connected with the urban culture of Taurica: the influence of the city, and especially Chersonesus, affected only ceramic containers - amphorae, pithoi, high-necked jugs with a flat handle, local forms of which come from early medieval samples that existed in Chersonesos and Bosporus. The forms of kitchen and household utensils differ sharply from urban ones and have nothing in common with them.

A small residential building, typical for the settlements of Taurica at that time, had, as a rule, two unequal premises (one of them was residential) with an open hearth. The walls consisted of a stone base, on which rested a light structure of wooden risers, connected by poles, with a thick clay coating; the floor was earthen, the roof earthen or straw. These buildings undoubtedly reflected the late antique tradition of residential construction, as evidenced by excavations of settlements of the first centuries of our era on the Kerch Peninsula.

During this period, soil graves were common in Taurica, lined with hewn slabs according to the ancient tradition and covered with thin shapeless slabs; there are also simple earthen graves without lining or lined only with wooden planks. The buried were laid on their backs, with their heads to the west, their right arm usually bent at the elbow. Often a pot of food was placed in the grave. A specific custom was to put a piece of tile under the head of the buried or on the chin; it is, as it were, an element of the hearth that accompanied the deceased to the afterlife, a pagan custom. The inventory of these cemeteries is extremely poor.

We find ourselves in another world, the Byzantine world, as soon as we turn to the monuments of monumental construction - to the monasteries that arose here, probably at the time of the monastic emigration "to the northern slopes of the Euxine Pontus", and to the temples built in the largest settlements; their construction was associated with the activation of the church.

The largest and richest among the then monasteries was Monastery of the Apostles in the "trade called Partenity", located on the eastern side of the Bear Mountain, at its foot. Here, at the end of the 8th century, on the site of an early medieval basilica, a small three-aisled three-apse church-basilica 18 m long was built. The naves were divided not by columns, but by pillars; The building was flanked by galleries on three sides. The floor of the basilica had a patterned pavement of multi-colored stone tiles. The whole appearance of the building acquired a provincial-Byzantine character. The feeling of simplification is also facilitated by the replacement of light columns with massive pillars, crushing the interior of the temple, designed not for the masses of parishioners, but mainly for the monastic brethren. A sharp simplification also affected the patterned pavement, extremely simple and monotonous.

A three-nave, three-apse basilica similar in shape, only twice as large (its length is 37 m), was built on the Tepsen hill in Koktebel (Planerskoye) - the largest settlement in Eastern Taurica. Excavations have shown that this basilica was built on the site of another, almost half the size; such a sharp expansion of the temple, obviously, reflected the growth in the number of the parish, i.e., the population of the city.

Churches of the same type, basilicas, built in those days in smaller settlements, were quite small.

However, the basilica receded into the area of ​​the past. Throughout the early Middle Ages, a completely different architectural system was gradually developed, which since the 9th century became the main one both in the central Byzantine regions and in the Byzantine East: the basilica was replaced by a small cross-domed church with four abutments supporting the dome on a light drum. It was a fundamentally new architecture.

An intermediate link in the development of this kind of composition can be considered a wonderful monument of the Bosporus (Kerch) - Church of John the Baptist which occupied a prominent place in the fortified acropolis of the city near the port. Judging by the composition of the building and the laying technique with alternating rows of brick and stone, as well as the inscription on the temple column, it was most likely built at the end of the 8th century. This date is confirmed by early medieval amphoras in form, which were laid as golosniks in the vaults of the temple. In this outstanding building, a free cross is clearly expressed only in the upper part of the temple, and its lower part is a rectangular four-column array. But the main cross from the outside is emphasized and dominates the composition of the entire temple. There is no doubt that the source of such a composition was the architecture of Asia Minor, uniquely realized by the Bosporan (or invited to the Bosporus) architect.

Questions and tasks

1. What groups are ceramics divided into?

2. Tell us about the pottery and carved ceramics of this period.

3. What impact did the handicraft production of cities have on agriculture?

4. Tell us about a medieval dwelling.

5. What were the cemeteries of this period?

6. What is the reason for the appearance in Taurica during this period of a significant number of temples and monasteries?

7. Tell us about the architecture of the monastery of the Apostles in Partenity.

8. What changes are taking place in religious architecture by the beginning of the 9th century?

9. Tell us about the architecture of the Church of John the Baptist.

LATE MIDDLE AGES

ITALIAN TRADE FACTORIES IN CRIMEA

With the penetration of the Mongol-Tatars into Taurica, a number of changes take place. First of all, this concerned the ethnic composition of the population, which is undergoing great changes. Along with the Greeks, Russians, Alans, Polovtsians, Tatars appeared on the peninsula in the middle of the 13th century, and Turks in the 15th century. In the 13th century, mass migration of Armenians began to numerous Crimean cities and towns, craft and trade centers. At the same time, the Italians are actively rushing to the peninsula.

Since the 11th century, Venice and Genoa, recognized as leaders in world trade, have established their trading posts in many countries of Europe and the Middle East. The main area of ​​international trade of this time is the Mediterranean. Italian cities traded between East and West on a significant scale, supplying spices, pearls, silks and other goods. oriental origin England, France, Northern Germany and other countries of Western, Central and Northern Europe.

The countries of Eastern Europe are also increasingly involved in trade with the East. The conquest of this territory by the hordes of Batu not only changed its political map, but also decisively influenced the direction of the main trade routes, in particular those that led to the markets of the South and East. It is known that the Horde khans and emirs encouraged trade, receiving large profits from it. At the same time, the conquerors turned the vast expanses of Asia and Eastern Europe into a dangerous desert for merchant caravans. Therefore, from the second half of the XIII century, new paths were laid, passing through the populated areas. The importance of the old traditional route from Russia to Byzantium along the Dnieper - "from the Varangians to the Greeks" - has decreased.

During this period, there is a struggle for superiority between two Italian cities - Venice and Genoa. The Genoese merchants helped the Byzantine emperor by supplying his army with ships. This made it possible for the Genoese to decisively squeeze out the Venetian competitors who had previously dominated the Greek market. The text of the Treaty of Nymphaeum concluded between Byzantium and Genoa (1261) contains an extremely important point for the latter regarding the Great, or Black, Sea. According to the agreement, the Genoese received the right to duty-free trade in all ports of the Black Sea. They obtained from the emperor a ban on the ships of all other Italian merchants from entering this sea.

