Morphological analysis of all parts of speech. Morphology of the modern Russian language. Names. Introduction to General Grammar Theory and Morphology

Morphological analysis often causes difficulties for schoolchildren, which are associated with the fact that some parts of speech (for example, adverb, preposition, union) are not studied enough time, and after studying them, tasks for determining various grammatical features are rare. This leads to the fact that students do not retain in memory all the morphological characteristics of these parts of speech, therefore, the corresponding analysis causes difficulties.

I propose to issue support schemes - plans for the analysis of parts of speech, and such a plan can be drawn up by the students themselves, introducing complex (at their discretion) material into them. For example, for some, the difficulty is the criteria by which nouns are distributed by declension, for someone the concept of the mood of the verb is difficult.

Through repeated access to these blanks, not only stronger knowledge is acquired, but the skill of performing this type of analysis is also developed.

I recommend that my students create special folders with this kind of materials and store one copy (whole, uncut) there, and always carry the other copy with you (for example, in a textbook) cut into cards. The teacher can model the analysis plan at his own discretion, adding or removing any supporting material. I suggest more full version such cards, which also includes such parts of speech as the word of the category of state and onomatopoeic words, which are not distinguished by all linguists into independent parts of speech.

1. Morphological analysis of the NOUN.

I. Part of speech - noun, because answers the question " WHAT?” (case question) and designation. THING.

N. f. - ... ( I. p., units h.)

II. Permanent signs:

• own or common noun,
• animate ( V.p. plural = R.p. plural) or inanimate ( V.p. plural = I.p. plural),
• gender (male, female, neuter, common (relative to both m. and female sex: crybaby), outside the gender category (noun, not singular: scissors)),
• declination ( 1st(m., f. -a, -z); 2nd(m, cf. -, -o, -e); 3rd(f. -); diversified(on - me, path);

adjective (like adjectives), indeclinable ( do not change in cases and numbers ) ,

Non-permanent signs: I. Who? What? V. Whom? What?

• among ( units, many), R. Whom? What? T. By whom? How?
• in ... case ( I, R, D, V, T, P). D. To whom? What? P. About whom? About what?

III. Syntactic role (set semantic question and underline as a member of the sentence).

2. Morphological analysis of the ADJECTIVE.

I. Part of speech - adj., because answers the question " WHICH?” and stands for SIGN OF THE OBJECT.

N.f. - ... ( I.p., units h, m..)

II. Permanent signs:

Qualitative (maybe more or less) / Relative (cannot be more or less) / Possessive (indicates belonging to someone).

Irregular signs:

• in the degree of comparison (for qualitative);
• in full ( which?) or short ( what?) form,
• in ... case (for complete forms),
• in ... number (unit, pl.),
• in ... kind (for the only numbers).

3. Morphological analysis of the VERB.

I. Part of speech - ch. answers the question " WHAT TO DO?” and stands for ITEM ACTION.

N.F. - ... ( infinitive: what's up be? what did you do be?)

II. Permanent signs:

• kind (perfect (what With do?) or imperfect (what to do?)),
• conjugation ( I(eat, eat, eat, eat, ut / ut), II(shish, um, im, ite, at / yat), heterogeneous(want, run)
• returnable (there is -sya, -s.) / irrevocable (no -sya, -s),
• transitive (used with noun in V. p. without pretext)/ intransitive ( not used with a noun in V. p. without pretext).

Irregular signs:

• in ... inclination ( indicative: what have you been doing? what is he doing? what will he do? , imperative: what do you do?, conditional: what have you been doing would? What did you do would?),
• at … time (for indicative mood: past (what did he do?), present (what is he doing?), future (what will he do? what will he do?)),
• in ... number (singular, pl.),
• in ... face (for present, bud. time: 1l.(me, we) 2 l.(you you), 3 l.(he, they)); in ... genus (for the past time unit).

Verbs in an indefinite form (infinitive) have no non-permanent signs, since the INFINITIVE is an invariable form of a word.

III. Syntactic role (ask a question and underline as a member of the sentence).

4. Morphological analysis of the NUMBER.

I. Part of speech - number, because it answers the question “ HOW?" (or " WHICH THE?”) and stands for NUMBER items (or ORDER items WHEN ACCOUNT).

N.F. - ... (I.p. or I.p., singular, m.p.).

