Tariff methods of foreign trade regulation

Introduction

There are two economic concepts in the approach to world relations and, accordingly, two directions in the state foreign economic policy - protectionism and free trade (the concept of free trade). Supporters of protectionism defend the need for state protection of the industry of their country from foreign competition. Supporters of free trade believe that, ideally, not the state, but the market should form the structure of exports and imports. The combination of these approaches in varying proportions distinguishes the foreign economic policy of states in different periods of their development.

For national economies, greater openness to trade liberalization is typical for periods of high economic growth and strong export potential. And, on the contrary, during periods of economic recession, weakening of export potentials, as a rule, they listen to the arguments of supporters of protectionism.

Foreign economic policy is an activity that regulates the economic relations of a country with other states. It plays a significant role in providing effective use external factor in the national economy. With the evolution of international economic relations, an extensive toolkit of foreign economic policy has been formed.

The whole set of tools that the state has at its disposal for regulating foreign economic activity can be divided into three large groups:

— customs tariffs;

— non-tariff restrictions;

- forms of export promotion.

Already from the name it is clear that all of them have an initially protectionist orientation. The state increases or decreases this orientation depending on the external and internal circumstances prevailing in this or that period of ideas about national interests, and the current international rules. This also applies to such an important component of state regulationforeign economic sphere, as tariff regulation.

1.Regulation of foreign trade

Countries, occupying different positions in the world economy in general and in various commodity markets in particular, pursue a certain foreign trade policy to protect their interests.

Underforeign trade policy state refers to the purposeful impact of the state on trade relations with other countries.

Mainforeign trade policy objectives are:

ensuring economic growth;

changing the way and degree of inclusion of a given country in the international division of labor;

alignment of the structure of the balance of payments;

ensuring the stability of the national currency;

maintaining the political and economic independence of the country;

providing the country with the necessary resources.

Modern foreign trade policy is an interactiontwo forms :

protectionism - policies aimed at protecting the domestic market from foreign competition and often at capturing foreign markets; In its extreme form, protectionism takes the form of economic autarky, in which countries seek to limit imports to only those goods that cannot be produced in that country.

liberalization associated with the reduction of barriers that impede the development of foreign economic relations; pursuing a free trade policy (free trading ) allows you to get the most benefit from international economic exchange.

In reality, the policy of free trade, just like the policy of protectionism, is not carried out in its pure form, but acts as a trend. World trade is dominated bymixed forms of foreign trade policy , suggesting the interaction of the two above-mentioned trends, each of which prevails in certain periods of development of regional and world trade.

In the 50-60s. tendencies towards liberalization prevailed, and in the 70-80s. marked wave"new" protectionism . Neo-protectionism refers to restrictions on international trade imposed by countries in addition to traditional forms of restricting unwanted imports of goods. Among the methods of additional pressure on the exporters of goods to a given country, the contractual economic mechanisms of “voluntary restriction of exports”, “ordered trade agreements” imposed on exporting firms are used. In the 90s. free trade dominated world trade.

If speak aboutresultant trend, the result is the liberalization of international trade with greater flexibility of protectionist barriers.

But they developprotectionist tendencies:

Protectionism is becoming regional. There is a liberalization of exchange in the groupings, special conditions for intra-regional foreign trade exchange are introduced, which strengthens the discriminatory regime against third countries.

New trends in the development of state export support policy - in focus on less visibleindirect support measurescertain industries and groups of goods in case of refusal from traditional schemes direct export subsidies and subsidies. The combination of protectionism and free trade in foreign trade policy in the field of exports is complemented by the modification of state export promotion programs.

industrial the developed countries use:

direct subsidies for exports (for example, for agricultural products);

export credit (significant in value of goods, covers up to 15% of export volume);

insurance of export deliveries (up to 10% of the transaction value, including the expected profit, insurance against political, military, and other risks).

Depending on the specific goals of foreign trade policy, states use its various instruments or a different combination of the latter. The instruments used in foreign trade are combined into2 main groups :

tariff restrictions (customs duties);

non-tariff restrictions.

2. Tariff and non-tariff methods of foreign trade regulation

Tariff Methods regulation of foreign trade -is the establishment of tariff quotas and customs duties(predominantly imports are regulated). All other methodsdy -non-tariff.

A trade regime is considered relatively open, withwhich the average level of import customs dutiesny - less than 10%, and quotas - less than 25% of imports.

Non-tariff methods are divided into quantitativenye - quotas, licensing, restrictions; hiddenty - public procurement, technical barriers, taxes and fees,the requirement for the content of local components; financiallyvye - subsidies, lending, dumping (for export).

Customs tariff - list of goods and systemrates at which they are taxed.

Customs duty - a mandatory fee, zicleared by customs when importing or exportinggoods and is a condition of import or export.

Customs duties perform three main functions:

fiscal;

protectionist;

balancing (to prevent the export of delicatedesirable goods).

Classifications of customs duties.

By way of collection:

- ad valorem - are charged as a percentage of the customs value of taxable goods (for example, 20% of the customs value);

- specific - are charged in the prescribed amount per unit of taxable goods (for example, $ 10 per 1 ton);

- combined - combine both named types of customs taxation (for example, 20% of the customs value, but not more than $ 10 per 1 ton).

Ad valorem duties are similar to a proportional sales tax and are usually applied when taxing goods that have different quality characteristics within the same product group. The strength of ad valorem duties is that they maintain the same level of protection for the domestic market, regardless of fluctuations in product prices, only budget revenues change. For example, if the duty is 20% of the price of a product, then if the price of the product is $200, the budget revenues will be $40. If the price of the product increases to $300, the budget revenues will increase to $60; if the price of the product falls to $100, it will decrease to $20. dollars. But regardless of the price, the ad valorem duty raises the price of imported goods by 20%. The weak side of ad valorem duties is that they provide for the need for a customs assessment of the value of the goods for the purposes of taxation. Since the price of a product can fluctuate under the influence of numerous economic (exchange rate, interest rate, etc.) and administrative (customs regulation) factors, the use of ad valorem duties is associated with the subjectivity of assessments, which leaves room for abuse. Specific duties are usually imposed on standardized goods and have the undeniable advantage of being easy to administer and in most cases leave no room for abuse. However, the level of customs protection through specific duties is highly dependent on fluctuations in commodity prices. For example, a specific duty of $1,000 per imported car restricts imports of a $8,000 car much more strongly, since it represents 12.5% ​​of its price, than a $12,000 car, since it represents only 8.3% of its price. As a result, when import prices rise, the level of protection of the domestic market through a specific tariff falls. But, on the other hand, during an economic downturn and falling import prices, a specific tariff increases the level of protection for domestic producers.

According to the object of taxation:

- import - duties that are imposed on imported goods when they are released for free circulation in the domestic market of the country. They are the predominant form of duties applied by all countries of the world to protect national producers from foreign competition;

- export - duties that are imposed on export goods when they are released outside the customs territory of the state. They are used extremely rarely by individual countries, usually in case of large differences in the level of domestic regulated prices and free prices on the world market for certain goods, and are aimed at reducing exports and replenishing the budget;

- transit - duties that are imposed on goods transported in transit through the territory of a given country. They are extremely rare and are used primarily as a means of a trade war.

