The variety of socio-philosophical models of society is due to different interpretations of the nature of social relations that arise between people and the determining factor in the development of society.

Naturalistic theories of society T. Hobbes, J. Locke, D. Diderot, P. Holbach and others proceeded from the definition of society as a natural continuation of natural and cosmic laws. Thus, the Enlightenment philosophers considered man as an autonomous, natural being, endowed with reason. Society is a collection of individuals, and social life is the interaction of people who satisfy their natural interests. In the educational “theories of factors”, society is based on the interconnection of several factors, with the main role assigned to either geographical (C. Montesquieu), or demographic (T. Malthus), or economic (C. Helvetius), etc.

In the positivist evolutionism of the XIX century. (O. Comte,
G. Spencer), human history appears as a "natural process", and the laws of history as a kind of laws of nature, which are studied using the methods of natural science. Society is considered by analogy with a biological organism, the stages of its historical movement are derived from the biopsychic characteristics of a person (instincts, level of intellectual development, etc.).

In the XX century. century naturalistic point of view retains its influence. The existence of society and its history is determined by the rhythms of the Cosmos and solar activity (A. Chizhevsky, L. Gumilyov), the specifics of the geographical environment (I. Mechnikov), the evolution of the natural organization of man and his gene pool (sociobiology), the behavior of man as a biological being (biopolitics) . Society is considered as a certain stage in the evolution of nature, its highest, but far from perfect creation, and man as a living being, genetically burdened by the desire for violence and destruction. This leads to a growing threat to the very existence of mankind and determines the fundamental possibility of a transition to other (coevolutionary, noospheric) forms of being.

AT idealistic models of society the role of consciousness in people's lives is absolutized, which turns into the final and decisive force of the historical process. Social relations have an exclusively spiritual, ideal nature, and the essence of society is reduced to a complex of ideas, beliefs, myths, etc. In the religious theories of society (Augustine, Thomas Aquinas,
J. Maritain and others) substantiates the religious nature of social relations, the idea of ​​a divine source of origin and development of society.

Within the framework of the idealistic understanding of society, fruitful theoretical developments. Thus, the classics of German idealistic philosophy (I. Kant, G. Hegel) put forward the problem of the internal logic of the historical process, its objective regularity: behind the chaos of people's multidirectional desires and aspirations, one should see an objective foundation that determines the nature of individual goals and subjective actions. From the point of view of G. Hegel, this foundation is the otherworldly self-developing Absolute Spirit, which, through people, naturally builds social life and history. Society for Hegel is the activity of "world-historical individuals", through whose personal goals and actions the "objective spirit" of history is manifested.

The idealistic approach to explaining society has various options. Thus, supporters of neo-Kantianism (W. Windelband, E. Cassirer) interpret society as a world of absolute cultural values-goals (good, good, beauty, etc.) that regulate people's behavior. Neo-Kantian philosophers distinguished between the sciences of nature and the sciences of culture. In the sciences of nature, a generalizing (generalizing) method is used, and in the sciences of culture, an individualizing one, aimed at understanding (direct, immediate comprehension) of unique and unique historical events.

AT social theory M. Weber sees society as a complex system of interacting economic, social, political and religious factors. For his research, M. Weber introduces the concept of ideal types - mental constructs of the organization of empirical material, based on the value system adopted by the scientist. As a result, the general and natural is not derived from history, but is introduced into it, which gives rise to the subjectivist construction of the historical process. In the theory of socio-cultural dynamics of P. Sorokin, the emphasis is on the cultural and value component that distinguishes society from nature. Society is a system of people's interactions based on the leading principle of worldview (idealistic, sensual, ideational) that binds them into a single whole.

Materialistic theories of society seek to discover the basis of social relations in processes that are outside of consciousness and determine it. Materialism as a principle of cognition of society was substantiated most consistently in Marxism. In the dialectical-materialist concept of K. Marx, the concept of matter is concretized and refined, taking into account the specifics of social reality, which is tantamount to a materialistic solution of the main question of philosophy in relation to society.

Materialistic understanding of history for the first time in the history of social thought directly connects the history of mankind with the development of social production. According to him, the basis and main content of social existence is material production (the production of material goods), which each human generation receives as a legacy from previous generations and develops to pass on to the next generations. Precisely as a legacy, social production is an objective reality, independent not only of the consciousness and will of people, but even of the production activity of the generation that inherits a given level of production. History is a change of generations of people, each of which uses the materials and productive forces transferred to it by previous generations and, according to Marx, because of this, this generation, on the one hand, continues the inherited activity under completely changed conditions, and on the other, modifies the old conditions. through an entirely different activity.

As opposed to historical fatalism and voluntarism, historical materialism develops a fundamentally new understanding of the determination of social phenomena. historical necessity created by the people themselves, following each other by generations. People themselves create the objective conditions that determine their life, but not at will, since they cannot but conform to the conditions created by the previous development of society. Circumstances create people to the same extent as people create circumstances, K. Marx believed. Neither external nature nor human nature determine the nature of the social structure and the history of society. They are determined by the development of social production, which is a two-way process - the change by people of external nature and the change of human nature itself, the development of man.

social being- an objective social reality, including specific ways of life of people and the corresponding forms social connections and relations formed in the process of production of material goods. The understanding of objective reality in historical materialism is fundamentally different from the concept of objective reality, which forms the basis of the materialist doctrine of nature. Within the framework of philosophical materialism as a doctrine of nature, objective reality is interpreted as a human habitat, as something primary in relation to the existence of mankind. In historical materialism, social being is a specific social reality, the activity of the individuals that form it, the interaction between them, the being of beings with consciousness, the unity of the subjective and the objective, which presupposes their mutual transition, dialectics.

The materialistic understanding of history opens up the possibility of a scientific analysis of the spiritual life of society, as it allows the principles of social determinism and causation to be extended to the phenomena of social consciousness. Ideas play a huge role in human practice, but their change is due to the transformation of people's living conditions. In this sense, ideas do not have their own history, because their history is a reflection in the public consciousness of the development and change of social life. Social being (material life) plays a decisive role in relation to social consciousness and, ultimately, determines the direction of its changes.

public consciousness- this is the awareness of society itself, its social existence and the surrounding reality. In its historical reality, the very existence of people is possible only insofar as it is realized. Social consciousness is "woven" into the real existence of people, its content is supra-individual and universal. Social being includes social consciousness, since it is inherent in it as an existing spiritual certainty. The semantic identity of social being and social consciousness is determined by the fact that human life activity is a social objective activity that puts each person in a direct and indirect subjectively experienced connection and dependence on the objective realization of the subjective motives and goals of other people and their groups.

The identity of social being and social consciousness has a dialectical character. Advanced ideas reflect the real contradictions of being and the objective necessity of its practical transformation. In this sense, they are secondary and dependent on being, but this is their driving force. Precisely because they reflect an objective need that has matured in the course of people's lives, they are spread and affirmed, i.e. become powerful factors in the activity of people to change the social environment. Thus, social consciousness is both a condition for the existence of social being and its result.

Public consciousness has a relative independence. It is not only determined by external factors, but also has an internal logic of its development, connected with the continuity of ideas, with the fact that the appearance of the new in the mind is greatly influenced by the previous intellectual and spiritual material. The relative independence of social consciousness is also manifested in the form of its activity - the ability to interact with other social phenomena, to influence back the social being that gave rise to it. Marxism recognizes the important role of ideas in social life, the impact of which on the broad masses depends on the nature of the ideas themselves, their conformity with the interests of the masses, and the readiness of the socio-historical ground for their perception and implementation in the activities of the masses. Secondary nature of social consciousness and its relative independence- the main patterns of development of public consciousness.

The diversity of socio-philosophical models of society is associated with the internal complexity and multidimensionality of social life, the multivariate functioning and development of existing social systems. Different approaches to explaining society complement each other and provide a broad vision of social reality and trends in its development.

Society is an object of study for a number of sciences that are part of the "spiritual sciences" complex: history, sociology, political science, ethnography, cultural studies, etc. It also acts as a special subject of socio-philosophical reflection. But what is beyond philosophy? The fact is that all these sciences focus on their particular subject of study: history on the stages of historical events, ethnography on ethnic and national characteristics, cultural studies on cultural characteristics.

The comprehension of society within the framework of social philosophy has its own specifics, determined by its philosophical status. Social philosophy forms a holistic (integral) view of society and its history, something that private sciences cannot offer. Generalizing thinking is a specific feature of social philosophy. Deepening this thought, it can be argued that the main task of social philosophy is to show the difference between the social and the non-social. The subject of philosophy is society, taken in the interaction of all its parties, as an integral system.

The most important concept of social philosophy, which determines the subject field of its research, is society . At the empirical level society can be considered as the totality of its constituent people. However, in society there are social connections and relationships , which characterize the coexistence of people different from natural world that transform society into a social organism.

Since ancient times, people have raised questions about what drives and controls the life of society. What are the causes (determinants) of qualitative changes in society. Some were looking for an answer in the influence of the geographical environment, others in the spiritual factor, and others in the material.