II. Permanent signs:

• category by structure (simple/complex/compound),
• rank by value ( quantitative+ sub-category (actual quantity/fractional/collective)/ ordinal),
• declension features:

– 1,2,3,4, collective and ordinal num. skl-Xia, how adj.
– 5–20, 30 skl-Xia, as a noun. 3 cl.
– 40, 90, 100, one and a half, one and a half hundred when inclined have 2 shapes.
– one thousand skl., as a noun. 1 cl.
– million, billion skl., as a noun. 2 cl.
– complex and composite quantitative skl-Xia with change each part the words.
– complex and compound ordinals numerals skl-Xia with change only last the words.

Non-permanent signs:

• case,
• number (if any)
• gender (in the singular, if any).

III. Syntactic role (together with the noun to which it refers) with the main word.

5. Morphological analysis of the PRONOUN.

I. Part of speech - local, because answers the question “WHO? WHAT?" (WHICH? WHOSE?

N.F. - ... (I.p. (if any) or I.p., singular, m.p.)

II. Permanent signs:

• rank in relation to other parts of speech ( places. -noun, local-adj., local. -number.)
• rank by value with proof:
  – personal, because decree. on the face;
  – returnable, because pointer to the return of the action to itself;
  – possessive, because decree. for belonging;
  – interrogative, because decree. to a question;
  – relative, because decree. on the relations of simple prepositions. as part of a complex;
  – uncertain, because decree. for indefinite items, recognition, number,
  – negative, because the decree. for the absence of items, recognition, count;
  – defining, because decree. on a generalized attribute of the subject.
• person (for personal).

Irregular signs:

• case,
• number (if any)
• gender (if any).

III. Syntactic role (ask a question from the main word and underline as a member of the sentence).

6. Morphological analysis of the ADVERSE.

I. Part of speech - Nar. answer to question "HOW?"(WHEN? WHERE? WHY? etc.) and means SIGN OF SIGN.

N.f. - indicate only if the adverb is in the degree of comparison.

II. Permanent signs:

• Invariable part of speech.
• Rank by value: modus operandi(how?) - measures and degrees(to what extent? to what extent?)
  places(where? where? from where?) - time(when? how long?)
  causes(why?) - goals(Why? What for?)

(Indicate if the adverb is of pronominal type, its form: definitive, personal, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, indefinite, negative.)

Variable features: in ... form ... degrees of comparison (if any).

III. syntactic role.

7. Morphological analysis of a WORD OF STATE CATEGORY.

I. Part of speech - SCS, because. stands for CONDITION human, nature , ACTION ASSESSMENT and answers two questions at once: "HOW?" and “WHAT?”

The rest of the items like an adverb, except for the digits by value, which are not distinguished from the SCS.

8. Morphological analysis of the PARTICIPLE.

I. Part of speech - adverb, because resp. on the question "WHICH?" and “WHAT DOING? WHAT HAS DONE? and designation SIGN OF THE SUBJECT BY ACTION.

N.f. - ... (I., unit, m.).

II. Permanent signs:

• real (-usch-, -yusch-, -ash-, -yashch-; -vsh-, -sh-) or passive (-em-, -om-, -im-; -enn-, -nn-, - T-).
• view (SV - what With did? NSV - what did he do?).
• return (return - yes, irrevocable - no).
• tense (present: -ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -yash-, -em-, -om-, -im-; past: -vsh-, -sh-, -enn-, -nn-, -T-).

Irregular signs:

• full or short form (only for passive).
• case (only for participles in full form).
• number (unit, plural).
• gender (only for adverbs in the singular).

III. Syntactic role (usually a definition or a predicate).

9. Morphological analysis of the GENERAL PARTICIPLE.

I. Part of speech - ger., because the answer to the question. "HOW?" and “WHAT DOING? WHAT DID YOU DO? and designate additional action.

II. Permanent signs:

• Invariable part of speech.
• View (NE - what With doing? / NSV - doing what?).
• Return (return - yes, non-return - no).

III. Syntactic role (more often a circumstance).

10. Morphological analysis of the PREPOSITION.

I. Part of speech - a preposition, because serves to connect the main word ... with the dependent ...

II. Signs:

• Simple (from one word: from, to) / compound (from several words: during, due to).
• Derivative (moved from another part of speech: around) / non-derivative ( from, to, about…).
• Invariable part of speech.

11. Morphological analysis of the UNION.

I, Part of speech - union, because serves to connect homogeneous members of a sentence or simple parts in the composition complex sentence.