Based on the Treaty of Nymphaeum, enterprising Genoese merchants managed to take over the entire Black Sea trade and create a system of trading posts in the Northern Black Sea region. They founded the port of Kaffa on the site of ancient Feodosia. The influence of the Genoese gradually spread to the entire southern coast of Crimea.

Crimean trade posts were used by Italian merchants not only as ports in large-scale transit trade between East and West, but also for the export of agricultural products and raw materials from the Crimea itself, the Northern Black Sea region and the southern Russian lands to the metropolis. Already at the end of the 13th century, fish, salt, bread, honey, wax, leather, Russian furs were delivered from Kaffa to Genoa and other ports of the Mediterranean. Beginning in the 14th century, Genoese merchants exported large quantities of slaves purchased from the Tatars from Kaffa to the slave markets of Genoa and Alexandria. And from the second half of the XIV century, Kaffa turns into one of the major centers of trade.

Relations between the Genoese Kaffa and the Crimean rulers remained tense for a long time after the founding of this trading post. More than once Kaffa was subjected to robbery and destruction, but each time the city was quickly rebuilt. In the XIV century, Kaffa was surrounded by powerful walls with towers. In 1384-1386. the suburbs of Kaffa were also fortified. By the middle of the 15th century, this city had become one of the largest trading centers in the world. Contemporaries compared it even with Constantinople. In the second half of the 15th century, the population of Kaffa reached 70 thousand people.

Kaffa was inhabited by a variety of peoples. Along with trade, the inhabitants of the city were engaged in various crafts, primarily related to the construction of ships. Sources of the XIV-XV centuries also mention tanners, tailors, bakers, masons, etc.

Around 1318, the Genoese established themselves in Chersonese (officially, they received the city on the basis of an agreement with Byzantium in 1350). By agreement with the khans, in 1365 the Genoese merchants took possession of Sudak and its surroundings. Thanks to agreements with the khans in 1380, 1381 and 1387, the Genoese extended their power to the entire southern coast of Crimea - from Chembalo (Balaklava) to Kaffa.

The constant threat of Tatar and Turkish attacks forced the Genoese to build powerful fortifications in their Crimean trading posts. In 1371-1414, a first-class fortress was built in Sudak, which has been well preserved to this day. Above it rose the citadel with the castle of the Genoese consul. A fortress with a citadel was erected by the Genoese feudal lords in Chembalo as well. Its construction lasted from 1357 to 1433. The Genoese attached special importance to this fortress, since it opposed the Principality of Theodoro, located in the South-Western Crimea.

THE LEGEND ABOUT QUEEN THEODOR

(Legend)

It was a long time ago, many centuries have passed since then, and the memory of the people passes on from generation to generation the legend of the glorious and courageous beauty Theodora, the Queen of Sugdea.

Kindness, clear mind and wisdom in public affairs won her people's love. The fame of Theodora's beauty competed with the fame of the beautiful country on the Black Sea coast, which she ruled, and the rich city of Sugdeya, where she lived in her palace on the mountainside.

And the beauty of Theodora could charm anyone. She had delicate features, dark skin, deep black eyes, and dark hair. In the movements of a flexible body, dexterity, strength and tirelessness were felt. Many noble leaders wished to call the beautiful maiden their wife. Some offered her their wealth; others - the glory obtained by the sword in battles; the third - youth, beauty; fourth - the nobility of the family. Theodora rejected everyone: she took a vow of celibacy in order to be independent all her life and direct all her strength for the good of her kingdom.

The queen's favorite dwelling was a castle on top of a rock. From the eagle height of the upper castle, Theodora admired the distant mountains, the coast of the sea, along which her possessions stretched to the Bear Mountain itself, the flowering valleys and the city lying at the foot of the cliff.

Numerous roads led to the city, the harbor with ships was widely spread. Theodora saw how caravans of camels loaded with goods hurried to Sugdeya, the wind brought a clang to her anchor chains and the creak of ship gear. In Sugdeya, at a huge marketplace, merchants from different countries. There were also Russian merchants who called Sugdeya Surozh and brought precious furs from Russia: ermine, beaver. The Venetians from their galleys unloaded linen, fine cloth, fruit and olive oil. From the southern steppes, from the banks of the Volga, bread, fish, caviar, wool went to Sugdeya. China, Turkestan, Arabia and India sent spices, precious stones, brocade and velvet, silks and indigo, opium and incense, carpets and weapons.

But more and more often the face of Theodora became stern. Clouds were gathering over the rich country: in the north, hordes of Tatars approached its borders, and in the east, in the neighboring city of Cafe, cunning and treacherous Genoese settled. From Kafa, the Genoese were preparing to strike at the blessed Sugdeya. The queen was also worried about discord among her close associates, the cause of which was herself.

From childhood, Theodora grew up with two sons of one of the local princes - the twins Heraclius and Konstantin, who were very similar in face and height. She shared with the boys their games and amusements, not inferior to them in anything: neither in running, nor in horse racing, nor in archery. With age, childhood affection for Theodora turned into a feeling of love among young men. Rivalry in love quarreled brothers.

Once, left alone with Theodora, Heraclius, worried, said to her:

- Theodora, forget your harsh vow, let me call you my wife!

But the girl firmly answered him:

- Maiden fate, free, free, I vowed never to change. And I won't back down from my promise.

- Queen! Irakli pleaded.

Not! Not a husband, but a brother, I will call you, - the girl answered. - Know, Heraclius, that a cruel death is much dearer to me than the lot of my wife. It's completely different in my mind.

With these words, the angry queen left. And the rejected young man became gloomy and formidable - he was tormented by anger and a thirst for revenge. More than once he said to himself: "I, snake, will remember your words that death is dearer to you. Everything that you have chosen for yourself will come true, your lot is already close!"

And since then, Heraclius harbored the idea: either to seize Theodora at any cost, and with it power over the country, or to destroy Theodora. He often retired to wild gorges and dense forests and, in freedom, pondered how to remove his rival brother and fulfill his power-hungry dreams.