There are a number theoretical models (approaches) for understanding societies and their development:

1. naturalistic , explaining the development of society by action natural (natural) factors and regularities. Essence: Human society is seen as a natural continuation of nature, the animal world, space. From these positions, the type of social structure and the course of history are determined by natural factors: the geographical environment, climatic conditions, racial and biological characteristics of people. In this model, one can distinguish the concept of " geographical determinism" french educator Charles Montesquieu and his words “The power of the climate is stronger than all powers.” Adjacent to it is the theory of impact water resources on the emergence and development of civilizations of the Russian thinker of the XIX century Lev Mechnikov, solar activity Alexander Chizhevsky, theory of ethnogenesis and passionarity Lev Gumilyov and etc.

2. idealistic . Ideas or God are history makers Plato, I. Kant, G. Hegel, F. Aquinas). "Ideas rule the world" (Auguste Comte). Religious philosophy considers society as the result of the divine predestination of society. From the point of view of subjective idealism, the true creators of history, generators of ideas, are great historical figures (Caesar, Attila, Napoleon), monarchs, outstanding generals, religious leaders (Christ, Mohammed).

Idealism, spiritualizes a person too much, tears him away from nature, turning the spiritual sphere of social life into an independent substance . This understanding of history arises as a result of absolutization of the spiritual factor in human existence.

The negative consequences of an idealistic understanding of society should also be noted. The main ones are human –this is a puppet of the world mind, fulfilling its will, or the idea of ​​​​history as an arena for the arbitrariness of great personalities . In other words, the idealistic understanding of history is dangerous because it gives rise to social mythology and dooms social subjects, who are in the grip of myths, to the pursuit of mirages. An idea is only good when it is illuminated the meaning of human existence .

3. materialistic . Links the development of society either with the progress of science, art, political relations, or with the development of the economy. ( K. Marx, F. Engels). In the philosophy of Marxism society turns out to be a system where the process of production of material goods is considered as the fundamental principle of all secondary (political, legal, ideological, moral, religious, artistic) processes . It is in production that people enter into relationships over who owns the tools and means of production - into property relations.

Exaggeration of the role of the economic factor and underestimation of the role of people's conscious activity - is the main drawback of the materialistic concept.

4. Currently being formed multivariate model community development, taking into account the influence of natural-climatic, economic, political and demographic factors.

28. The concept of socio-economic formation. The theory of formations and the real social process.

One of critical issues philosophy of history is the question of the direction and periodization of the historical process, i.e. towards what and bypassing what stages the society develops. In resolving the issue of direction, there are formational and civilizational approaches.

Formation concept history was offered Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the middle of the XIX century. based on the creative processing of the achievements of utopian socialism, English political economy and German classical philosophy. It is a holistic and at the same time contradictory system. Marx declared the need for a materialistic explanation of history as opposed to the idealistic ideas that prevailed at that time. K. Marx proceeds from the idea of patterns historical process and unity for all mankind. In society there are objective laws, therefore, in the historical process it is possible to identify universal, stable and necessary connections. From all the variety historical phenomena Marx singles out, from his point of view, the determining factor: the mode of production of material goods. At the same time, many new designations are introduced into circulation: productive forces and production relations, basis and superstructure, social revolution, etc.

Key points materialistic understanding of history (formational theory):

1. The basis of social life (the foundation of society) is a certain way of producing material goods ( economic development) to meet the material needs of people. It is primary in relation to public consciousness. "Social being determines social consciousness." But the very method of production of material goods is of a developing, concrete historical nature, which leads to a change in society and its movement from stage to stage.

2. The development of society is a process of changing socio-economic formations. The concept of a socio-economic formation (SEF) is a key one in the Marxist philosophy of history. The OEF is a society that is at a certain stage of historical development, taken in the unity of all its aspects. There were five such formations (or stages) in the history of mankind: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist.

3. The change from one formation to another occurs as a result of social revolution. “Violence is the midwife of history” (K. Marx). Economic contradictions and socio-political antagonisms intensify the class struggle, which leads to a revolutionary explosion.

4. The decisive force of historical development is the activity of the masses of the people - the "locomotives of history".

Advantages and disadvantages formational approach.

Advantages:

1) Transition to the consideration of society as a super-complex system. Marx shifted the emphasis from the analysis of the spiritual life of society to the analysis of material wealth.

2) The concept of the GEF made it possible to reveal the structure of the historical process, to link the past and the future, to overcome the mosaic nature of history.

Flaws:

1) Schematism in dividing history into separate stages (in real life there are no formations, but there are real peoples).

2) The Eurocentric nature of the theory (based mainly on the historical material of Western Europe).

3) Monofactority, elevating the socio-economic aspect to the rank of exceptional determinants, while underestimating all the others.

29. Civilizational approach to the analysis of social development. Theories of historical circulation and multiplicity of civilizations and cultures (N.Ya.Danilevsky, O.Spengler, A.Toynbee)

Opposition to the formational approach to the analysis of the development of society became at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries civilizational approach. The idea of ​​world history as a single process is being replaced by the concept of closed, dissimilar "local civilizations". The civilizational approach involves a view of history as multivariate (alternative) a process that gives a deeper understanding of the specifics and intrinsic value of a particular people and its place in history.

The emergence of a civilizational approach is due to a number of reasons:

The main reason is the collapse of the doctrine of Eurocentrism. historical science by the 19th century, it had accumulated rich material on non-European societies, which cast doubt on the thesis of the unity of the historical process. Civilizational picture of the world -– polycentric.

Secondly, European culture itself has changed. At the turn of the century, it entered a period of deep crisis, which cast doubt on the idea of ​​progress. There is no progress as a general direction of the historical process. Civilizations are born, exist and die, they are replaced by new ones. Progress takes place only "within" this or that civilization, and not in their sequence.

Each civilization is based on special character traits of the people, worldview, spiritual values, socio-political organization.

The civilizational approach is most fully represented in the works N.Ya.Danilevsky, O.Spengler, A.Toynbee. Each of them names civilizations differently: Danilevsky - these are cultural-historical types, Spengler - cultures, Toynbee - local civilizations. The beginning of the civilizational approach was laid by N.Ya. Danilevsky in his work “Russia and Europe”. Cultural-historical types can exist simultaneously or sequentially replace each other. All types are born, develop, become decrepit and die. And each of them makes a feasible contribution to the diverse single civilizational life of mankind.

The main disadvantage of this approach is the vagueness of the criteria by which a civilization is distinguished. The vagueness of the very term "civilization" also gives rise to confusion in approaches.

In general, the difference between the formational and civilizational approaches is that the formation is a socio-economic category, and civilization is a sociocultural concept.

Worldview is a view of the world and the position of a person in this world, an assessment and description of the relationship between a person and the world.

stages of ideological exploration of the world:

attitude- the first stage of the worldview formation of a person, this is a sensory awareness of the world, when the world is given to a person in the form of images.

worldview- the second stage, which allows you to see the world in the unity of the parties, to give it a certain interpretation.

world outlook- the highest stage of ideological exploration of the world; developed worldview with complex interweaving of multifaceted relationships to reality

Analyzing the structure of the worldview, three aspects can be distinguished

Cognitive -

The naturalistic aspect is knowledge and ideas about nature, the cosmos, the universe, the natural essence of man. Here questions about how the world arose, what life is, in what forms life exists in the Universe are considered.

Humanitarian is the awareness of one's social nature, one's place in the "world of people." It combines the sociological, socio-political, ethical and aesthetic views and ideas of the individual.

axiological (value) side

Objective values ​​- a variety of objects of human activity, social relations and natural phenomena included in their circle, which are considered from the point of view of ethical issues.

Subjective values ​​are the methods and criteria on the basis of which the procedures for evaluating the relevant phenomena are carried out. These are attitudes and assessments that are formed in the process of socialization of the individual.

praxeological subsystem- to ensure a close connection of the cognitive and value components of the worldview with human activity. This is the spiritual and practical side of the worldview, since here the worldview carries out a kind of "inscription" of various programs of activity, behavior and communication in a practical situation.

The worldview has been formed over the centuries and continues to be formed, therefore, in the course of the development of the worldview, it is necessary to distinguish various stages

mythological worldview- ideas about the world based on fantasy and belief in supernatural forces, their similarity with human activity and human relationships. likening the natural world to the human world is "anthropomorphism".

religious outlook- belief in supernatural forces and the existence of two worlds (higher - perfect, mountainous and lower - imperfect, earthly).

ordinary (everyday) worldview, - a set of views on natural and social reality, norms and standards of human behavior, based on common sense and everyday experience of many generations.

In parallel with the ordinary, a scientific outlook, which is a system of ideas about the world, its structural organization, the place and role of a person in it; this system is based on scientific data and develops along with the development of science

Philosophical worldview emerged from the need for a rational and irrational explanation of the world. It is historically the first form of theoretical thinking. It unites and complements all the missing points of the previous types of worldviews. The philosophical worldview is the most general: it concerns the relationship of man to the world, and considers all phenomena from the point of view of their value directly to man.

2. The subject of philosophy. The fundamental question of philosophy.

The subject is the range of questions that philosophy studies. The general structure of the subject of philosophy consists of four main sections:

Ontology (the doctrine of being);

Gnoseology (the doctrine of knowledge);

Human;

Society.