II. Signs:

• Simple (from one word: and, ah, but...) / compound (from several words: because…).
• Coordinating (associate OCHP or PP as part of the SSP: and, also, or, however ...) + group by value (connecting: and; adversative: but; separating: or). Subordinating (connect PP as part of NGN: because, because, in order to, as if ...) + group by value ( explanatory: what, temporary: when, conditional: if, causal: because, targeted: to, investigative: so; concessions: despite the fact that, though; comparative: as if)
• Invariable part of speech.

12. Morphological analysis of a PARTILE.

I. Part of speech - particle, because . gives additional shades(which ones: interrogative, exclamatory, indicative, amplifying, negative ) words or sentences or serves to form word forms(which ones: inclinations, degrees of comparison ).

II. Signs:

• Rank by value: (shaping: more, let, would .../semantic: really, that's right...).
• Invariable part of speech.

III. Is not proposal member but may be included.

13/14. Morphological analysis of INTERDOMETRY / VOICE-IMITATIVE WORD.

I. Part of speech - int. or sv / p.word, because expresses different feelings or call to action / transmit sounds of animate or inanimate nature.

II. Signs: unchangeable part of speech; derivative / non-derivative.

III. Not a member of the offer.

Morphology

INDEPENDENT PARTS OF SPEECH (13)

MORPHOLOGY is a section of grammar that studies different aspects of a word: its belonging to a certain part of speech, structure, forms of change, ways of expressing grammatical meanings.

PARTS OF SPEECH are lexical and grammatical categories into which the words of the language fall apart due to the presence of

1. semantic feature (some general meaning accompanying the specific lexical meaning of the given word),
2. morphological trait (system grammatical categories, specific for this category of words),
3. syntactic feature (features of syntactic functioning).

In Russian, independent and auxiliary words are distinguished.

INDEPENDENT PARTS OF SPEECH

Independent (significant) parts of speech are categories of words that name an object, action, quality, state, etc. or point to them and which have an independent lexical and grammatical meaning and are members of the sentence (main or secondary).

The independent parts of speech are:

1. noun,
2. adjective,
3. numeral,
4. pronoun,
5. verb,
6. adverb.

24. NOUN- this is an independent part of speech, which combines words denoting objects and animate beings (the meaning of objectivity) and answering the questions who? what? This meaning is expressed using the independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness and inanimateness. In a sentence, nouns mainly act as the subject and object, but they can also be other members of the sentence.

24.1. Discharges of nouns: common, specific, collective.

Depending on the lexical and grammatical features, nouns are divided into:

• common nouns (names of homogeneous objects, actions or states): house, bed
• own (names of single objects selected from a number of homogeneous ones - names, surnames, geographical names, etc.): Vanya Petrov, Pluto, Moscow;
• specific (they name specific objects and phenomena from reality): a boy, a station and abstract (abstract) (they call an object or sign abstractly from the agent or carrier of the sign): hatred, love, care;
• collective (denoting a set of identical or similar individual items as one whole): students, sheet.

24.2. Lexicre-grammatical categories of nouns:

24.1. Animation-inanimate category: animate nouns denote living beings (humans and animals), and inanimate nouns- an object in the proper sense of the word, in contrast to living beings. This category is manifested in the declension of nouns, namely in the accusative case plural: the form of the accusative plural of animate nouns coincides with the form of the genitive case, and of inanimate nouns with the form of the nominative case. For masculine nouns (except for -a, -я), the same thing happens in the singular.

The masculine gender is a variety of the gender category, characterized by a certain form change, and for animate nouns, the belonging to it of masculine creatures (father, cat, table, house).

Feminine gender is a kind of gender category, characterized by a certain form change, and for animate nouns - the belonging of feminine creatures to it (mother, cat, bench, terrace).

There are nouns of the general gender that can be correlated with both masculine and feminine persons: slob, orphan, incognito, protégé.

The neuter gender is a variety of the gender category, characterized by a certain form change (partially coincides with the form change of the masculine gender) and the meaning of inanimateness (window, sky, sun);

24.2.3. Category of number: in Russian there is a singular form (denoting one parent in a series of homogeneous objects): chair, sock, boy, and plural (denoting an indefinite set of homogeneous objects): chairs, socks, boys.

The singular and plural differ in different endings, different compatibility with other parts of speech.