The nature:

- seasonal - duties that are used for the operational regulation of international trade in seasonal products, primarily agricultural. Usually, their period of validity cannot exceed several months a year, and for this period the operation of the ordinary customs tariff for these goods is suspended;

- anti-dumping - duties that are applied in case of importation into the territory of the country of goods at a price lower than their normal price in the exporting country, if such import damages local producers of such goods or hinders the organization and expansion of national production of such goods;

- compensatory - duties imposed on the import of those goods in the production of which subsidies were used directly or indirectly, if their import causes damage to national producers of such goods. Typically, these special types of duties are applied by a country either unilaterally for purely defensive purposes against attempts at unfair competition by its trading partners, or as a response to discriminatory and other actions that infringe on the interests of the country on the part of other states and their unions. The introduction of special duties is usually preceded by an investigation, commissioned by the government or parliament, into specific cases of abuse of market power by trading partners. During the investigation, bilateral negotiations are held, positions are determined, possible explanations for the situation are considered, and other attempts are made to resolve differences politically. The introduction of a special duty is usually the last resort resorted to by countries when all other ways to resolve trade disputes have been exhausted.

Origin:

- autonomous - duties introduced on the basis of unilateral decisions of the authorities state power countries. Usually, the decision to introduce a customs tariff is made in the form of a law by the parliament of the state, and the specific rates of customs duties are set by the relevant department (usually the ministry of trade, finance or economy) and approved by the government;

- Conventional (contractual) duties established on the basis of a bilateral or multilateral agreement, such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GLTG), or customs union agreements;

- preferential - duties that have lower rates compared to the usually applicable customs tariff, which are imposed on the basis of multilateral agreements on goods originating from developing countries. The purpose of preferential duties is to support economic development these countries by expanding their exports. Since 1971, a general system of preferences has been in place, providing for a significant reduction in import tariffs of developed countries on imports of finished products from developing countries. Russia, like many other countries, does not charge customs duties at all on imports from developing countries.

By bet type:

- permanent - customs tariff, the rates of which are set by the state authorities at a time and cannot be changed depending on the circumstances. The vast majority of countries in the world have fixed rate tariffs;

- Variables - the customs tariff, the rates of which can be changed in accordance with the established state authorities. power cases (when the level of world or domestic prices changes, the level government subsidies). Such rates are quite rare.

By way of calculation:

— nominal — tariff rates specified in the customs tariff. They can only give the most general idea of ​​the level of customs taxation to which a country is subjecting its imports or exports;

- effective - the actual level of customs duties on final goods, calculated taking into account the level of duties imposed on import units and parts of these goods.

The duty is imposed on the customs value of the goods.

The customs value of the goods is normal, warehousetraded on the open market between an independentbetween the seller and the buyer the price of the commodity at which he canbe sold in the country of destination at the time of submission of the tamowomen's declaration.

The customs value of goods imported into the United States,calculated on the basis of the FOB price, i.e. the price at whichthey are sold in the country of dispatch.

In the EU, the customs value of the goods is estimated on the basis of the CIF, i.e. the duty on the price of the goods includes the price of transportshipping to the port of destination and the price of insurance.

AT Russian Federation base customs tariffis based on the internationally accepted class systemclassification of goods.

The customs value is determined by the declarant undercontrol of the customs authorities. The main method of determiningdivision of the customs value is considered the method of pricetransactions with imported goods.

When determining the customs value in the transaction priceIn addition to the price of the product itself, it includes:

expenses for the delivery of goods to the place of importation;

buyer's expenses;

the price of raw materials, materials, etc. provided bythe buyer to the seller for the production of export goods;

license fees for the use of objectsintellectual property that the buyerwives to carry out, as a condition of sale, importother goods;

seller's income from subsequent resales, petransfer or use of imported goods on terthe rhetoric of the Russian Federation.

Tariff escalation - raising the level of customstaxation of goods as the degree of their processing increaseski - is used to protect national productsdistributors of finished products, stimulating the import of raw materials andsemi-finished products. Developing countries are characterized by a market for raw materials, the customs taxation of whichminimal compared to finished products.

As a result of the introduction of a tariff by any country,yut, economic effects of redistribution (effects beforeprogress and redistribution) and losses (effects of protection and consumption).

income effect — increase in budget revenues: abouttransfer of income from the private sector to the public sectorgift.

redistribution effect — redistribution of income fromconsumers to manufacturers of products that competewith import.

Protection effect - economic losses of the country,disappearing as a result of the need for domestic production, under the protection of the tariff, additional quantitiesgoods at higher costs.

consumption effect occurs as a result of contractionconsumption of goods due to the growth of its price for domesticit market.

Typical for a large countryeffect of conditions torus howl — redistribution of income from foreignmanufacturers to the budget of this country as a result of improvedterms of trade.

The import tariff has a potential impacteffect on the economy of a large country if the effect of conditionstrade in value terms is greater than the sum of the losses resulting from the less efficientsti of domestic production in comparison with the world andreduction in domestic consumption of goods. Only a large country can influence the level of world prices and secure some economic effect for itself by improvingchange their terms of trade. In any case, you needma is the optimal tariff rate.

The optimal tariff rate is the tariff levelfa, ensuring the maximization of the national economymental well-being.

This rate is always relatively low. Optimalnny tariff leads to an economic gain for one countryny and to the losses of the world economy as a whole, since it serveslives the redistribution of income from one country to another.

Countries can use a tariff quota - timesvariety of variable customs duties, rates whichryh depend on the volume of imports of goods. When importing intocases of a certain amount, it is subject to the basicintra-quota tariff rate, if a certain volume is exceeded, imports are taxed at a higher, in excess ofquota rate.

Supporters of tariffs justify their introduction notthe need to protect fragile sectors of the nationalindustry, stimulating domesticproduction, increase budget revenues and ensurenational security. Opponents believe thatreefs reduce the level of economic well-being of the country and undermine the world economy, lead to tradewars, increase taxes, reduce the volume of ex-ports and reduce employment.

The administrative form of the non-tariff stateregulation of trade turnover are quantitativecial restrictions, including quotas (limittingenting), licensing and voluntaryexport decline.

Quota - a quantitative measure of export restriction
or import of goods of a certain quality or amount
for a certain period of time.

According to the direction of the quota are divided into export and import. In terms of coverage, quotas are divided into global ones, which are set for a certain period of time to ensuremeeting the required level of domestic consumption, andindividual - established within the global quoyou are temporary.

Licensing is the regulation of foreign economiceconomic activities through permits issued
government agencies for the export or import of goodsra in prescribed quantities for a certain industrialcreepy time.

Licenses can be one-time - up to 1 year forone deal; general - for a period of up to 1 year without limitthe number of transactions; global - for a specificterm for import or export of goods to any country in the world;automatic (issued immediately).

The mechanisms for distributing licenses are varied: auctions; Explicit Preference System - Fixing to Firmslicense holders according to their share of imports; distributionlicenses on non-price basis - issuance by the governmentlicenses to the most efficient firms.

Voluntary export restriction - quantitynatural restriction based on the obligation to limitto change or not to expand the volume of exports under politicalpressure from the importer.

There are many methods of covert protectionism.ma, including: technical barriers - the requirement to complyniya national standards; internal taxes and fees;public procurement policy (requirement to purchase goods from national firms); the requirement for the content of local components (sets the proportion of the product produced onby national producers for sale in the domesticmarket); requirement to comply with certain sanitaryhygiene standards, etc.

The most common financial methodmi trade policies are subsidies, credittoning and dumping.

Subsidies are cash payments directedto support national exporters and indirect discrimination against imports. Subsidizing the nationalproduction is considered the preferred form of tax policy over import tariffs and quotas.

An extreme case of export subsidies isdumping is the promotion of a product to a foreign market at the expense ofreduction of export prices below the normal price level,existing in importing countries.

Within the framework of the WTO, the recognized basis of international tradegovli is the most favored nation treatment.

Conclusion

The world economy is the most dynamic area of ​​the economy. However, Russia is still insufficiently “embedded” in the system of the international division of labor and international trade.

The market reform opened before Russia the possibility of all-round inclusion in the world economy. But in order to adapt to the laws of the world market, we must first of all study them, understand what guides our economic partners, what are the principles of activity of various international economic organizations.