The second brother - Constantine, in contrast to Heraclius, was kind and honest. Tenderly loving Theodora, he remembered her vow and did not even think about her breaking it, did not seek power: his desire was to be near his beloved and help her.

Heraclius decided to betray. Having made his way to Kafu, he convinced the Genoese consul to attack Sugdeya, promising to help in the capture of the city. In payment for his treachery, the traitor demanded that Theodore be given to him.

Soon, like a flock of kites, the black army of the Genoese gathered under the walls of Sugdeya. The bloody battle lasted for two months. Theodora and Constantine were at the head of the city's defenders. Wherever the fearless queen and her faithful companion appeared, the warriors repelled the onslaught of enemies with tenfold strength.

Finally, Heraclius managed to get into the city. Taking advantage of his resemblance to his brother, he approached the city gates at night, ostensibly to check the sentries. Tired warriors, not seeing the danger, rested in the tower, at the gate stood only one man from the guard. Approaching the warrior, the traitor hacked him to death with a sword and instantly opened the gate, behind which were the hidden Genoese.

Before the defenders of Sugdeya managed to come to their senses, the enemy soldiers broke into the city. A fierce battle began on its streets. But the forces were unequal. Enemies prevailed. By morning, Sugdeya was in their power. Theodora, Konstantin with part of the soldiers and residents fled to the west through a gap in the wall and took refuge in the fortress of Aluston.

In vain did Heraclius search for his brother among the dead, in vain did he expect that the captive Theodora would be brought to him! He was struck like thunder by the news that they had safely escaped from the captured city.

Soon the galleys of the Kafians appeared in Aluston. From all the surrounding settlements, the inhabitants went under the protection of the walls of the fortress and prepared for defense. The siege began. The Genoese troops went on the attack many times, but the population defended the city more and more fiercely. Men, women and children - all were on the fortifications, with swords, stakes, axes repulsed the enemies, boiled resin and oil and poured them over the besiegers, threw stones at them. Then the Genoese brought wall-beating guns and began to destroy the fortress walls and towers with rams. Seeing that the city could not be held, Theodora led the soldiers and inhabitants out of Aluston, and they hid on Castel Hill.

It seemed that nature itself took care to make the domed top of the Castel Hill impregnable. A rare daredevil would dare to overcome its almost sheer slopes, falling to the sea and into the valley. Only from the north, by a small gentle saddle, does it connect with the Main Ridge of the Crimean Mountains. Not without reason, in ancient times, people chose this mountain to hide from enemies, and until now, the path to its top is blocked by the remnants of powerful walls.

After some time, the Genoese approached the defensive wall and the gate that protected the only weak point of the fortress. Not hoping for the success of the assault, the enemies decided to surround the mountain and starve Theodora to surrender.

But waiting was not included in the calculations of Heraclius, he was impatient to get the girl immediately. He again offered his help to the invaders and, through the underground passage known to him, entered the fortress at night.

Once again, Theodora's soldiers were deceived by the resemblance of two twin brothers. Heraclius managed to get to the gate without hindrance. Imperceptibly crept up to his brother, Heraclius dealt him a mortal blow with a dagger. Rushing to the gate, the traitor pushed back the bolt, and the Genoese broke into the fortress. The fight began. Theodora ran out to the noise of the battle, but at that time Heraclius blocked her path. Mistaking him for Constantine, the empress asked anxiously:

- Where are the enemies?

- They're in the fortress! You are mine, Theodora, I will save you! shouted Heraclius.

Recognizing the traitor, the queen raised her sword in an instant:

- Damn you traitor!

The severed head of Heraclius rolled at her feet. Theodora rushed into the thick of the battle.

The moon rose and illuminated the terrible night battle on Castel Gora. The inhabitants of Sugdeya and Aluston fought desperately with the Genoese. Blood flowed in streams. Theodora fought in the forefront of the warriors. Enemies did not know mercy from her sword, she was all wounded, blood flowed through her body, but her pale face was angry, huge eyes sparkled with rage, her voice rang, calling warriors into battle. Theodora was beautiful in these last minutes of her life, the enemies backed away from her, as if from a terrible vision. But the forces were too unequal... Pala Castel.

On the southwestern slope of the mountain, where there is no vegetation, dark stripes are still visible against the gray background of the cliffs. This, according to popular rumor, is the streams of gore of the defenders of the fortress, who fought to the last man against the Genoese invaders and fell in the battle, led by their glorious queen, the warrior girl Theodora.

Questions and tasks

1. What changes are taking place in the ethnic composition of the population in the 13th century? What was it about?

2. What is a trading post?

3. What are the reasons for the founding of Italian trading posts in the Crimea?

4. With whom did Italian merchants trade? What goods did they trade?

5. What goods did the Genoese merchants export from the Crimea?

6. Tell us about Kaffa XlV-XV centuries.

7. Name the trading posts of the Genoese in the Crimea, find them on the map.

8. Why did the Genoese have to strengthen their possessions in the Crimea?

9. What influence did the Genoese trading posts have on the Crimea?

10. Why did the Genoese merchants establish their trading posts on the Crimean coast, and not in the central regions of the peninsula?

THE PRINCIPALITY OF THEODORO

The Principality of Theodoro was formed at the end of the 12th century. At the beginning of the XIII century, it fell into vassal dependence on the Trebizond (Greek) Empire of the Komnenos and paid her an annual tribute.

The principality was ruled by princes from the Comnenos of Trebizond, who came out of Armenia. At first, their power extended to the mountainous agricultural region of the Crimea, then spread to the sea.

The capital of the principality was the city of Theodoro in the southwestern part of the Crimea, it was also known as Mangup. The city has been mentioned in Greek sources since the 8th century. When the Mongols-Tatars appeared in the Crimea in the 13th century, the rulers

Theodoro managed to establish peaceful relations with them and stay in their possessions. The economy of the principality gradually developed, agriculture, crafts, and trade flourished.

From the second half of the 14th century, a large construction began in the city of Theodoro: the fortifications of the upper castle, the princely palace, and churches were erected. The heyday of the principality falls on the reign of Alexei (1420-1456). During his reign, the principality numbered 200 thousand inhabitants - a figure very significant for the Crimea of ​​that time.