There are nouns that have only the singular form: some abstract nouns (love, care), collective nouns (leaves, students), proper names (Moscow, Siberia), some nouns denoting substance (milk, gold).

There are nouns that, on the contrary, have only the plural form: some abstract nouns (holidays, twilight), some nouns denoting a substance (soup, cream), the names of some games (chess, hide and seek), some concrete nouns that consist of several constituent parts(scissors, trousers);

24.2.4. Case category: this category is based on the opposition of case forms and denotes the relationship of the object denoted by the noun to other objects, actions or signs. There are six cases in Russian: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, prepositional.

24.3. Declension of nouns is a change of nouns by cases.

There are three declensions in Russian.

1 cl. noun m.r. and cf. on -a, -i	2 fold. noun m.r. from zero. ending dry cf. on -o, -e	Zkl. noun from zero. ending
Singular: I.p. Mother. uncle R.p. moms, uncles D.p. mom-e, uncle-e V.p. mum, uncle etc. mom-oh, uncle-her P.p. oh mom, oh uncle	house, window house-a, windows-a house-y, window-y house, window house-ohm, window-ohm about the house, about the window	night night and night and night at night about the night and
Plural: I.p. mothers. uncles R.p. mom, uncle D.p. mum-am, uncle-yum V.p. mom, uncle etc. mom-ami, uncle-ami P.p. about mom-ax, about uncle-x	house-a, windows-a houses, windows house-am, window-am window-a, house-a, houses, windows about house-ax, about windows-ah	night and night-she night-am night and nights about the nights

Notes: in masculine and neuter nouns, in which a vowel is written before the case ending and, in an unstressed position in P.p. the ending -i is written; for feminine nouns, this rule applies to D.p. and P.p.

I. p. militia, genius, blade
R.p. militia, genius, blade
D.p. militia, genius, blade
V.p. militia, genius, blade
etc. militia, genius, blade
P.p. about the police, about the genius, about the blade

More about difficult cases For spellings of noun endings, see the "Spelling" section.

In the Russian language there are nouns with different declensions: these are 10 neuter nouns in -mya (flame, burden, time, udder, banner, seed, stirrup, shemya, tribe, name) - they decline with the growth of the suffix -en- in the singular in all cases , except for the instrumental, according to the 3rd declension, and in the instrumental case of the singular - according to the 2nd declension, in the plural they decline according to the 2nd declension; the words mother, daughter (inclined according to the 3rd declension with an increase -er-), way (inclined in all cases according to the 3rd declension and only in the instrumental - according to the 2nd), child (this word is not now used in indirect cases singular).

There are also indeclinable nouns (that is, they do not change for cases and numbers). Basically, they include words of foreign origin, which denote as inanimate objects(cafe, radio), and masculine and feminine persons (attache, lady); they can also represent animals (kangaroos, chimpanzees), given names and surnames (Helen Frankenstein), place names (Baku, Helsinki), etc.

24.4. Syntactic functions of nouns

In a sentence, a noun can be; any member:

• subject: Mom goes to the store,
• addition: I asked him to give me a book.
• definition: Mom bought me a notebook with checkered paper.
• Addendum: The Volga River is very beautiful.
• circumstance: He got his way despite the difficulties.
• predicate: My father is an engineer.

25. ADJECTIVE- this is an independent part of speech that combines words that denote non-procedural features of the subject and answer the questions what? whose? This meaning is expressed in non-independent inflectional categories of gender, number and case (perform the grammatical function of agreement). In a sentence, adjectives act as a definition or nominal part of a compound nominal predicate.

25.1. Classes of adjectives: qualitative, relative, possessive.

Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives.

• quality adjectives - designate an object directly, that is, without relation to other objects (red, beautiful, kind), have forms of comparison and short forms;
• relative adjectives - indicate a sign through relation to another object, they are derived from nominal bases (laboratory, wooden);
• possessive adjectives- denote belonging to a person or animal, that is, they contain an indication of the owner (foxes, fathers).

25.2. Short adjectives are formed from full qualitative adjectives and correlate with them semantically. Short adjectives are those that in the masculine singular have zero endings(black, beautiful), in the feminine singular - endings -a, -я (black, beautiful), in the singular of the neuter - endings -o, -е (black, beautiful), and in the plural of all genders - endings -i, -s (black, beautiful). Short adjectives in a sentence act as a predicate. ("How good, how fresh were the roses...")