The protection of the national economy from the excessive onslaught of imported goods is carried out primarily by the customs regulation of commodity flows.

Today, there are two main methods of regulating foreign trade: tariff and non-tariff. The main difference of the tariff method is its constancy, that is, tariff duties are always in effect. Non-tariff methods are applied periodically, when it is necessary for the state.

Bibliography

Simionov Yu.F. World economy and international economic relations / Yu.F. Simonov, O.A. Lykov. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2006. - 504 p.

International Economic Relations: Textbook / A.I. Evdokimov and others - M .: TK Velbi, 2003. - 552 p.

World Economy: Textbook / Ed. Prof. A.S. Bulatov. — M.: Economist, 2005. — 734 p.

World Economy: Study Guide / Compiled by Gladkov I.S. - M .: Publishing house of URAO, 1998. - 140 p.

World economy: Proc. allowance / Ed. prof. Nikolaeva I.P. - 2nd ed., Rev. and additional — M.: UNITI-DANA, 2000. — 575 p.

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………... 2

1. Tariff methods of regulation of foreign trade……………………. 3

2. The concept of an open and closed economy……………………………….. 10

3. Task 1……………………………………………………………………… 15

4. Task 2……………………………………………………………………… 18

5. References…………………………………………………………. 24

Introduction.

The existence of states opposing each other sets the task for governments to ensure national interests, including through protectionist measures.

The main task of the state in the field of international trade is to help exporters export as much of their products as possible, making their goods more competitive in the world market and limit imports, making foreign goods less competitive in the domestic market. Therefore, part of the methods of state regulation is aimed at protecting the domestic market from foreign competitors and therefore refers primarily to imports. Another part of the methods has as its task the formation of exports.

Means of regulating foreign trade can take various forms, including both those directly affecting the price of goods (tariffs, taxes, excise and other duties, etc.), and limiting the value or quantity of incoming goods (quantitative restrictions, licenses, “voluntary » export restrictions, etc.).

The most common means are customs tariffs, the purpose of which is to obtain additional funds (usually for developing countries), regulate foreign trade flows (more typically for developed countries) or protect domestic producers (mainly in labor-intensive industries).

That is why it is important to assess the effectiveness of customs taxation, to give a general description of customs duties, and to analyze customs tariffs as a register of taxable commodity items.

Tariff methods of regulation of foreign trade.

One of the most common methods of economic regulation of foreign trade in world practice is tariff regulation, which involves a cost impact on export-import flows in the process of crossing state borders.

First of all, tariff regulation determines the procedure and methodology for customs taxation of goods, types of tariffs and duties, the regime of customs benefits, as well as a set of actions that relate to subjects of foreign economic activity in the implementation of an export-import operation.

The main element of the mechanism of tariff regulation is the customs tariff, which is a systematized list of rates that determine the amount of payment for import and export goods, that is, customs duties. As an active instrument of state regulation, the customs tariff is used in all developed countries, covering about 2/3 of their foreign trade turnover.

The customs tariff performs several functions: it protects national producers from foreign competition, it is a source of funds for the state budget, it serves as a means of improving the conditions for access of national goods to foreign markets.

The protection of national producers is achieved by the fact that in the field of imports, the customs policy is focused on reducing the cost of raw materials supplied from abroad. As a rule, imported raw materials are subject to the minimum customs rate. This, accordingly, reduces the costs of local producers of finished products. Conversely, customs tariffs on imported finished products are set at a higher level. This allows local producers, even if elevated level their production costs, to compete in the national market with imported products.

The significance of the function of customs tariffs as a source of funds for the state budget tends to decrease, in connection with the global process within the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and the liberalization of customs duties. At present, the share of this source in the tax revenues of the state budget of countries with developed market economies is a few percent.

Finally, customs tariffs can serve as a means to improve the conditions for the entry of national goods into foreign markets. To this end, countries interested in mutual deliveries are negotiating a mutual reduction in customs tariffs for the relevant products.

Customs tariffs can be applied both at the national level and at the level of individual political and economic groups. Of course, the vast majority of countries use customs tariffs at the national level. However, in some cases, the customs tariff may be the same for countries participating in a separate group. For example, the EU countries are separated from all other states by a customs tariff (about 6%).

Customs tariffs are based on commodity classifiers. At present, the most common classifier of goods circulating in foreign trade is the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System.

CLASSIFICATION OF CUSTOMS DUTIES

Before proceeding directly to the classification of customs duties, it should be noted that among the main functions of the customs tariff, protectionist and fiscal functions are highlighted. The protectionist function is associated with the protection of national producers. The collection of customs duties on imported goods increases the cost of the latter when they are sold on the domestic market of the importing country and thereby increases the competitiveness of similar goods produced by national industry and agriculture. The fiscal function of the customs tariff ensures the receipt of funds from the collection of customs duties in the revenue part of the country's budget. Fiscal customs duties differ significantly from protectionist customs duties in that they generate revenues for the budget and affect the costs of those buyers who cannot do without imported goods. However, in many cases, the customs duty, being purely fiscal at first, becomes protectionist over time, and there is no clear separation between them.

The customs tariff is a fundamental instrument of protectionist policy. Customs and tariff regulation - a set of customs and tariff measures that are used as national trade and political tools for regulating foreign trade.

Balancing function - refers to export duties established in order to prevent unwanted export of goods, domestic prices for which, for one reason or another, are lower than world prices (currently practically not applied in the Russian Federation).

Customs duties can be classified according to the following parameters:

For trade circulation:

- Import (import) duties- imposed on imported goods, when they are released for free circulation in the domestic market of the country. Are the prevailing duties in all countries. At the initial stage of the development of capitalism, tax revenues were provided with the help of import duties; now their importance has declined sharply, and other tax revenues (for example, income tax) perform fiscal functions. If in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century up to 50% of all budget revenues were covered by import duties, at present this share does not exceed 1.5%. The share of income from import duties in the budget of the vast majority of industrialized countries does not exceed a few percent. In other words, if at the beginning of its existence, import duties ensured the receipt of funds, that is, they played a fiscal role, but today their functions are primarily related to ensuring the implementation of a certain trade and economic policy. In developing countries, on the other hand, import duties are used primarily as a source of financial revenue. This is due to the relatively greater possibility of control and the simplicity of the procedure for collecting taxes on goods crossing the customs border. As for Russia, recent changes in customs legislation show that the role of Russian import duties as a fiscal tool is increasing.

- Export (export) duties- imposed on the exported goods. In accordance with WTO rules, they are used extremely rarely, usually in the case of large differences in the level of domestic regulated prices and free prices on the world market for individual goods and are aimed at reducing exports and replenishing the budget.

- Transit (carriage) duties- imposed on goods transported in transit through the territory of a given country. International transit is the transportation of foreign goods, in which the point of departure and destination are outside the country.

On the basis of accrual:

- Specific- are charged in the prescribed amount per unit of taxable goods (for example, $ 20 per 1 ton). The practical use of specific duties does not present any technical difficulties. Specific, as a rule, are export duties, they are levied mainly on raw materials.

- Ad valorem- are charged as a percentage of the customs value of taxable goods (for example, 15% of the customs value);

- Alternative. In the customs practice of industrialized countries, depending on the indications contained in the tariff, both ad valorem and specific duties are levied simultaneously or the one that gives the highest customs duty. At first glance, the distinction between ad valorem and specific duty is purely technical. However, in the customs and tariff business there are always trade, political and economic goals behind organizational and technical differences. Ad valorem and specific duties behave differently when prices change. As prices rise, ad valorem duties rise in proportion to the rise in prices, and the level of protectionist protection remains unchanged. Under these conditions, ad valorem duties are more effective than specific ones. And when prices fall, specific rates are more stable. Therefore, in the context of a long upward trend in prices, there is usually a desire to increase the share of ad valorem duties in the customs tariff.