The main question of philosophy - the question of the relationship of consciousness to matter, thinking to being, spirit to nature., is considered from several sides.

firstly, what is primary - spirit or nature, matter or consciousness - and, secondly, how does knowledge about the world relate to the world itself, or, in other words, does consciousness correspond to being, is it capable of correctly reflecting the world.

Philosophers who are supporters of materialism recognize matter, being, as primary, consciousness as secondary, and consider consciousness to be the result of the impact on the subject of an objectively existing external world.

Philosophers-idealists take for the primary idea, consciousness, considering them as the only reliable reality. Therefore, from their perspective, knowledge is not a reflection of material existence, but is only the comprehension of consciousness itself in the form of self-knowledge, analysis of sensations, concepts, knowledge of the absolute idea, world will, etc.

An intermediate, inconsistent position in resolving the issue. occupy dualism (a philosophical doctrine that recognizes the equality of the ideal and the material, but does not recognize their relativity.), agnosticism (which considers it fundamentally impossible to know objective reality only through subjective experience, and impossible to know any ultimate and absolute foundations of reality)

Marxist philosophy gave a comprehensive, materialistic, scientifically substantiated solution to the problem. She sees the primacy of matter in the fact that: 1) matter is the source of consciousness, and consciousness is a reflection of matter; 2) consciousness is the result of a long process of development of the material world; 3) consciousness is a property, a function of the highly organized matter of the brain; 4) the existence and development of human consciousness, thinking is impossible without a linguistic material shell, without speech; 5) consciousness arises, is formed and improved as a result of the material labor activity of a person; 6) consciousness has a social character and is determined by material social being.

3. Functions of philosophy

The functions of philosophy are the main areas of application of philosophy, through which its goals, objectives, and purpose are realized. It is customary to single out:

The ideological function contributes to the formation of the integrity of the picture of the world, ideas about its structure, the place of a person in it, the principles of interaction with the outside world.

The methodological function lies in the fact that philosophy develops the main methods of cognition of the surrounding reality.

The thought-theoretical function is expressed in the fact that philosophy teaches to think conceptually and theorize - to maximally generalize the surrounding reality, to create mental-logical schemes, systems of the surrounding world.

Gnoseological - aims at the correct and reliable knowledge of the surrounding reality (that is, the mechanism of cognition).

the critical function is to question the surrounding world and the existing meaning, to look for their new features, qualities, to reveal contradictions.

The axiological function of philosophy from the Greek axios - valuable) is to evaluate things, phenomena of the surrounding world from the point of view of various values ​​- moral, ethical, social, ideological, etc.

The educational and humanitarian function of philosophy is to cultivate humanistic values ​​and ideals, instill them in a person and society, help strengthen morality, help a person adapt to the world around him and find the meaning of life.

The prognostic function is to predict development trends, the future of matter, consciousness, cognitive processes, man, nature and society based on the existing philosophical knowledge about the world and man, the achievements of knowledge.

4. The structure of philosophical knowledge

In the first centuries of its existence, philosophy did not have a clear structure. Aristotle was the first to put this problem clearly. He called the doctrine of the principles of being "the first philosophy" (later it was called "metaphysics"); his doctrine of pure forms of thought and speech was called "logic"

Somewhat later, philosophical knowledge was divided into three subject areas: logic, physics and ethics. This division persisted until modern times, when each school began to reshape the structure of philosophy in its own way. First, the theory of sensory knowledge, which Alexander Baumgarten gave the name "aesthetics", turned into a special branch of philosophy. Then the Kantians invented a special doctrine of values ​​- "axiology", renamed the theory rational cognition into "epistemology" and metaphysics into "ontology". Already in the 20th century, such disciplines as philosophical anthropology, grammatology, etc., appeared.

philosophy, which studies the laws and categories of thinking and being; logic - the doctrine of the forms of inference and evidence; aesthetics - the doctrine of the world of feelings, of the beautiful and the ugly; and ethics - the theory of morality, which tells about good and evil and the meaning of human life. In the domestic tradition of philosophy specializations, there are: ontology and theory of knowledge, history of philosophy, aesthetics, ethics, logic, social philosophy, philosophy of science and technology, philosophical anthropology, philosophy and history of religion, philosophy of culture

5. The main historical stages in the development of philosophy.

antique philosophy is represented by the Ionian schools (Anaximenes, Heraclitus, etc.), the atomistic philosophy of Leucippus and Democritus, sophistry (Protagoras, Gorgias), the philosophy of Socrates and Socratic schools, the philosophical teachings of Plato, the philosophical system of Aristotle and Hellenistic philosophy. ancient philosophy goes back to the problem of finding the root cause of the world and the place of man in it, then moves along the path of the logical form of knowledge, its ethical and political significance, and in conclusion is determined by questions of the meaning of life and the achievement of happiness. At all stages, ancient philosophy strove for the ultimate freedom of the spirit.

Medieval philosophy has become an instrument of religious disputes about Christology (the doctrine of the human and divine essence of Christ), eschatology (the doctrine of the end of history and the Last Judgment), creationism (the doctrine of the creation of the world by God) and received official recognition in the definition of the trinitarian (Father, Son, Holy Spirit) divine essence. The main task of philosophy at this time was the substantiation of religious dogmas, the proof of the existence of God, the proof of the immortality of the soul, etc.

In the era Renaissance philosophers again return to "the study of the human and therefore call themselves" humanists ". Philosophy in that era was imbued with the spirit of naturalism - respect for human feelings, trust in sensory experience and the need for scientific comprehension of nature. Social (utopian) theories are being developed (Thomas More), designed to provide a person with happiness in the state by legal means (Niccolò Machiavelli, Jean Bodin).

AT new time such areas of philosophical thought as: empiricism, rationalism, sensationalism are being developed. The empiricist Francis Bacon believed that all knowledge begins with sensory perceptions, and that "the best of all proofs is experience." The rationalist Rene Descartes argued that true knowledge does not begin with sensory data, but with intuitively clear concepts and axioms, as in mathematics. Sensualists (Thomas Hobbes, John Locke) were supporters of the correctness of the sensual comprehension of the world, which is given to man in the stream of "associations" and is completely unknowable.

German classical philosophy is the pinnacle of systematization of its time. The beginning was laid by Immanuel Kant, who chose a critical method for explaining the foundations of rational human activity, and formulated three important questions: “what do I want?”, “what does it depend on?”, “what does it lead to ?. This way of asking about possibility was the key to his teaching on transcendental beings. The philosophical systematization of Hegel is based on dialectical teaching, according to Hegel, there is a progressive development of the "absolute spirit", which through it knows itself. The dialectical method consists in the ability of thinking to single out a thesis, then put an antithesis in relation to it in the conclusion, unite them (by reconciling knowledge and ignorance about the subject

From the middle of the 19th century there comes a time non-classical philosophy, and from the middle of the 20th century - post-non-classical philosophy Each of the directions of non-classical philosophy solves the issue of its self-determination in different ways. Marxist philosophy is based on a materialistic understanding of the objective course of development of history and society, the laws of which are discovered by philosophy. Positivism proceeds from the methodological role of philosophy. Phenomenology considers philosophy as a doctrine of reality, accessible exclusively to our consciousness, which opens the world in intentionality (orientation) towards objects. Structuralism and linguistic philosophy affirm the linguistic reality of the world as the only one accessible to thought.

6. The main schools of ancient philosophy.

* Ionian natural philosophy.

Represented by the Milesian school. The main thing in it is the doctrine of substance, which was understood as sensually perceived matter.

* Pythagorean Union. Founded by Pythagoras (570-496 BC)

The main thing in the teachings of Pythagoras: * The form is an active principle that transforms amorphous matter into a world of tangible and cognizable things. * Number is the beginning of being. Everything counts. * Mathematics is the main science.

* Eleian school.

the doctrine of the absoluteness of being. True being is unchanging, indivisible, beginningless, infinite, all-encompassing, immovable.

Xenophanes (570-478)

school founder. He argued that the integrity and indivisibility of being is provided by God, who has all possible perfections.

* Atomists.

They got their name due to the fact that the central concept of their philosophy is the atom. Absolute existence does not exist. There is only relative being, characterized by arising and annihilation. At the heart of being is a set of independent atoms, the combination of which forms things. The Atomists were Leucippus and Democritus.

* Heraclitus of Ephesus.(520 - 460)

* Everything is in a constantly changing state. * The beginning of all things is fire, endowed with the properties of divinity and eternity. * The idea of ​​orderliness and proportionality of the world is expressed in the concept of the Logos. * Considered the creator of dialectics, understood as the doctrine of the unity of opposites. He is credited with saying: "You cannot step into the same river twice." * The main philosophical work: "On Nature".

The main thing in sophistry

* The Sophists contrasted nature as a stable and permanent part of reality with a society that lives according to changing laws. * The Sophists developed a negative form of dialectics. They called on people to defend any point of view, because there is no absolute truth. * The term "sophistry" has become a household word. A sophist is a person who engages in empty talk, obscuring the essence of the matter during a dispute.