During the reign of Alexei, fortresses and ports were built, new ones were laid, and old cities and towns were rebuilt. In 1427 the fortress of the capital was rebuilt again. Alexei not only maintained good relations with the Crimean Khanate, but also interfered in the struggle of the khans for the throne, supporting one or another applicant.

The Tatar rulers of the Crimea helped trade, also hoping to cash in on the competition between the Genoese and the merchants of Theodoro. In turn, Alexey decided to use the support of the Crimean khans and get his own port on the Crimean coast.

When, at the end of the 14th century, the Genoese took possession of almost the entire southern coast of Crimea, they monopolized the Black Sea trade and cut off the Principality of Theodoro from the sea. In an effort to reach the coast, the ruler Theodoro captured a small strip of coast in the area of ​​​​the later Inkerman and founded the port of Kalamita, and in order to protect it from the Genoese and Tatars, he built a fortress there in 1427. Theodoro's troops, leaving the Kalamita fortress, captured Cembalo in 1433, but could not hold it - in next year they were ousted from there by the Genoese.

Kalamita became a dangerous rival for Cembalo, Sudak, and even Kaffa herself in maritime trade. Many ships from Byzantium and the Mediterranean countries were sent to Kalamita.

The Genoese merchants sought to get rid of competition, and in 1434 an army sent from Kaffa burned Kalamita. However, the Theodorites quickly rebuilt it. This port remained the sea gate of the Principality until the end of its existence.

ECONOMY OF THEODORITES

The economy of this principality was based primarily on agriculture, which developed in the fertile valleys of the southwestern Crimea. The population of the principality was engaged in arable farming, gardening, gardening; viticulture has reached a significant development. The remains of wineries with large presses for grapes and other fruits are found in all the cities, castles and monasteries of Theodoro. Pastoral cattle breeding, mainly sheep breeding, has received significant development. Crafts also flourished in the principality, mainly pottery, blacksmithing, and weaving. The branches of the building craft, especially stone-cutting, played an equally important role. Trade became more and more important.

Cities, castles, shelters and other fortifications, as a rule, were located on impregnable rocky peaks. On these hills, apart from the river valleys, it was possible to most successfully engage in crafts. Raising large and small cattle required pastures. For this, they used yayla. Agriculture, on the other hand, developed in fertile, abundantly irrigated river valleys. Numerous unfortified agricultural settlements were scattered there and directly around Mangup. It was they who supplied Theodoro with agricultural products.

One of the main types of agriculture in the valleys was the cultivation of cereals, essentially the same as in ancient times - wheat, spelt, barley, and millet. The latter, in particular, was found on Eski-Kermen in pithoi of the 13th century. Chopped wheat and barley straw was found in the plaster of the temples of Eski-Kermen and Mangup.

The earth was plowed on oxen with a plow, harvested with sickles, and stored, as a rule, in pits cut in the rock or dug in the ground. Ground pits were lined with stone, coated with clay, which was then fired. For the same purpose, pithoi were also used, which were found in all medieval settlements of the Crimea. Often come across and stone millstones from small hand mills, as well as grain grinders.

In the gardens of Theodoro all kinds of fruit trees: pears, apple trees, plums, cherries, quinces, peaches, apricots, sweet cherries, almonds, etc. A special place was occupied by walnuts, hazelnuts and olives, from the fruits of which oil was extracted. Everywhere in the southern Crimea, on the sites of medieval settlements, feral offspring of these plants are found.

A large number of fruits were dried for the winter, in addition, all kinds of drinks were prepared from their juice or thick sweet syrups were cooked to replace sugar. Wild-growing fruits collected in the forests were subjected to the same treatment.

Much attention was paid to viticulture and winemaking. Traces of medieval vineyards have been preserved, the remains of wine-making complexes with tarapans - wine presses, small pools into which grape juice flowed. The wine was stored in tarred amphoras; sheep and goat skins were used for its transportation.

Livestock occupied a significant place in the economy of the principality. During the excavations of settlements and cities, bones of large and small cattle, pigs were found. Bulls and oxen served as draft power - working cattle, donkeys were very widely used, less often - horses, which can be partly explained by the conditions of mountainous places - heavy steep ascents and descents.

In the medieval herd of the mountainous and foothill Crimea, sheep and goats predominated - "suppliers" of milk, meat, wool and skins. Judging by the bone remains, as well as the height of the stone stalls, theodorites and cows of a small breed, characterized by a high fat content of milk, were bred.

The cities and even the small principalities of Theodoro in the XIV-XV centuries were distinguished by the intensive development of blacksmithing. Many of them have been excavated forging and casting workshops, small hearth furnaces for melting metal. On all fortifications there are traces of this production in the form of pieces of bloomery iron or blanks of swamp ore. During the excavations of Mangup, many iron objects were found - belt buckles, all kinds of nails, horseshoes, knives, arrowheads, etc.

Striking in the eye high level construction business. Stonecutters and builders of Mangup built not only houses, temples and palaces, but also powerful defensive walls with towers. Numerous fragments of columns, capitals, carved platbands and other decorations made of local stone - a witness of a developed stone-cutting craft, often turning into genuine art. All this was done by highly qualified masters.

Pottery production has reached significant development. Mangup produced not only kitchen utensils, but also tableware, as well as amphoras and pithoi of various sizes, from small to two meters. Glazed utensils were decorated with floral and geometric ornaments and were not inferior in quality to imported ones.

Woodworking, jewelry, leather craft, spinning and weaving were developed.

THE DEATH OF THEODORO

The Mangup principality played a significant role in the international life of the vast region. It was associated with many states of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. In the Middle Ages, it was customary to consolidate political relations by inter-dynastic marriages. During their heyday, the rulers of the principality further expanded their ties. In 1472, the Mangup princess Maria, daughter of Olubey, was married to the Moldavian ruler Stephen III. In 1474-1475, the Grand Duke of Moscow instructed his ambassadors to negotiate the marriage of his son to the daughter of the Prince of Theodorites. The marriage did not take place due to the Turkish invasion of the Crimea.