- Combined- combine both types of customs taxation (for example, 15% of the vehicle, but not more than $ 20 per 1 ton.).

According to the nature of the application:

Seasonal - are used for the operational regulation of international trade in seasonal products, primarily agricultural.

Antidumping- is established to equalize the prices of imported goods to a level recognized as normal. They are applied when goods are imported into the country at a price lower than their normal price in the exporting country, if such imports harm local producers of such goods or hinder the expansion of national production. To make a decision on the introduction of anti-dumping duties, it is important to determine the goals and nature of dumping, which can be divided into permanent (aggressive) and one-time (passive).

Compensatory- are imposed on the import of those goods, in the production of which subsidies were used directly or indirectly, if their import harms the national producers of such goods or hinders the organization or expansion of their production.

Special- a duty applied, firstly, as a protective measure, if goods are imported into the customs territory of the country in quantities and on conditions that cause or threaten to cause damage to domestic producers of similar or directly competing goods. Secondly as a response to discriminatory and other actions that infringe on the interests of the country by other states or their unions.

Origin:

Autonomous- duty, established on the basis of unilateral decisions of the state authorities of the country. Its rates can be changed by the decision of the competent authority without agreement with the countries-foreign trade partners.

Conventional(negotiable) - are established on the basis of a bilateral or multilateral trade agreement (agreement), such as GATT / WTO. It applies only to those products that are specified in this document. The rates of such duties cannot be changed unilaterally; the term of their application is determined by the period of validity of the corresponding document.

preferential- a preferential duty introduced at reduced rates to encourage the import of certain goods from specific countries. Their goal is to support the economic development of these countries.

By bet type:

Permanent- customs tariff, the rates of which are set by the state authorities at a time and cannot be changed depending on the circumstances.

Variables- customs tariff, the rates of which may be changed in cases established by state authorities. Such rates are quite rare; they are used, for example, in Western Europe within the framework of the common agricultural policy.

Introduction

1 Methods of state regulation of foreign trade

1.1 Tariff methods of regulation

1.2 Non-tariff methods of regulation

2 Regulation of foreign trade in the European Union

3 Features of regulation of foreign trade activity in the Republic of Belarus

Conclusion

List of sources used

Application

INTRODUCTION

Regulation of foreign economic activity by the state took various forms throughout history; at the present stage, the forms and methods of influencing international trade vary considerably depending on what kind of foreign trade policy the country adheres to - liberal or protectionist. The degree and instruments of government influence on the economy and, in particular, on the foreign trade sphere, play a crucial role in positioning the country in the world economic community.

The purpose of this work is to reveal the concept of state regulation of foreign trade and to establish its role in the modern world. Tasks - to consider tariff and non-tariff methods of regulation, features of state intervention in foreign trade in the European Union and in the Republic of Belarus.

The structure of this work includes three sections, each of which solves one of these problems.

The object of study of the work is the methods and degree of state intervention in foreign trade activities. The subject of the study is the theoretical coverage of possible regulatory instruments and a comparison of existing approaches to this problem in the European Union and the Republic of Belarus.

In the process of writing the first section of this work, mainly textbooks and theoretical articles were used. When creating the second and third sections, articles on this topic were mainly used, as well as monographs on the problem of state regulation.

METHODS OF STATE REGULATION

FOREIGN TRADE

Tariff methods of regulation

With the development of the world economy and international economic relations, the instruments of foreign economic policy of states developed and became more complex, having turned into a complex system of mechanisms for implementing state regulation of foreign economic activity (FEA).

Within the framework of foreign trade policy as a component of foreign economic policy, two groups of instruments are distinguished: the customs tariff system and a set of non-tariff regulation measures.

The customs tariff is a set of customs duty rates applied to goods transported across the border, systematized in accordance with the commodity nomenclature of foreign economic activity.

Customs duties are indirect taxes levied by governments for protectionist or fiscal purposes on goods as they cross borders. There are several classifications of fees. First of all, according to the object of taxation, there are:

import - duties that are imposed on imported goods when they are released for free circulation in the domestic market of the country. They are the predominant form of duties used to protect national producers from foreign competition;

export - a tax levied on export goods when they are released outside the customs territory of the state. This type duties are introduced most often either in order to increase gross income or to create a shortage of this product in world markets, thereby increasing world prices for this product. In developed countries, export duties are practically not applied; The US Constitution, for example, even prohibits their use.

transit duties, which are levied on goods crossing the national territory in transit. They hold back the flow of goods and are considered in most countries of the world as extremely undesirable, disrupting the normal functioning of international relations.

Any tax on an imported or exported good may be levied in one of the following forms of duty:

ad valorem - a duty defined by law as a fixed percentage of the cost of an exported or imported product, with or without transportation costs;

specific - a tax defined as a fixed amount of money for each unit of goods (unit of measurement);

mixed duty - a combination of ad valorem and specific taxes.

Ad valorem duty can be calculated and established only after determining the customs value of the goods. The calculation of the customs value of goods is not always objective, primarily because of the informality of this procedure. For example, the customs value of goods imported into the United States is calculated on the basis of the FOB price (FOB - free on board), which includes, in addition to the price in the country of dispatch, the cost of delivering the goods to the port of departure, as well as the cost of loading it onto the vessel. Customs value of goods in countries Western Europe- Members of the European Union are determined on the basis of the CIF price (cost, insurance, freight - cost, insurance, freight), which includes, in addition to the price of the goods themselves, the cost of loading onto a ship, transportation from the port of destination, paying for the ship's freight and insurance of the goods. This method of determining the customs value of goods increases the customs duty by 5-7%. The special duty is very easy to use, however, the level of protection of national producers with its help decreases during inflation and increases during deflation, remaining constant in both cases for the ad valorem duty.

There are also special duties that are applied by a country either unilaterally to protect against unfair competition from trading partners, or as a response to discriminatory actions on the part of other states. The most common special duties are seasonal (used for the operational regulation of international trade in seasonal products), anti-dumping and countervailing duties (imposed on the import of those goods in the production of which subsidies were used). The introduction of a special duty is usually the last resort resorted to by countries when all other ways to resolve trade disputes have been exhausted.

The customs tariff may be established on the basis of the principle of tariff autonomy or by agreement. In accordance with the principle of tariff autonomy, the country independently fixes the tariff and can change it on its own initiative. Conventional duties are established on the basis of a bilateral or multilateral agreement.

The vast majority of countries in the world have tariffs with constant rates, however, variable rates are also applied - tariffs, the rates of which can change in cases established by the government. Such tariffs are used, for example, in Western Europe as part of the common agricultural policy. Countries can use a tariff quota - a kind of variable customs duties, the rates of which depend on the volume of imports of goods: when importing within certain quantities, it is taxed at the basic intra-quota tariff rate, when a certain volume is exceeded, imports are taxed at a higher excess quota tariff rate.

The undoubted trend of the modern world economy is its liberalization, which is expressed primarily in the reduction of obstacles to the free movement of goods and services. Thus, since the end of the 1940s, tariffs on the import of industrial goods to developed countries have decreased by 90% - to an average of 4%. . The processes of international integration are growing, manifested in the creation and strengthening of interstate trade and economic blocs - the EU, ASEAN, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, Andean group. However, against this background, it is easy to notice the opposite phenomenon - the "double standards" of developed countries in relation to developing ones. Developed countries, declaring the inviolability of the principles of free trade and demanding from others their strict implementation, in practice increase tariffs on imports of those goods in which developing countries could have a comparative advantage in trade - products of labor-intensive industries and agriculture. It is estimated that developing countries annually lose up to 50 billion dollars due to the tariff policy pursued by developed countries. Entering the world market, the former face tariffs four times higher than those paid by the latter. Consequently, lowering the level of customs duties does not mean the elimination of regulation.