Philosophy of Socrates (470-390)

* Most best form philosophizing is dialogue. * Highly appreciated the role of cognitive activity in the overall structure of human spirituality; * In principle, he did not write down his thoughts and therefore there were no written works left after him. The ideas of Socrates have come down to us mainly in the presentation of Plato.

Socratic schools

Cyrenaica

* Aristipus from the city of Cyrene is considered the founder of the school. * They preached hedonism - the doctrine of higher pleasure. Pleasure is a synonym for happiness, the purpose and meaning of life; * Denied the need for knowledge of nature, considering it unknowable;

* The founder is Antisthenes. * It was argued that philosophy is not a conversation about the meaning of being, but a way of life. * Cynics taught a person to live, relying only on himself, "to leave the world." They preached poverty, trials through deprivation. They are called antique hippies.

Megarics

* Founder - Euclid of Megara. * Developed the doctrine of Socrates about the good as a single and immovable being. * To substantiate views about good and good, sophisms were actively used: reasoning in which logical contradictions are used to refute or something

7. Philosophy in the Middle Ages

1st-7th centuries at this stage, the main content of Christian philosophy is developed and formalized on the basis of the religious teachings of Jesus Christ and the philosophical system of Plato. The greatest philosopher of the patristic period was Augustine Aurelius, canonized by the Catholic Church for his services before her.

He converted to Christianity at an early age. He soon became a priest and then a bishop. The main merit of Augustine is that he developed the theology of Christianity. Two works "Confession" and "On the City of God". In the center of his attention are the problems of being, historical progress and the human personality. Developing the problems of ontology, Augustine first of all substantiated one of the main dogmas of Christianity about the creation of the world by God from nothing. In his opinion, God not only ordered, organized the world, as it seemed to Plato, but also created the very substance of which the world consists. God created not only the world, but also its properties, including what time is, which did not exist before the creation of the world.

An important place in the philosophy of Augustine was occupied by the problems of anthropology, the nature of the human person. The main ability of the human spirit is its ability to believe in God. It is the highest of all human abilities. But she is not the only one. Another spiritual value is reason, thinking, with the help of which a person is able to cognize nature and society. However, reason only reinforces the provisions of faith, but cannot find the truth itself.

Thomas Aquinas (1225 or 1226-1274) - philosopher, in 1323 he was canonized. The main position of his philosophy is that in order to be saved, a person needs to know something that escapes the mind and can only be known through divine revelation, created by Him as if for comparison. He believed that bliss is the ultimate goal of theoretical knowledge, the search for absolute truth, that is, God, and all this is impossible without divine grace. The main goal of state power was the promotion of the common good. He preferred monarchy, but not tyranny.

8. Philosophy of the Renaissance

A very important stage was the humanistic period (mid-14th - mid-15th century), which sharply contrasted medieval theocentrism with a strong interest in man, and recognized the value of man as a person with his right to freedom.

The cult of beauty characteristic of the Renaissance is associated with anthropocentrism. In the Renaissance, as never before, the value of the individual increased. Above all, in this era, the originality and uniqueness of each individual is placed.

In the Renaissance, philosophy again turns to the study of nature. Interest in natural philosophy intensifies towards the end of the XV - early XVI century, as the medieval attitude to nature as a non-independent sphere is being revised.

Lorenzo Valla- Italian humanist, founder of historical and philological criticism, representative of the historical school of scholars. He considered natural everything that serves self-preservation, the happiness of man.

Pico della Mirandola - substantiates the dignity and freedom of man, as the sovereign creator of his own "I". Absorbing everything, a person is able to become anything, he is always the result of his own efforts; while retaining the possibility of a new choice, he can never be exhausted by any form of his present existence in the world.

Giordano Bruno(1548-1600) - Italian philosopher, one of the last representatives of the philosophy of the Renaissance. Adhered to pantheism, according to which God is identified with the whole world. He called to know not a supernatural God, but nature itself, which is "God in things."

9. Philosophy of the New Time

The main theme of the philosophy of modern times was the theme of knowledge of two major currents: empiricism and rationalism

Supporters of empiricism (Bacon, Hobbes) argued that the main source of reliable knowledge about the world is human sensations and experience.

Bacon was a supporter of empirical methods of knowledge (observation, experiment). He considered philosophy an experimental science based on observation, and its subject should be the surrounding world, including man himself. Supporters of empiricism urged to rely in everything on the data of experience, human practice.

Proponents of rationalism believed that the main source of reliable knowledge is knowledge. The founder of rationalism is Descartes - the author of the expression "question everything." He believed that in everything one should rely not on faith, but on reliable conclusions, and nothing should be taken as the final truth.

In the 17th century, philosophical agnosticism was also revived, denying the possibility of human knowledge of the world. He showed himself in the works of Berkeley and Hume, who believed that a person only knows the world of phenomena, but is not able to penetrate into the depths of things, to reach knowledge of the laws of the surrounding nature.

ten . German classical philosophy

German idealism or German classical philosophy is a stage in the development of German philosophy in the 18th and 19th centuries, represented by the teachings of Kant, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel.

German idealism was the first to raise the question of the essence of knowledge: "What is knowledge?" For Kant, this question boils down to the question of the possibility of pure mathematics and pure natural science. In his formulation this question of knowledge is reduced to the question of the possibility of synthetic judgments a priori. For Fichte, the question of knowledge also becomes a question of the essence of man. If the subject is a necessary condition for the existence of the world, then knowledge becomes a way of its constitution. Schelling returns to the question of knowledge its objective component, considering knowledge as the result of the development of nature itself. Hegel synthesizes the question of knowledge in the proposition: "The true form of truth is a system of knowledge." For Feuerbach, the question of the essence of knowledge against the backdrop of the tremendous success of science and technology becomes irrelevant, which indicates that the possibility of knowledge has ceased to be a problem.

11. Basic ideas of Marxist philosophy

The formation of K. Marx as a thinker was greatly influenced by the preceding German classical philosophy. The dialectical method of Hegel and the humanistic materialism of Feuerbach - as a result, gave the original philosophy - dialectical materialism.

Main theses: 1) the worldview is based not on religious-mystical or idealistic, but on the conclusions of modern natural science; 2) M. openly admitted his connection with the interests of a certain class - the proletariat; 3) as a consequence, a fundamentally new task is posed - not to be limited to explaining the world, but to choose a methodology for its transformation, first of all - the transformation of society on the basis of a conscious revolution. activities; 4) from here the center of F. research is transferred from the field of pure knowledge and abstract human relations, as well as from the field of abstract reasoning about the general structure of the world to the field of practice; 5) this leads to the fact that mat-zm for the first time extends to the understanding of social life; 6) finally, knowledge and thinking themselves were understood in a different way. Thinking began to be considered not as a product of the development of nature, but as a result of complex historical social and labor activity, i.e. practices.

Main principle: the antagonism between production forces and production relations is the driving force in the transition from one to the other social eq. formations (a historically defined type of society, representing a special stage of its development). For this: social being and consciousness. material attitude of people to the environment. the world, first of all to nature, in the process of pr-va mat. goods, and those relationships in which people enter into each other in the process of production.

12. Modern Western philosophy. Main features, range of problems, currents.

If we try to identify the specific stages in the development of modern Western philosophy, we can clearly identify three stages.

The first stage has been going on since the 1970s. 19th century before the First World War. During this period, a philosophy of life, pragmatism, develops. The philosophy of this period is characterized by comparison with science; in any case, science becomes the measure of knowledge for most philosophical schools. Philosophy either seeks to establish itself as a science (wants to be a science about the method of scientific knowledge or a science about the prerequisites and principles of scientific theories), or, on the contrary, rejects science and its claims to objective knowledge, referring to non-rational sources of knowledge (intuition, etc.) . This opposition subsequently became the basis of the opposition "scientism - anti-scientism".

The second stage lasts from the end of the First World War to the end of the 1950s. 20th century It unites such currents as neopositivism (recognition of only physical-experimental knowledge as reliable and the refusal of a scientific researcher from "unscientific" explanation), personalism, etc. All these currents already have a clear separation of scientific and philosophical knowledge.

The third stage begins in the 60s. The specificity of philosophical thinking in this period is a greater emphasis on the integrity and freedom of man. Today, however, when considering the genesis of phenomena, to a greater extent, it takes into account the structure of phenomena. History is now perceived not as some kind of randomly determined process, but as the activity of people, in the analysis and evaluation of which two aspects must be taken into account: both chance and freedom.

13. The main milestones in the development of domestic philosophy

Russian philosophy has come a long way in its development, in which the following stages can be distinguished:

11th century - first half of the 18th century - the formulation of philosophical problems and the search for answers to them within the framework of other forms of social consciousness, primarily religious and aesthetic (Illarion's "Word of Law and Grace" by Illarion, Feofan Trek, etc.);

Second half of the 18th century - first quarter of the 19th century - the spread of philosophy in Russia in the form of a philosophical understanding of the science and culture of its time,

Second quarter of the 19th century - beginning of XX century. - formation and development of original Russian philosophy;

After 1922 - the philosophy of the Russian diaspora.