The year 1475 became fatal for Theodoro. The Turks invaded the peninsula.

The first blow fell on the possessions of the Genoese. Kaffa, which seemed impregnable, surrendered to the mercy of the victors on the sixth day of the siege. On the peninsula, only Mangup managed to put up a worthy resistance. Finding themselves face to face with such a formidable enemy, the Theodorites could only count on the impregnability of the fortress and on their own courage. During the six months of the siege, the Turks launched five assaults. Only at the end of 1475 did they manage to break into the city. The remains of fortress walls, towers, citadel, as well as archeological finds preserved on Mangup can tell us about the events of that time.

The main blow of the Turks was aimed at the defensive wall blocking the mouth of a small beam that flows into Gamam-dere between Cape Chufut-cheargan-burun and Taurus. Here the defenders had less opportunity to organize flanking bombardment, usually the most destructive for the attackers. Under a hail of stones and arrows, Turkish sappers and artillerymen set up their cannons in the middle of the opposite cape, Eli Burun. For this, they even had to lay a special access road, because the guns weighed several tons.

Obviously, most of the Theodorites knew only by hearsay about the new weapon, the powerful crusher of the city walls. Nevertheless, neither the roar of the guns, nor their granite cores of 40 cm caliber and weighing 100 kg, shook the courage of the city's defenders.

The wall, erected almost a millennium before the first appearance of artillery in the Crimea, also withstood the ordeal. A mound of stones and rubble was made on the back side of the wall, softening the shaking when the cannonballs hit.

During the excavations, the skeletons of the defenders were found, buried under stone rubble. Probably, the observers made sure that the enemy, under the cover of artillery, did not go on the attack, and fulfilled their military duty to the end.

Turkish arrowheads were found embedded in the stones of the walls. The number of collected fragments of kernels is in the thousands, some kernels were found stuck in the masonry.

When under the blows of siege weapons collapsed external walls fortress, the last stronghold of the garrison, headed by Prince Alexander, was the citadel. The besieged were in a desperate situation, but they were not going to capitulate. Evidence of this is the discovery of the remains of a forge, arranged near the gate. Here and in the midst of the battle continued to forge arrowheads and spears. In order to break into the citadel, the Turks were forced to bring their cannons here; stone cores were found along with numerous Turkish arrowheads, literally strewn on the ground around the forge.

Having captured Mangup in December 1475, the Turks devastated it, staged a merciless massacre of the inhabitants. Captured Alexander was executed in Constantinople. Of the male relatives of the prince, only his young son survived, who later became the ancestor of a noble, but not influential Turkish family.

On the occupied lands of the Principality of Theodoro, a Turkish kadylyk (district) was formed. The Turks, realizing the strategic position of Mangup, placed a garrison in the fortress, rebuilt some of the defensive structures of the front line and the citadel, adapting them to the use of firearms. The fortress served the new owners until the 18th century. After the annexation of Crimea to Russia, the last inhabitants of the small Karaite community left the plateau. In the early 90s of the XVIII century, once Big city, the center of the principality, finally ceased to exist.

Much is erased in human memory. But the stern majestic Mangup carefully preserves its history, the history of the peoples that inhabited it. Visiting Mangup, take a look at its impregnable capes, admire them unique beauty. The majestic picturesque landscape will remain in your memory for a long time. You will not forget that the city, which climbed so high to the clouds, lived here, worked and courageously fought against enemies. This will help you take more care of the history of your Fatherland, its monuments, one of which is the beautiful Mangup.

Questions and tasks

1. When was the Principality of Theodoro formed?

2. Show on the map the land of the principality and its capital.

3. What relationship developed between Theodoro and the Crimean Khanate?

4. What is the reason for the intensive construction in the principality in the XIV-XV centuries?

5. What is the role of the Principality of Theodoro in the history of Crimea?

6. What was the relationship between the Principality of Theodoro and the Genoese trading posts?

7. What was the basis of the principality's economy?

8. Prove that viticulture and winemaking among Theodorites reached a high level.

9. Give evidence that the Theodorites were engaged in agriculture?

10. Tell us about the development of agriculture in the principality.

11. Tell us about the development of crafts among the inhabitants of Theodoro.

12. Tell us about the foreign policy relations of the princes Theodoro.

13. When did the Turks invade the peninsula?

14. Why is the Turkish invasion of Crimea considered fatal?

15. Tell us about the struggle of the Theodorites with the Turks.

16. What are the reasons for the defeat of the Principality of Theodoro?

17. When did the capital of Theodorites fall?

18. How do you remember the Principality of Theodoro?

DECLINE OF CHERSONESOS

The events of the 12th century were catastrophic for Chersonese. With the help of the Venetians, the Byzantine Empire defeated the Normans, but for this it had to cede all the Black Sea trade to Venice. The Black Sea became the arena of commercial rivalry between the Venetians and the Genoese, their struggle for the Crimean coast.

At the same time, in the Crimea, there were continuous armed clashes between the local population and the Polovtsians. In this boiling cauldron, new relationships and connections were formed, in which Chersonesos, remaining aloof, began to play a secondary role. New cities grew and strengthened, which became more important.

The eastern lands of the peninsula were increasingly out of control of Chersonesos. In the mountainous regions of the southwestern Crimea, the Mangup principality strengthened and grew, which soon subjugated the entire territory, which was the food and raw material base of Chersonese and the market for its handicrafts. Nevertheless, throughout the 12th and first half of the 13th centuries, Chersonesos, apparently, remained still a large trading port and an influential cultural center, but now it is not the only one. And soon he lost the leading role to other coastal cities.

The economic ties between Khersonesus and the South-Western Crimea continued for some time, because the city was a neutral, safe port and a market for agricultural products. It also remained a large craft center, a kind of craft school.

At the beginning of the 13th century, when trade and political ties between Chersonesos and Constantinople were essentially interrupted, it fell under the influence of the small Trebizond Empire that arose in 1204. One of the written sources says that in 1223 Chersonese, along with other cities of the southwestern Crimea, paid tribute to Trebizond - "annual contributions".