2. Non-tariff methods of regulation

The degree of influence of the state on foreign trade in recent years has increased largely due to non-tariff restrictions. These restrictions, because of their hidden nature, allow governments to act almost uncontrollably. Therefore, the WTO opposes quantitative restrictions on trade and is in favor of replacing them with tariffs.

Non-tariff methods of regulation are the most effective element of the implementation of foreign trade policy for the following reasons:

o firstly, non-tariff methods of regulation, as a rule, are not bound by any international obligations, and, therefore, the scope and methodology of their application are completely determined by the national legislation of the country;

o secondly, they allow taking into account the specific situation that is developing in the world economy and applying adequate measures to protect the national market within a certain period, which is more convenient in achieving the desired result in foreign economic policy;

o thirdly, the use of non-tariff methods does not entail an additional tax burden for foreign trade entities. However, they are associated with other costs of foreign trade participants (for example, paying a fee for obtaining a license), which undoubtedly affects the final price of goods offered to the consumer.

Among the non-tariff methods of trade regulation, quantitative, hidden and financial methods are distinguished.

Quantitative restrictions are the main non-tariff method of trade policy and include quotas, licensing and "voluntary" restrictions on exports.

The most common form of non-tariff restrictions is quotas - limiting the amount or value of the volume of products allowed to be imported into the country (import quota) or exported from it (export quota) for a certain period. The state implements quotas by issuing licenses for the import or export of a limited amount of products and at the same time prohibits unlicensed trade.

Licensing can be an independent instrument of state regulation; in this case, the license is issued in the form of a single, general, global or automatic. The main methods of distribution of import licenses are the competitive auction and the explicit preference system. The most profitable for the country and the most fair way of distributing licenses is an auction. The open auction results in a price for import licenses that is approximately equal to the difference between the importer's price and the highest domestic price at which the imported good can be sold. In reality, however, auctions are rarely held openly and licenses are distributed on a corrupt basis. Under a system of explicit preferences, the government assigns licenses to certain firms in proportion to the size of their imports for the previous period or in proportion to the size of the demand structure from national importers.

"Voluntary" export restrictions are imposed by the government, usually under political pressure from the larger importing country, which threatens to impose unilateral restrictive measures on imports. In fact, "voluntary" export restrictions are the same quota, only set not by the importer, but by the exporter. Often, exporting countries find workarounds, namely: switching to categories of goods that are not subject to restrictions; set up businesses abroad.

Along with the quantitative methods of trade policy, various methods of covert protectionism are currently playing a significant role. By some estimates, there are several hundred covert methods by which countries can unilaterally restrict imports or exports. The most common ones are:

· technical barriers - requirements for compliance with national standards, for obtaining quality certificates for imported products, for specific packaging and labeling of goods, and much more;

· internal taxes and fees - hidden methods of trade policy aimed at increasing the domestic price of imported goods and thereby reducing its competitiveness in the domestic market;

· public procurement policy - requiring government agencies and enterprises to buy certain goods only from national firms, even though these goods may be more expensive than imported ones;

Other examples of covert methods of restricting trade would be local content requirements or "market economy status".

Financial methods of trade regulation include subsidies, export credits and dumping. They are aimed at reducing the cost of the exported goods and, consequently, increasing its competitiveness.

Export subsidies are benefits and budget payments to exporters to expand the export of goods. The government may also subsidize industries that compete with imports. Thanks to subsidies, exporters can sell their products in the foreign market cheaper than in the domestic market. However, an increase in exports reduces the number of goods in the domestic market and leads to an increase in domestic prices, followed by a decrease in demand. In addition, subsidies increase budget spending; in the end result, the losses of the country exceed the profits.

Hidden subsidies for exporters are expressed through the provision of tax incentives, through preferential insurance conditions and different kinds export credit.

Common form competition is dumping, which consists in promoting goods to a foreign market by reducing export prices below the normal price level that exists in these countries, or even below costs. Dumping can be a consequence of the state's foreign trade policy if the exporter receives a subsidy.

Both export subsidies and dumping are considered unfair competition under WTO rules and are prohibited. The national anti-dumping laws of many countries allow the application of anti-dumping duties in case of detection of deliberate dumping.

The most severe form of restriction of foreign trade are economic sanctions. An example is a trade embargo, that is, a ban on the import into or export from a country of any goods. An embargo is usually introduced for political reasons - sometimes even though it is detrimental to the initiating country itself.

A special regime of customs and tariff regulation is the General System of Preferences. Its essence lies in the provision by industrialized countries unilaterally of tariff preferences for the import of goods from developing countries. The system is designed to promote the economic growth of developing countries.

Tariff and non-tariff methods of state influence on foreign trade are widely used by many countries. To justify these methods, supporters of protectionism cite a number of evidence, many of which, however, can be refuted.

Supporters of protectionism believe that import restrictions are necessary to support domestic producers and save jobs, which should ensure social stability. But on the other hand, by limiting competition, conditions are being created for the preservation of inefficient production. It is commonly said that protectionism is necessary to protect young industries that take time to mature and establish themselves in the marketplace. However, it is quite difficult to identify truly promising industries in terms of the formation of new comparative advantages for the country. In addition, protectionism reduces incentives to improve efficiency, and as a result, the development of the industry may be delayed.

Protectionist policies are often carried out to replenish budget revenues; this practice is popular in countries where an effective tax system has not yet been formed. But revenues to the budget will depend on the price elasticity of demand for imports, and, therefore, the more elastic the demand, the more government revenue will increase when protection is weakened.

Another negative consequence of protectionism is the natural situation when such a policy pursued by one country causes a response from others, which increases market fluctuations in the world market.

Tariff measures increase the tax burden on consumers, who are forced by tariffs to buy both imported and similar local goods at higher prices. Thus, part of the income of consumers is redistributed to the state treasury and their disposable income is reduced.

Countries, by reducing imports with the help of a tariff and maintaining employment in industries that compete with imports, indirectly reduce their exports. Due to the tariff, foreign partners receive less revenue for their exports, which could be used to purchase goods exported by this country.

The most common form of state regulation of foreign trade activity is the tariff, however, at present, there is an increase in the importance and the emergence of new various forms of non-tariff import restrictions and export promotion. Despite the fact that the consequence of any customs protection is a decrease in the total welfare of the nation, all countries of the world apply some kind of trade restrictions. Meanwhile, under certain conditions, the use of the tariff may be more effective measure than economic passivity. It is important to find the optimal import tariff for the state, consumer and producer.

The existence of interstate customs borders has led to the emergence of various tools and methods by which states carry out their foreign trade policy.

One of the main ways to regulate the foreign trade of any country is customs tariff system, which is a set of customs duties and regulations in force in a given state. As mentioned in previous chapters, the basis of the customs tariff system of most countries is the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System - HS. For all countries that are members of the World Customs Organization, it is a law and is called a customs tariff.

customs tariff- this is a systematized list of customs duties levied from cargo owners when goods pass through the customs state border.

The level of customs taxation depends on a number of factors (differences in the level of domestic and world prices for goods in different countries; the degree of concentration of production and the level of monopolization of the market of individual goods; the presence of TNC production chains in these markets; the ratio of labor productivity and production costs in individual countries, etc.). For example, during a period of worsening economic conditions, especially during crises, there is an increase in customs tariff rates.

The customs tariff contains: detailed names of goods subject to customs duties; code of goods subject to customs duty; rates of customs duties with an indication of their method of calculation; method of taxation of goods; a list of goods admitted to the customs territory of the country duty-free; a list of goods prohibited for export from the country and import into the country, transit through the country.