P.Ya. Chaadaev (1794 - 1856) stands at the origins of the original national philosophical creativity in Russia. In his "Philosophical Letters" he considers Russia's "isolation" from the world development of human culture and spirit, spiritual stagnation and inertia, national complacency, which, in his opinion, is incompatible with the awareness of the historical mission of the Russian people.

14. The concept of being. Basic types of existence. The problem of the unity of the world

Types of life:

Material and ideal being

According to the materialistic approach, the world around us consists of two areas of reality. This is a subjective and objective reality. That which exists outside and independently of consciousness is considered an objective reality, which is equivalent to the category "matter". What is connected with human consciousness and is its product is considered a subjective reality. Objective reality corresponds to the material form of being, while subjective reality is equivalent to the real form of being. According to the materialistic interpretation, the ideal reality, i.e. the spiritual form of being, depends on the material being. According to this concept, there is nothing in the world but material existence. The ideal form of being is a product of material existence.

The problem of the unity of the world.

There is matter, there is consciousness. Question: is there a single beginning? The solution to this problem has given rise to philosophical teachings: pluralism, dualism and monism

Pluralism (lat. - plural) denies unity, recognizes the existence of several or many types of being independent of each other. For example, Empedocles reduced the whole variety of things to four "roots": earth, water, air and fire.

Dualism (Latin - dual) proceeds from the recognition of two principles equal in rights and irreducible to each other: spiritual and material. The largest representative of this concept is R. Descartes, who put forward the idea of ​​two equal and independent substances: a thinking, but unextended spirit, and an extended, but unthinking matter. Considering both substances to be finite, Descartes unites them with the help of an absolute infinite substance - God.

Monism (Greek "monos" - one, only) is a concept that recognizes one substance as the basis of the world. Unlike dualism, which is unable to explain the relationship between the material and the spiritual, monism proceeds from a single principle. Solving this problem, he affirms the unity of the world, the single basis of being. Depending on what is recognized as such a basis - spiritual or material substance - a distinction is made between idealistic and materialistic monism.

Idealistic monism considers the ideal to be a single substance, the basis of being: matter is not capable of activity and needs the creative activity of the spirit.

Materialistic monism is based on the recognition of the material unity of the world, considers matter the basis of everything that exists.

15. The concept of matter. material and ideal.

Matter is a philosophical category for the designation of physical substance in general, as opposed to consciousness. In the materialistic philosophical tradition, the category "matter" denotes a substance that has a status in relation to consciousness.

Matter is a generalization of the concept of material and ideal, due to their relativity.

The word "matter" originally meant "forest, firewood, wood", and the material was understood as material. The substance, however, is ordered in one way or another, has some structure and form. This order and form of material things Plato called "idea" (Greek idea, eidos, Latin forma - "appearance, appearance"). Matter as such turned out to be for him a passive and chaotic principle of being. Things, the universe exist due to the combination of matter with an idea - with an active, active substance that puts matter in order and, like a universal law, governs material things. In relation to man, this meant that the soul, the ideal substance, controls the body.

Friedrich Engels identified five forms of motion of matter:

physical;

chemical;

biological;

social;

mechanical.

The modern definition was given by V.I. Lenin in his work “Materialism and Empiriocriticism” (1909): “matter is “... a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them.”

16. Matter and motion. Forms of motion of matter

Movement is an essential property of matter. Movement is a form of existence of matter. Nowhere and never has there been and cannot be matter without motion. Matter without motion is just as inconceivable as motion without matter. The forms and types of motion of matter are infinitely diverse and embrace all the phenomena and processes occurring in the Universe, ranging from simple movement to thinking.

Forms of motion of matter. In modern science, there are three main groups

in inorganic nature

spatial movement;

motion of elementary particles and fields - electromagnetic, gravitational, strong and weak interactions,

movement and transformation of atoms and molecules, including chemical reactions;

changes in the structure of macroscopic bodies - thermal processes, changes in aggregate states, sound vibrations, and more;

geological processes;

change in space systems of various sizes: planets, stars, galaxies and their clusters .;

in nature,

metabolism,

self-regulation, management and reproduction in biocenoses and other ecological systems;

interaction of the entire biosphere with the natural systems of the Earth;

intraorganism biological processes aimed at ensuring the preservation of organisms,

supraorganismal processes express relationships between representatives various kinds in ecosystems and determine their abundance,

in society,

diverse manifestations of conscious activity of people;

all higher forms of reflection and purposeful transformation of reality.

17. Space and time. Substantial and relational concepts of space and time.

Space and time are forms of being of matter.

space is the relationship of the mutual position of objects coexisting at some point in time

time is the relationship of a sequence of objects coexisting at some point in space

In the history of philosophy, there have been various concepts of space and time. They can be divided into two large classes: the concepts of substance and relational.

Substantial the concept considers space and time as special entities that exist on their own, independent of material objects. They are like an arena in which objects are located and processes are deployed. A similar point of view was defended, for example, by I. Newton. It was also found in ancient philosophy. So the representation of the ancient Greek atomist philosophers (Democritus, Epicurus)

relational concept of space and time. One of its most prominent representatives was G. W. Leibniz,. he insisted that space and time are special relationships between objects and processes and do not exist outside of them.

18. Dialectics as a philosophical doctrine of contradiction. Basic principles, laws, categories

The nature of the contradiction depends on the specifics of the opposing sides, as well as on the conditions in which their struggle unfolds.

There are the following contradictions:

Internal contradictions are the interaction of opposite sides within a given object, for example, within a given animal species (intraspecific struggle). The process of development of an object is characterized not only by the development of internal contradictions, but also by its constant interaction with external conditions, with the environment.

External contradictions are the interaction of opposites related to different objects, for example, between society and nature, organism and environment, etc.

Antagonistic contradictions are the interaction between irreconcilably hostile social groups and forces. The term "antagonism" is common in biology and medicine: antagonism of poisons, drugs, microbes, antagonism of muscles, teeth, etc. Mathematicians consider antagonism as such a contrast of interests (meaning game theory), in which the gain of one side is equal to the loss of the other, that is, equal in magnitude and opposite in sign. In its purest form, antagonism rarely manifests itself - in a situation of market competition, war, revolution, sports competitions, etc.

Principles:

principle of development, (movement is the main attribute of matter)

the principle of universal connection, (Occurrence, change, development is impossible in an isolated state, it presupposes a connection between the internal and external.)

the principle of the identity of logic and the theory of knowledge (the unity of the laws of development, the totality of the development process that captures nature, and human thinking, and society)

the principle of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, (they accumulate the cognitive possibility of the laws and categories of dialectics, it organizes the process of cognition)

the principle of the unity of the historical and the logical. (It helps to understand how the concrete is actually transformed into the concrete in cognition.)

Laws:

The most general laws of dialectics are: the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the unity and struggle of opposites, the negation of negation.

Essence and phenomenon;

Cause and investigation;

Single, special, universal;

Possibility and reality;

Necessity and chance.

19 concept of law. Dynamic and static patterns

In its most general form, a law can be defined as a connection between phenomena, processes, which is objective, essential, necessary, internal, repetitive and stable.

Any law is not something invariable, but is a concrete historical phenomenon with a change in the relevant conditions, with the development of practice and knowledge, some laws leave the stage, others reappear, the forms of action of laws, the ways of using them, etc. change.

The following types of laws can be distinguished: natural science, social, general, particular (special), empirical and theoretical laws, laws of development and functioning, etc.

Dynamic patterns are objective, necessary, significant connections and dependencies that characterize the behavior of relatively isolated individuals, in the study of which one can abstract from many random factors. Predictions based on dynamic patterns have a well-defined, unambiguous character

Statistical regularities are a form of manifestation of the interconnection of phenomena, in which a given state of the system determines all its subsequent states not unambiguously, but only with a certain probability, which is an objective measure of the possibility of realizing the trends laid down in the past. The necessity that manifests itself in statistical laws arises as a result of mutual compensation and balancing of many accidents.

20. Determinism and indeterminism. Probability, feasibility. Self-movement and self-organization.

The philosophical doctrine, according to which every event in the world has its own cause and takes place according to the eternal laws of nature, is called determinism (from Latin determino - I determine). In relation to the history of mankind, determinism means that all historical events are subject to reasons and laws hidden from human consciousness, that there is an objective logic of history independent of the will of people. The Determinist Party different time led by Democritus, Spinoza, Hegel.

The classical justification for the principle of indeterminism was given by the Scottish skeptic philosopher David Hume. He argued that belief in the causal relationship of things stems from the habit human soul to link events that regularly follow one after another in time and are adjacent in space into a single associative series. Subsequently, the most influential school that rejected the concept of causality as "metaphysical" was positivism (Comte, Russell, etc.)

Probability is the ratio of the number of times a given event occurs

occurred to the total number of selected cases (statistical probability).

Expediency - the property of processes and phenomena to lead to a certain

result, goal in the broad or conditional sense of the word. Supreme form

expediency - human activity.

21. the emergence of man and humanity.

Dramatically disagree with religion. Science - pers. Happened naturally. Religion is created by God.

C. Darwin

Pers. These are certain fights. View. Homo sapiens. With its own characteristics

Lack of hair

Pronounced sexual dimorphism

Temperature vulnerability

Engels revealed the origin of man.