From the second half of the 13th century, all trade on the Black Sea was seized by Italian merchants who founded their trading posts on the Crimean coast. Thus, Chersonese finally remained aloof from maritime trade, which previously ensured its development and prosperity. True, the city was delivered from the dependence of Byzantium. But, freed from the Byzantine garrison, at the same time he was almost defenseless and became easy prey for enemies.

And yet, the fading of Chersonesos lasted until its connection with the neighboring regions of the peninsula finally died out. Urban craft in the XIII century changed its character. In the small blacksmith workshops of Chersonesus, only agricultural tools continued to be made: coulters, sickles, hoes. These products were sold both among the surrounding residents and in more remote places of the southwestern Crimea, up to the areas of present-day Evpatoria, where grain farming was developing at that time. The same region was also a consumer of the products of Chersonese potters. Thus, by the end of the 13th century, the city turned from a transit trade center into a trade and craft center of a small region.

Glancing over the history of medieval Chersonese, one can be convinced that with the decline of trade, its economy could not be naturalized, because, as already noted, the city had almost no land at its disposal. Forced to live off the meager local exchange of his handicrafts for food and raw materials, he was doomed. In the neighborhood with him, in the principalities and monasteries of the mountainous Crimea, judging by the archaeological data, their craft grew. It successfully competed with Chersonese, as it developed in close proximity to the bases of raw materials and food and was firmly included in the general system of the feudal economy. Perhaps the artisans of Chersonesus began to move to other, more viable cities.

In 1299, Chersonese was defeated by the hordes of the Tatar Khan Nogai. Arab writers of that time called Chersonese in Tatar - Sary-Kermen - the Yellow Fortress.

Chersonese gradually fell into disrepair, the inhabitants left it. At the end of the 15th century, a fishing settlement huddled near the majestic ruins of the once glorious city.

The surviving, but abandoned buildings of Chersonesus gradually turned into piles of dead stones, over which age-old dust gradually accumulated.

CULTURE AND LIFE OF LATER KHERSONESOS

Significant changes took place in the architectural planning of Chersonese in the 12th-13th centuries. The city as a whole, especially its northeastern part, has retained to the end the basis of the old street layout inherited from antiquity. However, inside the quarters, everything has changed: small residential buildings, as it were, encircled small inner squares, new alleys appeared, connecting them with the streets.

Each estate of Chersonesos consisted of a tiny courtyard surrounded by outbuildings or surrounded by a high stone wall. Residential buildings, stone, more often two-story, as a rule, were facing the street with a facade and often did not have windows or doors on the lower floor.

Under living rooms the second floor was allotted, to it from the courtyard, less often a stone or wooden staircase led from the lower room. There were pantries on the lower floor, and the entrances to them were often made not from the yard, but from above - from the living quarters. The walls of houses were plastered with clay and whitewashed or covered with plaster, often painted red. The roofs of buildings, in most cases shed, were covered with flat roof tiles. The slopes were directed mainly inside the courtyard - to collect rainwater in deep cisterns. In one-story rooms and the lower floors of two-story buildings, as a rule, there were earthen floors coated with clay. Some houses had unpretentious architectural decoration on the outside. Entrance openings often ended with semicircular arches made of smooth, well-hewn stone. The facades were decorated with cornices. Above the entrances, and possibly above the windows of the upper floors, stones with crosses carved on them or an intricate pattern - “wickerwork” were inserted into the walls. In some cases, openings and architraves were decorated with more or less complex ornamental painting. Small churches or chapels were built in prominent places, more often at the crossroads of streets. Their abundance was very characteristic of the cities of this period.

The finds in dwelling houses of medieval Chersonesos also speak of its social topography. So, the southeastern part of the city, apparently, was more prosperous. Here, in addition to the usual household equipment and simple pottery - large and small pithoi, bowls, jugs, pots, clay sieves, there are more expensive items: glazed dishes (locally produced and imported), as well as copper and glass, expensive crosses - encolpions, carved bone, etc.

In the northwestern part of the city lived mainly the poor class - small artisans, fishermen. Here, during excavations, iron and copper hooks, harpoon tips, torchlights for night fishing, dredges for extracting shells are found.

Many bones and scales were also found various fish- anchovies, flounders, mullets, etc. Small agricultural implements were also found - iron coulters, hoes, sickles, spades, horse fetters and horseshoes, iron brushes for combing flax and wool.

In the craft of medieval Chersonese, pottery played an important role, the products of which were of paramount importance for the life and economy of that time. Local potters were mainly engaged in the manufacture of simple home-made red clay dishes, trade and storage containers.

Local tableware is represented by a variety of bowls, plates, dishes, small jugs. There are also expensive dishes covered with multi-colored lead glaze and decorated with various ornaments and images.

Pithos were still an obligatory accessory of every residential building. Judging by the traces of the contents of these vessels, wine, vegetable oil, salted fish, grain and cereals were usually stored in them. Pithoi are uniform in shape, have spherical outlines with a very small - up to 10 cm - flat bottom and a relatively wide neck. The corolla of the pithos is massive, protruding outwards. The height of the vessels ranges from 0.9 to 1.2 m. For stability, they were usually dug halfway into the ground or lined with stones.

For the transportation of liquids and bulk products, as in ancient times, amphoras were used - vessels of smaller sizes, from 35 to 55 cm high.

The most common form of amphorae in Chersonesos was wide pear-shaped and round-bottomed with a low narrow neck and two steep high handles.

Questions and tasks

1. What was the change in the management of Chersonese from the end of the 8th century?

2. Prove that from the second half of the 9th century. the well-being of Chersonesos increases.

3. What was the basis of the city's economy in the 10th century, what did the city trade with?

4. What is the role of handicraft production of Chersonesos in the 10th century?

5. What was the decline of Chersonese? What are the reasons for its complete decline?

6. How did the architecture of the city change in the XIl-XIII centuries?

7. What was the house of a resident of Chersonese?

8. What is the role of Chersonese in the history of Crimea?

REMEMBER THESE DATES

527-565 - reign of Justinian I.

833-834 - creation of the Chersonesus theme.

944 - an agreement between Prince Igor and Byzantium, according to which Kyiv was supposed to defend Kherson from the "black Bulgarians".

988 - the capture of Kherson (Korsun) by Vladimir. Christianization of Russia.