Depending on the trade regime of a country, tariffs may have a different structure. If tariffs contain a single duty rate (one column) for each product, regardless of its country of origin, they are called single-column or simple (do not provide for preferential or discriminatory duties and are relatively rare). When a state applies different trade regimes to different countries (each customs rate is applied to goods of certain countries or a group of countries), then the tariff of such a country contains several levels of duties (two or more columns), such a tariff is called multi-column or complex. Customs tariff rates are based on the principle that a product is subject to a higher duty if the degree of its industrial processing is sufficiently high.

Usually complex tariffs have two columns: one indicates the maximum (general) fee, which is most often taken as a base when calculating various preferences or discriminations; in the other - the minimum, in force in relation to countries for which the most favored nation treatment (MFN) is applied. Maybe a third column. It indicates the amount of preferential duties in relation to certain countries (this method is usually applied by countries with developed market economies to developing or least developed countries).

A customs tariff may consist of customs duty rates, a goods classification system that is created specifically for the purpose of regulating and recording foreign trade activities, as well as rules for the application of autonomous, contractual and preferential duties, i.e. tariff column systems for a multi-column tariff.

Customs duties are the basis of the customs tariff system and represent the fees charged by government agencies on goods crossing the customs border of the state.

The payment of customs duty is prerequisite import and export of goods. For example, according to the Law of the Russian Federation "On the Customs Tariff", customs duty is a mandatory fee collected by the customs authorities of the Russian Federation when goods are imported into the customs territory of the Russian Federation or exported from this territory and is an integral condition for such import or export (clause 5, article 5 of the Law ).

In terms of their economic content and nature of the action, duties are related to cost, market regulators of foreign trade turnover, and in terms of economic essence, they represent the difference between the foreign trade world (import) price and the domestic price. The percentage expression of this difference (the amount of customs duty to the price) is called duty level.

At the same time, domestic prices should be slightly higher than import prices, then the country's foreign trade policy will be able to ensure equal competitiveness of national goods. Thus, the duty fulfills regulatory role. Like any tax, a duty increases the price of a product and reduces its competitiveness. But in order to fulfill this role effectively, the foreign trade policy of any country must be flexible (duties must be periodically reviewed in accordance with changes in the situation in the domestic and world markets, and only variable duties are subject to revision, the rates of which may change in cases established by the state). Such cases include changes in the level of world and domestic prices, government subsidies, etc.

Almost all states, some to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent, use duties to replenish the revenue part of their budget ( fiscal function). Therefore, a duty is a tax that forms the revenue part of the state budget (in Russia - more than 30%).

An instrument of discriminatory policy towards various states is duty pricing function (an increase in the price of imported goods allows you to create a cost barrier that raises the price of imported goods and creates a gap in the level of prices for goods in different countries). Thus, import duties actively influence the accumulation of capital, the pace of development and the rate of profit of individual sectors of the economy. Using this, the state regulates the volume of imports and its structure. As the country develops, the fiscal role of customs duties decreases.

Classification of fees is carried out according to the following features: the object of collection, the method of collection, the amount of collection, the method of development (definition), practice of application.

Depending on the object of collection distinguish export (export) customs duties, import (import) customs duties and transit.

Export duties are used by the state when it is necessary to restrict the export of a certain product, if it is necessary to replenish the state budget, and also as a tool to improve the structure of trade by reducing the export of certain goods from the country (for example, with a low degree of processing, thus stimulating the production and export of products with high level added value).

Import duties are levied on imported goods as a condition for their release for free circulation on the domestic market of the country. Import (import) duties may also have a fiscal, regulatory (low duties on raw materials and high duties on finished products) and protectionist nature, i.e. to deter the entry of certain goods into the country. This is the most common type of fee. They are subject to more than 80% of goods imported by all countries of the world.

transit fees - duties levied by the country through which the goods are in transit to another country. They are used very rarely in the world, mainly as a means of a trade war. The Russian Federation has set zero transit duties.

By way of collection duties are divided into ad valorem, special (specific), mixed (cumulative, or combined).

Features of the calculation of the customs duty depend on the type of its rate. ad valorem (cost ) customs duty rate is set as a fixed percentage of the customs value of the taxable goods, for example, 15% of the customs value of the car. Therefore, the required amount of customs duty is calculated as the product of the customs value of the goods and the corresponding duty rate as a percentage. This method allows you to establish a relationship between the price of goods and the amount of income that the state transfers to its budget. In world practice, ad valorem duties account for 70–75% of all duties levied.

It is very important to determine the customs value of the goods. The customs system of any state provides for several methods for determining the customs value of goods (based on the value of a transaction with imported goods, identical goods, homogeneous goods, etc.). The WTO seeks to unify the method of determining the customs value, and within the framework of the GATT there is a special Code for determining the customs value of goods.

Special (specific ) duties are established in a fixed amount for a certain unit of taxable goods. This type of duty is usually applied to bulk and complex goods. They are mainly used in the USA, Canada, Austria, Norway, Russia (for example, $ 20 per 1 ton or unit of goods). Specific duties are not directly related to the price of goods, and the cash income from their collection depends only on the volume of imported or exported goods.

Can be applied combined fee. It is calculated simultaneously by two methods: ad valorem duties are applied to a part of the goods, and everything that is above the established norm is subject to a special duty. At the same time, depending on the type of combined rate, the amount of customs duty can be determined either by comparison (difference) or by adding the values ​​obtained. For example, the combined rate for "sheepskin fur" clothes is 20% of the customs value, but not less than 30 euros per 1 piece. indicates the calculation of the customs duty by sequentially determining the values ​​​​of the value (20% of the customs value) and quantity (30 euros per 1 unit) components of the rate. The final amount of customs duty is determined by comparing the highest value. Or, for example, the combined rate for sports shoes is 15% of the customs value plus 0.7 euros for 1 pair. It also indicates the sequence of calculation in terms of cost and quantity, however, the amount of customs duty is determined by adding the results obtained.

How the variety is applied alternative fees. The duty that gives the highest customs duty ($20 per ton or 10% of the price of the goods, whichever is higher) is charged.

The amount of the levy makes it possible to differentiate customs rates into nominal, preferential, minimum, intermediate and maximum. The differentiation of duty depends primarily on the degree of processing of the goods. For example, when importing raw materials, both duty-free importation and either nominal, or preferential, or minimal duties can be applied. This creates conditions for reducing the costs of the national processing industry. Together, such duties constitute a system of preferences and are applied to goods of those countries that use the MFN (set on the basis of preferential agreements).

The conditions for granting preferences and the rules for determining the country of origin of goods subject to preferential treatment have been unified in most states that provide tariff preferences in accordance with the recommendations of the OECD and UNCTAD.

Thus, tariff preferences are a tool to reduce the general economic costs of Russian exporters of goods to non-CIS countries. In order to obtain additional competitive advantages, Russian exporters can take advantage of non-reciprocal preferential treatment provided by the EU countries, the USA, Canada and Turkey under the UN Generalized System of Preferences. The preferential import regimes of the EU, the USA, Canada and Turkey provide for the use of reduced (compared to the base) or zero rates of import customs duties in relation to a certain group of Russian goods. The preferential regime for the import of goods is provided by developed countries unilaterally and non-reciprocally to the Russian Federation and does not contradict the norms and rules of the WTO.

The nominal level of duty is its size (rate) indicated in the customs tariff. The average nominal level of customs taxation can be calculated by calculating the arithmetic mean (adding the duty rates and dividing the total by the number of rates).

Intermediate duties are higher than the minimum. They are installed on semi-finished products, assemblies and parts necessary for the assembly of the finished product. Such duties are used by all states participating in MRI by intra-industry type, they are most actively used by TNCs. The latter can even be applied to finished products if the exchange is between branches of the same corporation.

The maximum duties are set for finished products. The difference between the minimum and maximum duties is very significant. Such duties are autonomous in nature and are the upper limit of the level of customs taxation that the executive branch can apply. They are established on the basis of unilateral decisions of state authorities.