25.3. Degrees of comparison of adjectives is a grammatical category of adjectives that expresses the relative difference or superiority in quality inherent in objects. In Russian, three forms are opposed:

Positive
- comparative
- excellent.

A positive degree names a feature without any opposition to another feature. Comparative degree indicates a feature that is present in this subject in more or less degree. Superlatives indicate the highest degree manifestations of this quality in comparison with other objects (cf .: kind - kinder - kindest).

Formation of forms of comparison.

Adjectives are declined, i.e. change in gender, case and number, but their form depends on the form of the word on which they depend. (For the spelling of the endings of the names of adjectives, see the "Spelling" section)

25.4. Syntactic function of the adjective.

In a sentence, adjectives can act as:

Definitions (The girl had a very beautiful doll),
- the nominal part of the compound nominal predicate (The doll was beautiful).

26. NUMBER- an independent part of speech that combines words that denote abstract numbers or the number of objects and their order when counting. Numerals are combined as a quantitative determinant only with nouns and form an indivisible phrase with them, which in the sentence is one member of the sentence. Numerals cannot be determined by adjectives.

By composition, numerals are divided into:

• simple (non-derivative base: two, eight, one hundred),
• complex (derivatives: eighteen, seven hundred, five hundredth),
• compound (consisting of two or more words: six hundred thirty-five).

Digits of numerals:

• quantitative (denoting an abstract number or the number of homogeneous objects): two, twenty-five;
• fractional (denoting a fractional value: two-fifths);
• collective (denoting the number of items as a set: three, both);
• ordinal (indicate the order of objects in the count: first, third, twenty).

Cardinal numerals are declined (they change in cases, but have neither the category of gender nor the category of number). Exceptions: The numerals one and two have gender forms. They agree with the noun in case, the numeral two - in case and gender, the numeral one - in gender, number and case. If the compound numeral ends in one, then the noun is put in the singular form (three hundred and fifty-one rubles).

Fractional numbers are formed by combining the cardinal number in the nominative case and the ordinal number in genitive case(three fifths, six eighths).

The collective numerals eight, nine, ten are practically not used in modern Russian, the numerals two, three, four, five, six, seven, both, both are used much more often. Collective nouns can only be used in certain cases:

• with masculine or common nouns that name males: two boys, both professors;
• with nouns that have only the plural form: three days, two sledges);
• with nouns guys, people, children, person (meaning "person"): six guys, two persons;
• with personal pronouns in the plural (there were three of us);
• with the names of baby animals: (three kittens);
• as substantiated numerals (five in white);
• with the names of paired items (three mittens (= three pairs of mittens)).

Ordinal numbers are formed from their corresponding cardinal numbers (three - third, five - fifth), exception: one - first. They change in gender, number, and case, and agree with nouns.

For details on the endings of numerals in declension, see the "Spelling" section.

27. PRONOUN- an independent part of speech, which includes words that indicate objects, signs, etc., but do not name them. In a sentence, pronouns can act as various members of a sentence.

Groups of pronouns according to correlation with other parts of speech:

• noun pronouns (I, who, nothing);
• pronouns-adjectives (none, own);
• pronouns-numerals (a few, not at all).

Ranks of pronouns:

• personal (indicate a person or object): I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they;
• reflexive (indicates the attitude towards the acting person): oneself;
• possessive (indicate belonging to one of three persons): mine, yours, mine;
• demonstrative (generally indicate objects, their quality or quantity): this, this, that;
• interrogative (transmit the question): who, which, whose;
• relative (in form they coincide with interrogative pronouns, but act as allied words): who, what;
• negative (indicate the absence of an object): no one, nothing;
• indefinite (indicate indefinite objects or their signs): someone, someone;
• definitive (indicate a generalized attribute of an object): any, any.

In a sentence, a pronoun can act as the same member of a sentence as the part of speech for which it is used:

• subject: I came home very tired.
• definition: I want to buy some book.
• Addendum: I want to ask her about it.
• circumstance: The boys went to her.

28. VERB- this is an independent part of speech that combines words denoting action and answering the question what to do? what to do? This value is expressed in categories of the species, voice, tense, person and mood. In a sentence, verbs act mainly as a predicate.