Nature produces more psychologically advanced species.

Anthropoids -

Homo sapiens found a way out. Adapted to adverse conditions. They began to work. (Labor) - purposeful complex activity.

There was a need for language. 40 thousand years ago, the formation of echomosapiens ended.

The first people are Cro-Magnons in Europe.

22. practice as a way of being a person in the world

The most distinguishing feature of a person is work.

In labor, a person constantly changes the conditions of his existence, transforming them in accordance with his constantly developing needs, creates a world of material and spiritual culture,

Practice is a sensually objective activity of people, their impact on a particular object in order to transform it to meet historically established needs.

It is a source of knowledge, its driving force, gives knowledge the necessary factual material, subject to generalization and theoretical processing.

Practice is the sphere of application of knowledge. And in this sense, it is the goal of knowledge.

Serves as a criterion, a measure of verification of the truth of the results of knowledge. Only those results of cognition that have passed through the cleansing fire of practice can claim objective significance,

So, practice is the basis for the formation and development of cognition at all its stages, the source of knowledge, the criterion for the truth of the results of the cognition process.

23. Natural and social in man

In philosophy, a person is considered as an integrity, a person and the world of a person in its main manifestations. The question of the relationship between the natural and the social in man was solved in different ways. There are two one-sided approaches here. The first is a naturalistic approach to a person, exaggerating the importance of the natural principle in him, which affects his life and behavior, and hence the development of society. The naturalistic approach continued the idea of ​​the immutability of human nature, not amenable to any influences. The other extreme when considering the problem of man is the recognition in him of only the social principle and, at the same time, ignoring the biological side of his nature. Most modern scientists believe that the essence of a person is that he distinguishes the value from the pragmatic. Ability to understand and adequately evaluate real world- this is the distinguishing feature of man. And still the person possesses physical and spiritual ability to self-improvement. Thanks to his physical and spiritual organization, only a person can become a person capable of conscious activity, creativity, purposeful and systematic actions, ready for moral responsibility.

24. person in the system of social relations

Man is a subject, i.e. active person social system. However, a specific individual is not able to enter into a relationship with the whole society, he is always connected with other subjects through specific activities. Social ties differ in type, content, depending on the nature of the joint activities of people and the relations that arise between them. In the sphere of production, economic social ties are formed. In the sphere of politics and law, social ties arise on the basis of compliance with laws. In the field of management, social ties are determined by the official position of the subjects of activity.

Each person simultaneously enters into several types of social ties and is nothing more than a "clot" of social relations (social ties) integrated into individuality. The more complex the structure of social ties, the more power they acquire over the individual. In other words, in the variety of social connections, there is a danger of losing personal integrity and replacing it with functional manifestations, when the system suppresses the personality, forming it. individual qualities"under the order".

25. Personality and masses

The mass is a special kind of historical community of people. The human collective turns into a mass if its cohesion is achieved by ignoring or suppressing the originality of the individual. The main features of the mass are: heterogeneity, spontaneity, suggestibility, variability, which serve as manipulation by the leader. In their unconscious desire for order, the mass elects a leader who embodies its ideals. Therefore, the personality of a person who leads the masses is usually charismatic, and the beliefs that she adheres to are utopian. Thanks to the leader, the mass acquires its finished form, subordinated to the realization of some super-idea that rallied the team.

The first philosophical project of a mass society ruled by wise philosophers is set forth in Plato's dialogue The State. In the context of criticism of the Platonic ideal state, Aristotle proposed to distinguish between absolute unity, leveling the personality, and relative unity, preserving the originality of the personality in such a way that various personal qualities harmoniously complement each other in society.

Among the most important attributes of the mass is facelessness, i.e. by definition, the mass excludes the personal beginning, replacing it with the collective. Therefore, a person, as a rule, desires separation in order to gain individual authenticity.

26. freedom and necessity

Freedom and necessity are philosophical categories that express the relationship between people's activities and the objective laws of nature and society. Idealists for the most part consider freedom and necessity as mutually exclusive concepts and understand freedom as the self-determination of the spirit, as freedom of will, as the ability to act according to the will, which is not determined by external conditions. They believe that the idea of ​​determinism, which establishes the necessity of human actions, completely removes the responsibility of a person and makes it impossible to morally evaluate his actions. Only unrestricted and unconditional freedom is, in their terms, the only basis of human responsibility, and, consequently, of ethics. Extreme subjectivism in the explanation of freedom is admitted, for example, by adherents of existentialism (Sartre, Jaspers).

The supporters of mechanistic determinism hold a diametrically opposite and also incorrect view. They deny free will, arguing that the actions and deeds of a person in all cases are determined by external circumstances beyond his control. This metaphysical concept means the absolutization of objective necessity and leads to fatalism.

The scientific explanation of freedom and necessity is based on the recognition of their organic relationship. The first attempt to substantiate this t. sp. belongs to Spinoza, who defined freedom as a conscious necessity. An expanded concept of dialectical unity-freedom and necessity from an idealistic position was given by Hegel.

27. the meaning of human existence. Freedom and responsibility

Philosophical ideas about the meaning of human existence are very diverse. In the most general terms, they can be divided into two branches. Some philosophers are looking for the meaning of life within itself, in any visible forms and manifestations of life: in love and kindness, in enjoyment, in achieving power over the world, in improving the mind, etc. In this case, life has absolute value in itself. Others go out in search of meaning beyond their own limits of life and see its purpose in serving some higher, ideal principle - humanity, Nature or God. In this case, life is seen as a means of acquiring other values, such as achieving happiness. In addition, some philosophers argue that life is completely devoid of meaning, since it is finite. If death exists in being, then life is absurd and turns into an expectation of its natural fate. In this case, philosophical discussions switch from the theme of the meaning of life to the problem of the meaning of death.

Freedom and responsibility

The free will of the individual is not only limited by social norms (morality, law, etc.), an individual hierarchy of values ​​and principles, but is also closely associated with the awareness of responsibility. In legal science, responsibility is interpreted as a measure of coercion associated with various deprivations and restrictions. In the philosophy of M.M. Bakhtin understands responsibility as an act of a person who asserts himself in front of another. The responsibility of a person's actions is always associated with the manifestation of free will, which does not violate the freedom of another. It is also a response to the challenge of being - the birth of our Self. the need to correlate their actions and the freedom of their manifestation with a sense of duty and personal conscience.

The category of responsibility can be understood in two ways: as external responsibility, dictated to a person from the outside - by other people or public institutions, and internal responsibility, a duty to oneself, usually referred to as "conscience". The opposite of these two forms of responsibility is relative. A sense of duty and conscience are, in fact, nothing more than the norms of external responsibility learned by a person. So, in the process of educating a personality, various forms of social activity, including moral regulations, become the norms of individual behavior.

28. The meaning of life and attitude towards death.

From all other living beings, man differs most of all in that throughout his individual life he never reaches the highest "goals" of tribal, historical life; in this sense he is an adequately unrealizable being. Such dissatisfaction, unrealizability contains motives for creative activity that are not contained in its immediate motives (material, etc.). That is why the vocation, purpose, task of every person is to comprehensively develop their abilities, to make their personal contribution to history, to the progress of society, its culture.

Unlike medicine, philosophy considers death from the point of view of understanding the meaning of death as the final stage of human life. in the face of death, a person is able to understand and evaluate the life he has lived, to outline a program for a new life based on the acceptance of other value orientations and readiness to implement them.

The problem of death was solved in its own way in the philosophy of the famous Dutch philosopher Spinoza (XVII century). He believed that a free person thinks of nothing less than death. The wisdom of man, according to Spinoza, "consists in thinking not about death, but about life."

29. nature of consciousness.

Consciousness is perfect. Because it is not sensually perceived, does not have an independent existence and development. The product of consciousness is non-material images, they are deprived of their substrate. Consciousness is capable of infinite reproduction of the infinite diversity of the world.

There must be a substratum that thinks. Consciousness is individual and subjective. Consciousness reflects those features of an object that are important to a person.

The directional nature of consciousness. Consciousness depends on surrounding objects. Thought is always meaningful, objective. We cannot think of anything.

Consciousness is closed from others, but opens through speech. behavior, art.

30. Structure of consciousness.

Consciousness can be divided with some degree of conditionality into 3 parts: mind, feelings and will.

Mind is the main part of consciousness. By definition, man is a rational being. Mind is a condition and a consequence of cognitive activity, which can be carried out rationally and irrationally. Reason can take the form of fantasy, imagination and logic. Reason provides mutual understanding of people necessary for their communication and joint activities.

Feelings are a condition and a consequence of a person's selective attitude to the world. Everything that is in the world causes a person positive and negative emotions, or a neutral attitude. This is due to the fact that something is useful to a person, something is harmful, and something is indifferent, something in the world is beautiful, something is ugly. As a result, a rich emotional world is formed in a person, because everything that happens in the world has a different degree of significance and a different nature of significance for a person. Emotions and feelings express an evaluative attitude towards the world. The richness of feelings and emotions is manifested in the vocabulary of the language. There are several hundred words that contain feelings and emotions. The poverty of a person's individual vocabulary also speaks of his emotional poverty of his consciousness, and, consequently, of his personality.