For example, in the USA the level of the minimum duty is 1.8%, the intermediate duty is 6.1%, and the maximum duty is 7%. For specific products, the difference can be even more significant.

The increase in the level of tariff protection as the level of processing of goods increases is called customs (tariff ) escalation. Thus, incentives are created for importing into the country, first of all, the necessary raw materials and semi-finished products. At the same time, barriers are created to the import of finished products and products. high degree processing, which creates incentives for the development of the manufacturing industry within the country. Developing country members of the WTO believe that tariff escalation creates additional barriers to the export of processed goods to the markets of developed countries and seek to reduce it during tariff negotiations currently underway in the WTO (Doha round).

Maximum fees can be patronizing, prohibitive and offensive.

For example, the level of protective duties may exceed the level of maximum. Their main goal is to protect their own industry from competition, in addition, they force the partner to make concessions in the export of products to the desired country. Prohibitive duties are distinguished by higher rates: 30% more than protective ones. Offensive duties are even higher - 30-40% higher than prohibitive ones. Their goal is to completely ban the import into the country of certain goods, analogues of which are produced by the national industry. Naturally, they lead to a decrease in the volume of supply, and hence to an increase in prices and a decrease in the well-being of the population not only in their own country, but also in partner countries.

In this way, One of the main tools for regulating the trade policy of the state is the customs tariff, however, in addition to the customs and tariff regulation of foreign economic activity, countries also use non-tariff measures.

In the modern world, most measures of state influence on international trade are carried out non-tariff measures. This is primarily due to the fact that the tariff rates of the WTO member countries are documented and most states are not able to quickly respond to changes in the terms of trade and make adjustments to customs rates upward or downward.

Most often, bans are imposed by states on the basis of their interests (or as a response) and are established both for a long time and on a temporary basis. However, the use of non-tariff measures by countries can lead to a decrease in import volumes and, as a result, an increase in the price of imported goods.

Non-tariff measures include virtually all measures used by the state to regulate trade, with the exception of tariffs.(any orders of central and local authorities, including methods of implementing laws, decrees and other regulations (except for customs tariff measures) that affect the export and import of goods; volume; commodity structure of foreign trade; prices and competitiveness of goods, creating more stringent conditions for goods of foreign origin compared to goods of national origin or different treatment for goods from different countries).

The Center for the Study of Issues of Customs Tariff and Non-Tariff Regulation gives the following definition non-tariff methods - this is a set of methods of state regulation of foreign economic activity, aimed at influencing the processes in the field of foreign economic activity, but not related to customs and tariff methods of state regulation.

It should be emphasized that in world practice and trade policy it is customary to distinguish two large groups of measures of non-tariff regulation. The first group aims to directly restrict imports (exports), or regulate foreign trade through quantitative restrictions, licensing, prohibitions on voluntary restrictions on exports, etc. The application of non-tariff measures of this group is based on a developed legislative and administrative framework. Their implementation is entrusted to the relevant executive authorities, as a rule, to central government bodies. The second group arises as a result of the discriminatory application to foreign goods of a wide range of various actions of administrative, trade, financial, credit, technological policy, security measures, sanitary and environmental measures.

In accordance with international agreements, non-tariff methods are applied as an exception to the general rule of free trade in the following cases.

• 1. The introduction of temporary quantitative restrictions on the export or import of certain goods, caused by the need to protect the national market.
• 2. Implementation of the licensing procedure for the export or import of certain goods that may adversely affect the security of the state, the life or health of citizens, the property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property, environment, life or health of animals and plants.
• 3. Fulfillment of international obligations.
• 4. Introduction of the exclusive right to export or import certain goods.
• 5. Introduction of special protective, anti-dumping and countervailing measures.
• 6. Protection public morality and law and order.
• 7. Protection of cultural property.
• 8. Ensuring national security.

The issue of classification, comparison, quantitative assessment of non-tariff measures occupies one of the central places in the activities of the WTO. Within the framework of the organization, a classification scheme is used, which includes several hundred items of non-tariff measures.

Prior to 2009, according to the WTO classification, non-tariff measures were divided into five groups: state participation in trade, restrictive practices and public policy general; customs procedures and administrative formalities; technical barriers to trade; quantitative and specific restrictions of a similar nature; restrictions in the payment mechanism. Along with the WTO, many international economic organizations had such classification lists. For example, according to the UNCTAD classification, seven groups of non-tariff measures were distinguished: price controls, financial controls, automatic licensing, quantitative restrictions, monopoly, technical and other measures in relation to sensitive goods. But the developed classification did not fully reflect modern realities, since new non-tariff measures are now widely used, and the database has not been systematically updated since 2001.

In 2006, UNCTAD launched an initiative to revise the classification of non-tariff measures. To carry out technical work related to this project, an Interorganizational Support Group was established, including representatives of various international organizations: UNCTAD, International Trade Center (UNCTAD - WTO), World Bank, WTO, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Industrial Development Organization United Nations (UNIDO), IMF and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). As a result, a improved classification of non-tariff measures (2009), which includes 16 sections:

• 1) sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS);
• 2) technical barriers to trade (TBT);
• 3) pre-shipment inspection and other formalities;
• 4) price control measures;
• 5) licenses, quotas, prohibitions and other measures of quantitative control;
• 6) taxes, fees and other measures similar to tariffs;
• 7) financial measures;
• 8) measures to restrict competition;
• 9) trade-related investment measures;
• 10) distribution restrictions;
• 11) restrictions on after-sales service;
• 12) subsidies;
• 13) restrictions for public procurement;
• 14) intellectual property;
• 15) rules of origin;
• 16) export-related measures.

The most common non-tariff measures fall into two categories:

• – non-tariff restrictions, specially introduced for the purpose of regulating the access of foreign goods to national markets (quotas, licensing, prohibitions, voluntary export restrictions, customs formalities, etc.);
• – non-tariff instruments, whose impact on commodity flows is secondary, hidden (technical regulations and standards, sanitary norms, administrative restrictions, taxes, excise duties, subsidies, etc.).

Consider some types of non-tariff measures. The greatest difficulties for exporting enterprises in accessing foreign markets are standards requirements. So, only in the USA by the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( The National Institute of Standards and Technology) developed 9.37 thousand mandatory standards (regulations). More than 200 non-governmental organizations are accredited in the country, which develop industry and inter-sectoral standards. ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM International) adopted 3348 mandatory standards (regulations), ANSI (American National Standards Institute, American National Standards Institute) - 805, ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) - 667, API (American Petroleum Institute, American Petroleum Institute) - 438. Technical barriers, by their nature, are technical rather than trade policy measures, and become non-tariff barriers when they are used to create barriers to imports.

Quantitative restrictions on exports and imports is a direct administrative form of state regulation of foreign trade, directly limiting the amount of imported and exported goods and directly affecting their product range and geographical direction of foreign trade. The forms of quantitative restrictions include: quotas, non-automatic licensing, blending rules, voluntary export restrictions, and bans.

Contingenting (quoting ) is the establishment by the state of export and import quotas (contingents), allowing or restricting in quantitative or value terms the import (export) of goods.

According to Russian legislation, quoting as a method of quantitative limitation of exports and imports can be introduced in exceptional cases by the Government of the Russian Federation, based on national interests in order to fulfill international obligations and protect the national producer. The motivation for using quoting in exports is often the shortage of export goods in the domestic market, preventing the exhaustion of non-renewable natural resources, in connection with the need to maintain the country's balance of payments, as a protective measure to eliminate significant damage or prevent the threat of causing such damage to producers of similar or directly competing goods in Russia.