28.1. Conjugated and non-conjugated forms of the verb, infinitive.

Verbs, depending on the ability or inability to change in persons, numbers, moods and tenses, have non-conjugated forms (the infinitive is the indefinite form of the verb) participles and participles, all other forms belong to conjugated forms.

The infinitive is the original form of the verb, with which all other forms of the verb are lexically and word-formatively connected. Verbs in the infinitive name the process itself, without attributing it to any person or tense. The indefinite form of the verb is characterized by the suffixes -t, -ti (revenge, buy), some verbs in the infinitive end in -chi (lie down).

28.2. Verb type

View is a grammatical category that expresses differences in the course of an action. Imperfective verbs denote an action in development, without indicating its limit, and answer the question what to do? (receive, buy, wear); and perfective verbs designate an action as limited by a certain limit and answer the question what to do? (get, buy, demolish).

28.3. Transitivity of the verb

Transitivity - intransitivity is a category on the basis of which verbs are distinguished with the meaning of an action directed at an object (it is the object of this action) - transitive verbs read a magazine, paint a wall), and verbs with the meaning of an action that does not imply an object to which this action is naturally directed - intransitive verbs (to be sick, to sit). In practice, this difference) manifests itself in management: transitive verbs are combined with nouns or pronouns in the accusative case without a preposition (treat a boy, read a book), and intransitive verbs are combined with objects expressed by nouns or pronouns in indirect cases with prepositions (walk down the street, play in the yard). special group intransitive verbs make up reflexive verbs, the formal sign of which is the suffix -sya (to return, to wash).

28.4. Voice of the verb

Voice is a category that expresses different relationships between the subject and the object of an action. Active voice verbs are verbs in which the subject calls actor(subject of action): mother washed the frame; Verbs passive voice are verbs that appear in passive design(when the subject calls the object of the action, and the object in the instrumental case is the subject of the action (the window was washed by mom)).

28.5. verb mood

1. indicative - expresses an action that really exists, existed or will exist (bought, read); verbs in the indicative mood have forms of tense (present, past and future), person (1,2 and 3) and number (singular or plural);
2. conditional (or subjunctive) - expresses an action that does not really exist, but is only possible or desirable (would buy, would read); it is formed with the help of a verb in the past tense of the indicative mood and a particle by;
3. imperative - expresses an action that is not real, it expresses a request, an order, etc. (buy, read); it is formed from the basis of the present or simple future tense using the suffix -i- (buy, count) or the zero suffix read, smear), the plural is formed by adding the imperative suffix -te (buy, read) to the singular form imperative mood can be formed by adding particles to verbs in the explanatory mood of the present tense let, let.

Time is a category that expresses the relationship of action to the moment of speech. There are three tenses in Russian: present, past and future. The category of time is connected with the category of aspect: imperfective verbs have 3 forms (buy - present tense, bought - losh. vr., I will buy (future add, tense), and perfective verbs - 2 forms (bought - past time and I will buy - future time is simple, time).

For conjugation of verbs, see the Spelling section. In a sentence, verbs can act as:

• simple predicate: I bought a book;
• complex verbal predicate: I decided to go to the library;
• an inconsistent definition: I did not like the plan to go there right away.

29. PARTICIPATION- this is a special non-conjugated form of the verb that denotes an action, but presents it as a sign of an object. The participle combines the features of a verb and an adjective:

Verb features:

1. transitivity - intransitivity,
2. return, irrevocable
3. pledge,
4. time (present and past);

Adjective features:

1. number,
2. case,
3. in the sentence acts as a definition,
4. the presence of passive participles in both full and short forms.

Participle formation:

note:

1. from perfective verbs that do not have the present tense form, present participles are not formed;
2. passive participles are formed only from transitive verbs.

For more information on the spelling of participles, see the "Spelling" section.

In a sentence, full participles act as a definition (The girl who entered was very pretty.), And short participles act as a nominal part of a complex predicate (The floor is washed.)

30. GENERAL PARTICIPLE- this is a special invariable form of the verb, which denotes a sign, but acts as a sign of another action. The participle combines the features of a verb and an adverb:

Verb features:

1. lexical meaning,
2. syntax control,
3. recurrence - non-returnability;

Adverb signs:

1. immutability,
2. a type subordination- junction.

Formation of adverbs:

For more information on the spelling of adverbs, see the "Spelling" section.