Will is a part of consciousness that ensures the achievement of pre-set goals by mobilizing the forces necessary to achieve them. A person, unlike an animal, is able to look into the future and consciously, at the expense of his will, form the options for the future he needs. Willpower is needed to focus on certain thoughts, feelings, actions, objects of the outside world. Will is also needed to resist adverse influences, to ensure mental stability. Lack of will makes a person susceptible to adverse influences and unable to achieve goals due to the inability to make choices and concentrate on a given direction.

31. Consciousness and the brain.

Philosophical analysis gives an idea of ​​consciousness from the point of view of its material carrier - the brain. The philosophical significance of the problem of consciousness and the brain is determined by the ontological status of consciousness. It is fundamentally important to emphasize that any mental phenomena, no matter how complex they may be, are functions of the brain. Consciousness cannot exist apart from matter.

The brain is a complex functional system, the finest nervous apparatus, the highest form of organized matter in the part of the Universe known to us. The existence of the psyche is impossible outside of its material carrier. The level of its reflectivity also depends on the level of the structural organization of the brain. Human consciousness is formed in connection with the development of his brain. Congenital underdevelopment of the brain, as modern medicine proves, is accompanied by dementia, weakness of the volitional sphere, etc.

The doctrine of the brain has gone through a long history, in which two main trends stand out: the concept of a strict localization of mental phenomena and the point of view according to which the brain functions as a whole.

32. Language and thinking. Natural and artificial languages.

Of great importance in the formation of human consciousness was language, articulate speech. Language, which arose along with consciousness on the basis of labor, was a powerful force that helped man to stand out from the animal kingdom, develop his thinking and organize material production. Labor has always been social. Therefore, in the process of work, they had a need to communicate with each other, to say something to each other. Under the influence of this urgent need, the undeveloped larynx of the monkey was transformed into an organ capable of pronouncing articulate sounds. There is articulate speech, language.

Language is connected with reality, but not directly, but through thinking. Therefore, it is sometimes difficult to establish a direct connection of a given word with a specific material object. It often happens that different objects are denoted by one word, or the same object by different words. All this creates the illusion of the independence of the language, its independence from reality.

Natural (verbal, sound) - ordinary human language. Artificial - the language of signs and symbols. The first arises spontaneously in the process of communication between members of a certain social group. The second is created by people for some special purposes (languages ​​of mathematics, logic, ciphers, etc.). A characteristic feature of natural languages ​​\u200b\u200bis polysemy of words, artificial ones - unambiguity, accuracy.

33. Society and nature

Human society is part of nature. And it doesn't need much proof. After all, natural chemical, biological and other processes take place in the body of each person. The human body acts as a natural basis for its social activities in the field of production, politics, science, culture, etc.

As a rule, natural processes occurring in society acquire a social form, and natural, primarily biological, patterns act as biosocial ones. This can be said about the satisfaction of people's natural needs for food, warmth, procreation, and others. All of them are satisfied in a social form with the help of properly prepared food (almost every nation has its own "kitchen"), a built dwelling, most often meeting certain aesthetic criteria, and also with the help of socially organized family communication. Biosocial laws express the mutual influence of biological and social principles in the development of society.

The role of nature in the life of society has always been significant, because it acts as a natural basis for its existence and development. People satisfy many of their needs at the expense of nature, primarily the external natural environment. There is a so-called exchange of substances between man and nature - necessary condition existence of man and society. The development of any society, of all mankind is included in the process of development of nature, in constant interaction with it, and ultimately in the existence of the Universe.

The organic connection between man and nature makes it necessary to fully take into account natural factors in the development of society. That is why nature has always been the object of attention of philosophers and philosophical reflection. Eternal philosophical questions consist in clarifying the interaction of man and his natural habitat, the relationship of man and society to space. Universe. These questions worried the philosophers of antiquity and modern times, they also worry modern philosophers. Philosophy poses and in its own way solves such questions as the interaction of natural (material) and spiritual principles in the development of man and society, the relationship between nature and human culture. Important philosophical questions are how the nature of the interaction between society and nature changes at different stages of the historical development of man and what is the nature of their interaction in the modern era. In connection with this rises whole line environmental and demographic problems that will be discussed.

On the one hand, it is wrong to oppose society and nature, for example, by reducing the development of society exclusively to the development of consciousness, including the consciousness of individuals, the "intellectual evolution of mankind" (O. Comte), or to the self-development of the world spirit (Hegel), etc. .d. The development of society is carried out in the process of people's activities and the improvement of their social relations. At the same time, this is the development of individual individuals who satisfy most of their needs, including spiritual ones, at the expense of nature. So the presence of consciousness, the spiritual principle in man and society does not prove their independence or autonomy in relation to nature. The organic connection with nature has been and remains a fundamental pattern of the development of society. It manifests itself not only in the area of ​​meeting the needs of people, but, above all, in the functioning of social production, and ultimately in the development of all material and spiritual culture. So, without interaction with nature, society cannot exist and develop. Their artificial break and metaphysical opposition are far-fetched, untrue.

34. Basic theoretical models of society.

Society is a system of activity and life of people united by the territory of residence, era, traditions and culture.

Society - a set of people: united by historically established forms of their relationship and interaction in order to meet their needs;

the main theoretical models of society based on a different understanding of the nature of human society:

The contractual theory of society, signs of the theory: naturalism in the understanding of man and his social life, idealism, mechanism, absolutization of the personal principle and the role of reason in public life. In it, the state component of public life came to the fore. At the same time, the contractual theory of society had its historical justification as the first theoretical model clearing the way for the scientific comprehension of society.

The naturalistic model of society, Society, according to the representatives of this theory, is a naturally occurring formation that appeared against the will of man. Since society was presented by analogy with the body, its essence was clarified based on the structure and functions of the body. Researchers compared the brain with the government, blood vessels with communication routes, blood balls with money ..

35. Formational and civilizational approach to the analysis of society.

The formational approach developed in Marxism assumes a spasmodic revolutionary movement of society from one socio-economic formation to another. The source of movement is a change in the mode of production of the material conditions of life (in the productive forces and production relations). Production relations act as the basis of the socio-economic formation, changes in which lead to a more or less rapid replacement of the superstructure of the socio-economic formation, which includes the entire spiritual life of society with its inherent social consciousness, system of social relations, ideology and social institutions that organize the entire social life. The following were distinguished as the main social formations in Marxism: primitive society, slave-owning, feudal, bourgeois (capitalist) and communist socio-economic formations. The latter had to go through two phases: socialism (the first phase) and communism (the second and highest phase of social development). The formational concept of social development was a theoretical generalization of the principle of historical materialism, the main components of which were economic determinism and the interpretation of social development as a natural historical process.

The civilizational concept of social development considers this process as a closely related interaction and mutual influence of cultural characteristics and transformations that determine the entire system of social relations. Civilization is interpreted as a "material body" culture, its social organization, etc. But the basic element of civilization, its reverse side is the type of culture (ideals, values ​​and norms) that determine the specifics of human community.

Society is not only a specific, but also extremely complex system. Knowledge of the patterns of functioning and development of this system has certain features. Theoretical, scientific analysis of society as a certain system takes place on the basis of a certain ideal model of society. Each branch of science actually creates its own model or theoretical object. In other words, not the entire object of the social organism is considered, but only any specific part of it. So, for historians, the real historical process appears not in itself, but through separate fragments of reality: archival materials, documents, cultural monuments. For economists, the economy appears in the form of digital calculations, statistics.

Society can be analyzed in different ways. For example, the Russian thinker A.A. Bogdanov (1873 - 1928) considered society from the perspective of organization and management. This is typical for general theory systems. Any human activity, he believed, is objectively an organization or disorganization. This means that any human activity - technical, social, cognitive, artistic - can be considered as a fragment of organizational experience and studied from an organizational point of view.

There are well-known attempts to describe society as a living population without revealing the specifics of the social. The modern philosopher and social scientist V.S. Barulin approaches society from the standpoint of considering various areas of people's activities that ensure their life.

The researchers did not set and do not aim to cover the entire object. Considering it from a certain point of view, as an ideal model, scientists get the opportunity to analyze the phenomena "in their purest form."

The ideal or theoretical model of this or that fragment of society and the real society are different. However, the analysis of the model makes it possible to identify the essential, regular in the object, not to get lost in the most complex labyrinth of social phenomena, facts and events.

The ideological basis for the construction and subsequent study of the theoretical (ideal) model of society are: naturalism, idealism and materialism.

Naturalism- he tries to explain the laws of functioning and development of society by the laws of nature. He proceeds from the fact that nature and society are one, and hence there are no differences in the functioning of the natural and the social.

In the XVII - XVIII centuries. the naturalistic conception of the interpretation of social life became widespread. Proponents of this concept tried to declare social phenomena exclusively by the action of natural laws: physical, geographical, biological, etc.

French utopian socialist Charles Fourier(1772 - 1837), for example, tried to create a "social science" based on the law gravity I. Newton. He saw the task of his life in the development of "social theory" as part of the "theory of world unity", based on the principle of "attraction by passion", a universal pattern that determines the natural inclination of a person to some kind of collective labor.

higher forms naturalism reduced being to the lowest. Thus, he reduced man to the level of a purely natural being. This approach is characteristic of all forms of metaphysical materialism. His main mistake was to belittle human activity and deny human freedom.