In Germany, such non-tariff restrictions are aimed at protecting the steel industry (quota restrictions), nuclear energy (tacit quota regime for goods and services of the nuclear fuel cycle), the food industry (tariff quota for soft wheat varieties with medium and low protein content), textile and clothing industry (by concluding agreements with suppliers on self-restriction of exports).

In foreign trade policy, countries often use quotas (Table 11.4), which gives it a number of advantages, namely:

• – equalize the balance of payments by further guaranteed increase in import costs in the face of tougher foreign competition;
• – implement a more flexible economic policy, since, unlike tariff restrictions, quotas are not regulated by GATT/WTO rules;
• - Quotas make it easier for the state to exercise regulatory functions in relation to national producers;
• – quickly seek special licensing privileges for industries in need of protection, since it is easier to apply import quotas than to impose duties that serve as a source of government revenue.

Table 11.4. Quota Categories

Quotas are divided into global (determine the amount of total imports of any product that is not distributed among suppliers); individual (provide distribution in proportion to the share of each supplier in imports for the base period on the basis of bilateral agreement); tariff (when the import of a limited amount of goods is carried out under a more preferential customs regime than what is imported in excess of this amount) and seasonal (may be established for the import of certain types of agricultural products during the peak of domestic production).

The traditional measure to regulate imports (and sometimes exports) is licensing, which provides for the licensing procedure for foreign trade operations with any product or country and is divided into automatic and non-automatic. In the first case, the license is used solely for the purpose of monitoring the progress of foreign trade. The importer (exporter) applies to the state body with an application for a license, which is obtained automatically. The purpose of such licensing is to monitor supplies to control the implementation of international agreements or the supply of sensitive goods. Under non-automatic licensing, special permits (licenses) for import and export are introduced, which are issued at the discretion of the relevant authorities or on the basis of any specific criteria.

On the system of technical regulation and standardization of the USA // BIKI No. 16 (9411). Feb 10, 2009

There are two main methods of restricting foreign trade:
tariff restrictions (customs duties);
non-tariff restrictions.
Tariff restrictions are a special tax imposed on imported or exported products. There are import and export tariffs. Tariff restrictions on imports are applied to increase state budget revenues, as well as to reduce unfair competition (dumping). The export tariff is intended to limit the export of certain types of products from the country (for example, raw materials used in the manufacture of weapons).
Non-tariff restrictions include the following:
1. Quotas are quantitative restrictions that are set on the import or export of any goods (for example, permission to import no more than 10 thousand cars of foreign production per year).
2. Licensing involves the issuance of special permits to business entities to conduct export-import operations.
3. An embargo is an absolute and complete ban on export-import operations.
4. Subsidies - various benefits allocated in cash from state funds. Usually granted to the following subjects:
to domestic producers in order to protect them from competition from cheaper imported goods;
manufacturers of export products in order to stimulate their supply to foreign markets.
5. Administrative barriers are various kinds of restrictions regarding the quality of imported goods, the conditions for their production and sale.
The effectiveness of the introduction of an import tariff is manifested in the following:
domestic producers benefit from reduced competition from imported goods;
domestic consumers lose out, as prices for imported goods rise, and consequently its consumption is reduced;
the state wins, as it receives additional income for the budget through the collection of customs duties.
48. The concept of the world monetary system and the stages of its development

The most important component of the world economy is international monetary relations, through which payment and settlement operations are carried out in the world economy. The totality of forms of organization of currency relations constitutes the international monetary system. National currencies are the basis of the international monetary system (IMS). This also includes national and collective reserve currency units, international liquid assets, currency parities and rates, conditions for the mutual convertibility of currencies, international settlements and currency restrictions, foreign exchange markets and world gold markets, etc.
Historically, the MVS took shape towards the end of the 19th century, when in most developed countries a solid gold currency became widespread, which was also used to service international settlements and payments. The gold standard was introduced, which provided for the mandatory use of gold of a certain weight and purity in international settlements, the free minting of coins and their exchange for other currencies, maintaining the parity of paper-credit money with gold, etc.
Under the gold standard system (GES), the basis of the exchange rate was the gold monetary parity, that is, the ratio of the gold content of various national monetary units.
During the era of the gold standard, exchange rates were fixed.
The reasons for the collapse of the SZS were the following:
1. Strengthening state regulation of the economy required more flexible monetary circulation, not tied to the country's gold reserves.
2. The cyclical development of the economy gave rise to the need to influence the change in the amount of money in circulation, depending on the phase of the cycle. For this it was necessary that the amount of paper-credit money did not depend on the amount of gold.
3. The growth of military spending during the First World War caused an outflow of gold from the reserves of the warring countries, an increase in state budget deficits, which made it impossible to fix exchange rates due to the impossibility of maintaining the gold content of national monetary units unchanged.
4. Gradually, gold was withdrawn from circulation and replaced by fiat credit money. Increasingly, the rates of national currencies of Western European countries were established through their relation to the US dollar.
With the outbreak of World War I, this system ceased to exist and resumed only in 1922 after the Genoa Conference, where an agreement was reached on the gold exchange standard, when the main instrument for regulating international payments are gold substitutes (slogans), which are some national and collective currencies. In the 30s. all developed countries have moved away from the gold standard.
2. Bretton Woods monetary system (gold-dollar standard system)
In 1944, Bretton Woods (USA) adopted a new world monetary system - the gold-dollar standard system.
The main features and principles of the Bretton Woods monetary system are as follows:
1. Functions of world money in equally legally assigned to gold and the US dollar. They were the world's main reserve and means of payment.
2. The US committed to exchange dollars for gold for foreign government agencies and central banks at a fixed rate of $35 per troy ounce (31.1 grams of gold).
3. The currency parities of the countries participating in this currency system, expressed in gold and US dollars, were fixed by the IMF, were stable and served as the basis for fixed exchange rates.
4. There was a rigid peg of currencies to the dollar. Deviations from the exchange rate fixed against the dollar were not allowed by more than 1%.
5. Full convertibility of currencies of IMF member countries was envisaged.
6. The IMF was the main international monetary and financial organization that regulates international monetary relations.
From the end of the 60s. the following trends began to appear, leading to the collapse of the Bretton Woods monetary system:
1. In the United States, due to large military spending (the wars in Korea and Vietnam) and the reduction of gold reserves, the dollar was subject to inflationary depreciation, which led to a discrepancy between the rates fixed by the IMF and the real exchange rates determined against the US dollar.
2. As a result of economic growth, the national currencies of Western Europe and Japan strengthened, which undermined the position of the US dollar as the main international reserve and means of payment.
3. The Bretton Woods system proved unable to timely bring the official currency parities in line with the changing purchasing power of the national currencies of the IMF member countries.
As a result, a "black" currency market was formed, which gave rise to strong speculative tendencies in the international currency markets.
In the early 70s. The United States refused to exchange dollars for gold, carried out several devaluations (official depreciation) of the dollar, and froze centralized gold reserves.
Currencies of the leading Western countries switched to the mode of independent or group floating rates.
At the present stage, the world monetary system is based on the so-called Jamaica Agreement of 1978. The system of floating exchange rates Its main principles are as follows.
1. Gold is excluded from settlements between the IMF and its members.
2. SDRs are recognized as an international means of payment (SDR is a unit of account that does not exist in material form. The SDR was assessed on the basis of a “basket” of currencies, including: the dollar - 40%, the French franc and the pound sterling - 11% each, the mark - 21% , Japanese yen - 17%.), on the basis of which countries determine the parameters of their currencies.
3. Exchange rates can be either stable against the SDR or floating.
4. The priority right of interstate regulation is assigned to the IMF.
In the Jamaican system, the role of the international means of payment was essentially assigned to the US dollar, which accounts for more than 60% of official foreign exchange reserves.
Since the 90s, there has been a process of creating an economic and monetary union in Europe with the gradual introduction of EURO banknotes and coins.