31. ADVERB- this is an independent part of speech, which includes words denoting signs of actions or signs of signs and answering questions like how? where? when? where? why? for what? in what degree? (read carefully, see you tomorrow, very cheerful). In a sentence, adverbs act as circumstances, adjoining verbs, adjectives, adverbs and nouns.

According to the word-formation structure, adverbs are:

• derivative (or motivated), they are formed mainly from adjectives (fabulous, beautiful); there are much smaller groups that include adverbs formed from nouns, numerals, pronouns, verbs and other adverbs;
• non-derivative (then, here, where, etc.).

By meaning, adverbs are divided into:

• definitive (characterize a feature or object in terms of quality or quantity): by heart, good, bad; this group includes qualitative adverbs (beautifully, softly), quantitative adverbs (very, twice), adverbs of image and mode of action (in my opinion, in English, tipsy, secretly).

Adverbs formed from qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison:

note: simple superlative adverbs in modern Russian is used extremely rarely.

• circumstantial (express temporal, spatial, causal, target circumstances): tomorrow, to the right, out of spite.

Adverbs can directly name some sign directly, and then such adverbs are called significant (quietly, loudly, in the evening); if the adverb only points to the sign, but does not name it, then such an adverb is called pronominal (where, where, someone). Significant adverbs predominate in Russian.

32. STATE CATEGORY WORDS is a category of words that denote physical or mental condition, often with modal coloring (express the attitude of the speaker). In a sentence, they act as a predicate. impersonal offer. (It was cold in Moscow).

The place of participles, gerunds and words of the category of state in the system of parts of speech.

There is no consensus on the place of participles, gerunds and words of the state category in the system of the Russian language. Some linguists distinguish them as separate parts of speech, which have their own grammatical categories and syntactic functions. But, at the same time, the proximity of participles and gerunds to verbs allows us to speak of them as special forms of verbs and not to separate them into separate parts of speech. For the same reason, words in the category of state are often spoken of as predicative adverbs, a special kind of adverbs.

SERVICE PARTS OF SPEECH

Service parts of speech are categories of words that serve to express the relationship between concepts that express significant words, and are used only in conjunction with them. They are not members of the proposal.

Functional parts of speech include:

prepositions, conjunctions, particles.

33. PROPOSITION- these are service words, which, in combination with indirect cases of nominal parts of speech, express various relationships between the forms of the name and other words.

According to their origin, prepositions are divided into:

Primitives (unmotivated from the point of view of the modern Russian language): in, on, before, etc.;

Derivatives (one can trace word-building connections with significant words from which these prepositions are formed). Derivative prepositions, in turn, are divided into:

1. adverbial (along, around),
2. denominative (like, like),
3. verbal (excluding, thanks).

By structure, derivative prepositions are divided into:

1. simple (except for)
2. composite (during, for a reason).

Almost all prepositions are used with one specific case, but they can express different relationships:

• spatial (live in the village),
• temporary (wait in the morning),
• objective (tell about what happened),
• causal (to die from a wound),
• target (to give for repair), etc.

34. UNIONS- these are service words that express grammatical relations between the members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence or individual sentences in the text.

34.2.1. Union ranks

By origin, unions are divided into:

• non-derivatives (unmotivated in modern Russian): and, or, yes;
• derivatives (one can trace the spoo-formative connections with the significant words from which these unions are formed): so that, as if.

By structure, derivative unions are divided into:

1. simple (as, as if)
2. composite (because, in order to).

By use, unions are distinguished:

• single (or non-repeating): but, however;
• repeating: and...and, neither...nor;
• double (or paired): if ... then, how ... so.

34.2.2. Coordinating unions and subordinating unions According to their syntactic function, unions are divided into:

Coordinating (connect syntactically equal units: homogeneous members of a sentence, simple sentences in compound sentences).

By value coordinating conjunctions are divided into:

1. connecting (express enumeration relations): and, yes (in the meaning of and), and ... and, too, also;
2. adversative (express relations of opposition): but, but, however, the same;
3. separating (express relations of mutual exclusion): or, or ... or, then ... then;
4. explanatory (express relations of explanation): exactly, like that;
5. joining (express the relationship of joining) yes and, as well.

Subordinate (connect syntactically unequal units: the main and subordinate parts of a complex sentence, members of a simple sentence).

By value, subordinating conjunctions are divided into:

1. temporary: when, as soon as, not yet;
2. explanatory: how, what, to;
3. causal: because, because;
4. consequences: so;
5. concessive: let, although, despite the fact that;
6. comparative: as if, as if;
7. target: to, in order to;
8. conditional: if, times.