1061 - Polovtsian invasion of Taurica.

13th century(beginning) - the capture of Sudak by the Venetians.

1223 - the beginning of the military expansion of the Mongol-Tatars in Taurica.

1239 - Batu's campaign in the Crimea.

1242 - Crimea is an ulus of the Golden Horde.

13th century(50s) - the foundation of the city of Crimea (Stariy Krym).

1286 - foundation of the Genoese colony of Kaffa.

1365 - capture of Sudak by the Genoese.

1381 - an agreement between the Genoese and Khan Tokhtamysh on the transfer of the southern coast to their possession.

1475 - Turkish invasion of Crimea.

Where to draw the line between antiquity and the Middle Ages? What moment of history is considered a turning point for Crimea.

More often, I-III centuries are also referred to antiquity. AD, the Roman era, which, for example, in Northwestern Europe also covers the 4th century. As for the Crimean peninsula, its new stage began, in fact, from the second half of the 3rd century AD, with the departure of the Roman legions and the appearance of the Goths. But, in general essence events and then remained the same as before. The Crimean peninsula was periodically overwhelmed by waves of nomadic hordes. Many of them settled on it and were subsequently washed away by new waves. Flooding the steppe part of the foothills, they barely reached the southern coast, crashing against the mountain barrier. It cannot be said that the fateful events of the Middle Ages for the South Coast passed by, but nevertheless here they had a different development. This gave his history a certain independence.

It is not so important from what century or from what event to reprimand the Middle Ages of Crimea. Let it be the 4th or 5th century - let's leave the clarification to the medievalists. Let us continue the review of events and dates, returning to the end of the 3rd century.

And so we already know that the Roman legionnaires held the Crimea at least until the middle of the III century, and then left this area. At this time, there is a movement of the Gothic tribes from the Baltic states to the southeast, to the Northern Black Sea region. The Goths, who destroyed Taais shortly after 244, penetrated the Crimea, settled in its steppe (central and eastern parts), and invaded the Bosporus. Second half of the 3rd century was marked by powerful pressure from barbarian tribes (Goths, Sormatians, Slavs) on the borders of the Roman Empire; one after another they made military campaigns by land and by sea; that is why Rome was forced to draw up its legions, dispersed in distant provinces.

4th century

This period was not only fatal for the Crimea, but for the whole of Europe in general. It is from him that the great migration from the colossal slave-owning powers of antiquity begins - the Great Roman Empire. Having captivated the steppe Crimea and the zone of foothills closest to the steppes, the Huns defeated Scythian Naples. Chersonese was lucky - he survived, probably thanks to the defensive structures. Whether the Crimean Goths themselves refused to follow the Korung Theodoric to the west to Italy, or were blocked by the Huns on the peninsula and pushed back from its steppe regions and foothills to the mountainous part, is not very clear. One way or another, they remained in the Crimea.

The movement of the Goths from the Baltic states to the Crimean peninsula lasted almost a century. Perhaps those who believe that the Goths also involved local tribes in this movement are right, rather dissolving in them over time than conquering them. Maybe that is why there are so few traces of their culture along the entire path traveled by the Western Goths to the Crimea. This circumstance gave reason to some researchers to doubt the large scale of the Gothic migration.

In contrast to the slow movement of the Goths, a wave of Huns simply swept across the Crimea, sweeping away almost everything in its path. Radiocarbon dating charcoal From some settlements in the foothills of the Crimea, they showed that fires raged in them exactly around 370 BC.

5th century

In the steppes of the Black Sea region and in the northern part of the Crimea, the process of forming an alliance of Alanian tribes was almost completed. In 445, the Huns and conquered peoples united under the rule of Attila. After 8 years, already after his death, the power of the Huns disintegrated. In the southern part of the Crimea, the Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium, which had already separated from the Western Roman Empire and fell under the rule of the Eastern Goths, did not fail to take advantage of the fragility of the Hunnic dominion. Byzantium established its protectorate over the Southern Crimea, which for many centuries became, in fact, a province of Byzantium, covering the space from Chersonesos to Sudak, and later to Feodosia.

6th century

At that time, Turkic-speaking Avars appeared in Eastern Europe, and soon in the steppes of the Black Sea region and in Central Europe the Avar Khaganate arose - a multi-tribal and fragile military-despotic formation. In the southern Crimea, the Byzantine Empire took a number of measures to strengthen it against the raids of nomadic hordes. The territory of the protectorate expanded to the Bosporus: somewhere in the Crimea there was the country of Dori - Doros, later called the Principality of Theodoro. According to the testimony of the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea, a population lived here, in fact, apparently, strongly mixed or even dissolved in the earlier Greek-Sarmatian environment. Many large Christian temples in Chersonese and in the city-fortresses on the Second Range of Mountains (Mangup, Eski-Kermen) date back to the 6th century, which indicates the strengthening of Christianity in the Crimea. A number of fortifications in Chersonese and in the fortified cities of the South-Western Crimea are also attributed to the same time.

7th century

The position of Byzantium in the Crimea after the defeat of the hordes of Avars near Constantinople became even more solid. In the 6th century, the Khazar Khaganate was formed in the Capia and the North-Eastern Black Sea region, which also covered the region of the Caucasus. Around 680, the Khazars appeared in the Crimea and included it in the borders of the kaganate, trying to wrest Chersonese from Byzantium. However, Byzantium held this important trading point, and with it the southern coast of Crimea, up to Feodosia, in their hands. It is not very clear to what extent the principality of Doros (Dori) in the mountainous South-Western Crimea was then independent and whether it was as extensive as several centuries later. Perhaps it was in vassal dependence on the Khazar Khaganate, was its tributary. There are many gaps and unclear moments in the history of the Khazars and the Khazar Khaganate. We know exactly who the Khazars were, where they came from, what lifestyle they led, and even where they lived. In Crimea, in fact, there is not a single monument that could be unconditionally attributed to the culture of the Khazars. There are none on the South Coast either. It is possible that some mounds with "stone women" in the steppe part of the Crimea and in the steppes of the Black Sea region belong to this time.