Indeed, if the subject is considered only as a natural phenomenon, dissolves in nature, loses its qualitative certainty, then this inevitably leads to the rigid inclusion of human behavior in the chain of natural causes and effects. Here there is no place for free will, and the concept of social events inevitably takes on a fatalistic coloring.

Denying freedom and belittling the spiritual essence of man, materialism becomes inhumane, "hostile to man."

Another shortcoming of the naturalistic approach to society is that a person is likened to a social atom, and society is likened to a mechanical aggregate of individual atoms, closed only on their own interests. Mechanism organically follows from naturalism and becomes the theoretical justification for individualism, anarchism and egoism.

In other words, naturalism notices in man only natural substance, absolutizes it. As a result, human ties acquire a natural character. The essence of the naturalistic approach is that human society is considered as a natural continuation of the laws of nature, the animal world and, ultimately, the Cosmos. The type of social structure and the course of history is determined by the rhythms of solar activity and cosmic radiation (A. Chizhevsky, L. Gumilyov), the features of the geographical and climatic environment (Montesquieu, L. Mechnikov), the specifics of man as a natural being, his genetic, racial and sexual features (E. Wilson, R. Dawkins). Within the framework of this direction, it is assumed that society can change the form of its existence, begin cosmic existence as a new round of its evolution (K.E. Tsiolkovsky).

Idealism- accepts consciousness (an absolute idea or a complex of sensations) as the final and determining cause social development. Idealism spiritualizes a person, tears him away from nature, turning the spiritual sphere of social life into an independent substance. Such an understanding of history arises as a result of the absolutization of the spiritual factor in human existence. In practice, this means following the enlightenment principle that "opinions rule the world."

Idealism does not in principle deny the objective factor of history. But if, from the point of view of naturalism, the development of society is completely determined by the action of the laws of nature, then in idealism this function of the creative principle, the social prime mover, is performed either by the world mind, or by undetermined human and, above all, spiritual-volitional activity. In the first case, fatalism is introduced into social philosophy (which also takes place in naturalistic materialism); in the second, a purely subjectivist understanding of the historical course is substantiated.

In some idealistic systems, for example, in Kantianism and Russian religious and moral philosophy, there was a positive principle in the approach to man and history. It consisted in substantiating the freedom of the subject, his creative activity. No matter how spirituality is understood, no one thinks of it without morality, the latter presupposes the existence of freedom. Only a free person can be spiritual and moral, therefore it is necessary to overcome the narrow limits of naturalism, to turn towards humanistic values. And this implies the assimilation of the entire wealth of spiritual traditions.

The negative consequences of an idealistic understanding of social phenomena are: the separation of theory from practice, the ideal from interest, the formation of alienated, fetishistic forms of consciousness that begin to dominate people. An idealistic understanding of history gives rise to social mythology and dooms social subjects, who are at the mercy of myths, to the pursuit of mirages.

In the idealistic approach, the essence of the connections that unite people into a single whole is seen in the complex of certain ideas, beliefs, myths. There are many examples of theocratic states in history. In such states, unity was ensured by one faith, which became the state religion. Totalitarian regimes were based on a single state ideology, which served as the basis of the social structure. At the center of this ideology was usually a leader, not infrequently a religious one, on whom the fate of the country depended (wars, reforms, etc.).

Thus, both naturalism, which dissolves a person in nature, grounding him too much, and idealism, which separates a person from nature and turns the spiritual principle in him into a self-sufficient essence, are oriented towards a one-sided understanding of society.

Materialism- takes as a basis social being, the real process of people's lives, which is based on a certain mode of production, the level of development of culture, the prevailing way of life and the mentality corresponding to it, i.e. mentality, the nature of feelings and thinking.

The materialistic approach is associated with a philosophical analysis of interpersonal connections and relationships that are of a defining nature and that arise in appropriate natural conditions, in the presence of certain social ideas or religious beliefs. Society is a certain system, structured in a special way into parts to which it cannot be completely reduced. A person realizes himself depending on the place he occupies in society and participation in the general social process of life. The relations of people are determined not by an agreement (contract), but by consensus (consent of members of society). Links people into a "social organism" productive forces and production relations and the corresponding socio-cultural sphere.

Each of the approaches discussed above has its own merits. With their help, explanations of social processes were given, certain steps were taken in the knowledge of society. But a critical attitude to these approaches makes it possible to reasonably substantiate the advantages and disadvantages of each of them.

Similar information.

Three fundamental theoretical concepts of society that have had a significant impact on the development of modern social science:

1. Society as a relational system (“system of social relations”) according to Karl Marx (1818-1883).

The starting point for its understanding is the materialistic understanding of history formulated by K. Marx, which says that "it is not the consciousness of people that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness." In other words, the material life of society, primarily the mode of production and those economic relations that develop between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods, determine the spiritual life of society - the totality of public views, desires and moods of people. Perfectly understanding the role of the subjective side of social reality, as evidenced by his remark that “history is nothing but the activity of a person pursuing his goals”, K. Marx focuses on the main thing, from his point of view, in society - the system of social relations, for society primarily "expresses the sum of those connections and relations in which individuals are to each other." The basis of society is production and economic relations, which K. Marx also calls material and basic. They are material because they are formed between people with objective necessity, existing outside and independently of their will and desire. In order to exist, people, leading a collective way of life, must enter into relations of production cooperation, although they may not be aware of their nature. These relations are basic because they determine the economic structure of society, and also generate and significantly affect the corresponding superstructure. It includes the political, legal, moral, artistic, religious, philosophical and other relations arising on this basis and conditioned by it, as well as the institutions corresponding to them (the state, political parties, churches, etc.) and ideas. K. Marx also calls these relations ideological, because they are formed on the basis of the obligatory awareness by people of their

character. Such is the systemic organization of society in the interpretation of K. Marx, in which the superstructure is not passive in relation to the base, but nevertheless is fundamentally determined by it. It is no coincidence that in one of his works, K. Marx notes: “Production relations in their totality form what is called social relations, society.”

2. Society as a structural and functional system according to Talcott Parsons (1902-1979). Founder of the school of structural functionalism in American sociology of the 20th century. T. Parsons, like K. Marx, in interpreting society, states the important role of the individual activity of people. In his first work, he proceeds from the fact that it is a single social action, the structure of which includes an actor ( actor), the goals of activity, as well as the social situation, represented by means and conditions, norms and values, through which goals and means are chosen, is a backbone element of society. Therefore, society can be understood as a system of social actions of subjects, each of which performs certain social roles assigned to it in accordance with the status that it has in society. Here the significance of the subjective side of social reality is obvious, because, as T. Parsons emphasizes, if anything is essential for the concept of social action, it is its normative orientation.

However, in the future, T. Parsons begins to use in the interpretation of society the paradigm of sociological universalism, focused not so much on the study of the motives and meanings of individual social actions, but on the functioning of impersonal structural components of society - its subsystems. Using systems concepts of biology, he formulated four functional requirements for systems: adaptation (to the physical environment); goal achievement (obtaining satisfaction); integration (maintaining conflict-free and harmony within the system); structure reproduction and stress relief, system latency (maintenance of samples, preservation of regulatory requirements and enforcement of them). In society, these four functions of the social system, known under the abbreviation AGIL (adaptation - goal setting - integration - latency), are provided by the corresponding subsystems (economics - politics - law - socialization), each of which has a specialized character. At the same time, they complement each other as parts of a single social organism, allowing for the sake of avoiding possible contradictions to measure the social actions of actors. This is achieved through symbolic intermediaries - “means of exchange”, which are money (A), power (O), influence (I) and value commitments,

providing social recognition and delivering satisfaction from doing what you love (b). As a result, the equilibrium of the social system and the stable, conflict-free existence of society as a whole are achieved.

3. Society as a result of rationalization

social action according to Max Weber (1864-1920). Well-known German sociologist and social philosopher of the late XIX - early XX century. , the founder of "understanding sociology" M. Weber also proceeds from the interpretation of society as a subjective-objective reality. However, in this process, it is decisive for him in understanding modern society character of social actions of individuals appears. To understand it means to explain what is happening in society. This is the essence of the research approach of M. Weber, called methodological individualism. The backbone element in theoretical model M. Weber's society, thus, becomes a social action, which, unlike ordinary human actions, has two mandatory features - "subjective meaning" that a person gives to his behavior and which motivates a person's actions, as well as "expectation", "orientation to the Other" representing a possible response to the social action taken. Describing social action, M. Weber identifies four of its main types that are found in modern society:

1. affective, based on actual affects and feelings and determined by emotional-volitional factors;

2. traditional, driven by traditions, customs, habits and not being sufficiently meaningful, having the character of social automatism;

3. value-rational, characterized by conscious adherence to accepted in society or social group value system, regardless of its real consequences;

4. goal-oriented, determined by the conscious setting of a practically significant goal and the prudent selection of appropriate and sufficient means to achieve it, the criterion of which is achieved success perfect action.