Chersonesos was bound by strong ties not only with Byzantium, but also with Rome. We know the story of Martin I, the Roman pope, exiled by the emperor to Chersonese in 654, after a six-year pontificate. This story at least shows that the Crimea was at that time for Byzantium not only a granary, but also a remote area where unwanted persons could be hidden, relying on the control of the local administration, wholly dependent on both empires.

8th century

It is believed that it was in the VIII century that Christianity firmly and finally established itself in the Crimea. As you can see, it took six centuries from the moment of the first penetration of Christians into the Crimea until the new religion conquered the minds and thoughts of most of the aboriginal population. However, there is an opinion that the bulk of the population continued to remain pagan both in the 7th century and in the 8th - early 9th centuries, even in the 13th century. At the same time, the Khazars adopted Judaism. Perhaps at the same time a sect arose at the beginning, then an ethnic group of Karaites who professed Judaism, but rejected the Talmud. They were destined to remain in the Crimea in the future, to populate the suburbs of large medieval cities of fortresses.

In the 8th century, at its very beginning, echoes palace coups in Constantinople they directly touched Chersonesus and the Chersonesites. Back in 685 Emperor Justenian II was overthrown from the Byzantine throne and sent into exile in Chersonese, but set out to regain the throne. Kherson nobility decided to extradite him to Emperor Tiberius III. However, Justinian managed to escape and subsequently re-seize power. Deciding to take revenge on the Chersonesites for treachery, he sent a colossal fleet with a landing force to the coast of Crimea. However, during a severe storm, Justinian's fleet was almost completely destroyed (as well as eleven centuries later, during the Crimean War, most of the British and French died off the coast of Taurica). Chersonese, which Justenian II threatened to punish, turned to the Khazars for help. In 711, the townspeople raised an uprising against Byzantium and, with the help of the townspeople and the Khazars, established himself on the throne.

In the 8th century Anti-Khazar protests also took place in the Crimea, for example, an uprising, one of the leaders of which was John of Gotha. The uprising took place in 787 and was ruthlessly suppressed by the Khazars.

9th century

In 822-836. Magyars appeared in the Black Sea steppes, but it is not known whether they penetrated the Crimea, and if they penetrated, to what extent and for how long. Most likely, the Crimea remained aloof from their movement. The Magyars dealt the first blow to the Khazar Khaganate. By the middle of the century, the Khazar squads occupied the Kerch and Taman peninsulas and still held power in some other regions of the Crimea. However, it is hardly possible to take as an indisputable fact the possession of the Khazars in the 9th and 10th centuries. The southern coast - Sudak, Alushta, Partenit, Lambat, Alupka, in the South-Western Crimea - Mangup, that is, the country of Doros, as reported by the lengthy edition of the letter of Kagan Joseph to the Jewish statesman under the Spanish caliphs to Khaldai Ibn Shaprut. This was clearly an exaggeration. The second blow to the Khazar Khaganate was inflicted in the 70s. 9th century Pechenegs who invaded the Black Sea region. Most of the Crimean peninsula was in the second half of the IX century. desert lands, and even in Chersonesos there was a decline in economy and trade. By the 9th century include the campaign to the Crimea of ​​the legendary Novgorod prince Bravlin and the campaign of Russia to Constantinople - a sea expedition of 860 from the mouth of the Dnieper to the Bosporus, along the western coast of the Black Sea. In the southern Crimea, Byzantium retained its dominant influence, despite the periodic raids of nomads. The claims of the Khazars to the South Bank, reflected in the mentioned letter of the Khazar king Joseph, do not yet say that this region was subordinate to them.

10th century

In the first half of the X century. the pressure of Russia on Byzantium increased - meaning a series of sea campaigns to Constantinople. These military expeditions did not capture the Crimean peninsula, but the Russians penetrated Chersonese and established trade relations with the Chersonesites. These were the first steps of Russia in the struggle with Byzantium for spheres of influence in the Black Sea region, for access to the sea, to trading and trading-intermediary cities. In 966, the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav made a campaign against the Volga Bulgaria, crushing the state of the Bulgarians, and in the same year against the Khazar Khaganate, from its capital Itil to Tmutarakan on the Taman Peninsula. By that time, the Kaganate had finally disintegrated. A certain number of Khazars still held out in the Eastern Crimea and in its steppe part.

In 989, military events directly affected the Crimean peninsula. Prince Vladimir of Kyiv besieged and defeated Chersonesus, acting as a political opponent of Byzantium and seeking to seize this important center of trade and economic relations between the West and the East. Permitted Chersonese did not leave the historical arena for several centuries, but gradually tended to decline. The city was returned by Vladimir to Byzantium, and Vladimir himself, according to legend, was baptized in it, married the Byzantine princess Anna, returned home and began to spread Christianity in Russia.

XI-XII centuries

The Pecheneg barrier in the Black Sea region violated the established trade and economic ties between Russia and the Crimean peninsula - Taurica. The outpost of the Russian land on the shores of the Black Sea became the Tmutarakan principality on the Taman Peninsula. Over time, its western territory also covered the Bosporus - the Kerch Peninsula: in 1016, the Trutarakan prince Mstislav destroyed the remnants of the Khazar state in Crimea. And Byzantine strategists were still in Chersonesos, while the area subject to this city and constituting the northern Pontic province of Byzantium reached Sudak.

In the middle of the 11th century, the Crimean peninsula was overwhelmed by another wave of nomads - Polovtsy, or Kuman. They occupied mainly the steppe part of the peninsula; Arabic sources call the "Cuman land" and the southern coast. Tmutarakan principality in the XII century. left the stage; in any case, nothing is known about him since that time. The country of Doros - now the Principality of Theodoro has expanded its limits, covered most of the mountainous terrain in the South-Western Crimea, up to the meridian of Chatyr-Dag. It is unclear only to what extent it was dependent on the Polovtsians. It can be assumed that Theodoro was at that time under a double influence: in close cultural connection with Byzantium (through Chersonesos), and at the same time in tributary relations with the Polovtsy. To a certain extent, it looks paradoxical that the South-Western Crimea, including the Principality of Theodoro, the South Coast and the region of Chersonesos, in the XI-XII centuries, in the same way as in the course of several previous and subsequent centuries, was called Gothia, at least in church administrative documents.