35. PARTICLES- these are service words that give sentences additional semantic or emotional shades.

The particles are divided into:

1. demonstrative: here, there, this;
2. qualifying: exactly, exactly,
3. restrictive: only, only;
4. amplifying: even, after all,
5. negative: not, neither; c) modal: yes, no;
6. interrogative: really, whether;
7. formative: would, let it, -ka, etc.

36. Interjections, onomatopoeic words

INTERDOMETRY is special part speech, which combines immutable words expressing our feelings, wills, etc., without naming them. This is neither an independent nor a service part of speech, interjections do not have lexical or grammatical meanings, they are not members of a sentence. Ranks of interjections:

Emotional (express feelings of joy, sadness, anger, etc.): Oh! Oh! Aral;
- imperative (express orders, greetings, prohibitions, etc.): Hey! Stop!

By origin, interjections are divided into:

Primitives: Ah! Hooray! Ogol;
- derivatives: Trouble! Lid! Kaput!

A special group is made up of onomatopoeic words, which are imitations of sounds; they are distinguished from interjections by the fact that they do not express any feelings: qua-qua, woof-woof.

Morphology as part of grammar. Its connection with other sections of the course "SPR". Basic concepts.

Grammatical (morphological) meaning.

Formal ways of expressing GP in language.

Grammatical (morphological) categories.

morphological paradigm.

1.Under grammar in linguistics, they traditionally understand the system of deep, essential relations in the language, characterized by a high degree of abstraction, because they operate only within the language, without affecting its connection with reality, and form the basis of its internal structure. That is, grammar opposes the phonetic and lexical-phraseological levels of the language as internal, proper systemic - that which connects the system with factors external to it. The word "grammar" has other interpretations:

branch of linguistics that studies internal order language;

function of individual grammatical categories (e.g.,

"Grammar of the verb aspect", "Grammar of the attributive forms of the verb", etc.);

description, set of patterns of the formal structure of the language ("Russian Grammar" by M.V. Lomonosov "Russian Grammar" by A.Kh. Vostokov, "Historical Grammar of the Russian Language" by F.I. Buslaev).

According to L.V. Shcherba, “grammar essentially boils down to a description of the categories existing in the language”, and according to V.V. Vinogradov, "is a system of linguistic norms and categories that determine the methods and types of structure of words, phrases, syntagmas and sentences." Therefore, the grammar includes 2 sections: morphology and syntax. Morphology is “the grammatical doctrine of the word” (this definition is included in the title of V.V. Vinogradov’s book “The Russian Language” (1947), which is still the most complete textbook on morphology).

Morphology, thus, studies all intralinguistic, systemic properties of words and ways of expressing them. If for phonetics the external in the word is important - its sound design both from the position of the speaker and from the position of the listener; if for lexicology the word is important as a linguistic equivalent of reality, then for morphology the word is the carrier of intralinguistic patterns; a representative of a certain class, a model of form change in the language. That is, for phonetics and lexicology, the word is interesting for its individuality(sounds or meanings), and for morphology - commonality with other words that function in the language similarly to it. Morphology reveals the system in the word. For example, in the word “mystery” she is not interested in the quality of the sounds [r] (≠ [γ]), [^] [b] or the features of semantics, she is interested in the fact that this word belongs to the category of “objectivity” in the broadest sense and there are many such words in the language that it is feminine, inanimate, capable of changing in numbers and cases; that is, this word is morphologically identical to the words "country", "spring", "mountain" and many others.

The general, systemic is expressed in the word formally, i.e. externally (in the above example - with the help of the ending -a-), therefore morphology is the science of word forms, hence its name: from the Greek. morphe - "form" and logos - "teaching".

Although morphology treats the word specifically, it is certainly related to other linguistic levels. First of all, the fact that phonetics, lexicology and morphology have one object - the word, studied comprehensively (but not in isolation of sound, meaning and grammatical properties). Morphology is connected with syntax by a single grammatical approach (but to different units language). But besides this purely hierarchical connection, morphology is "intertwined" with other linguistic levels in a systematic way: in language, one cannot separate form from content, component from unity, external from internal. Morphology constantly uses data from the field of phonetics, vocabulary and syntax for its own purposes, and they often rely on the morphological properties of words. For instance:

for the formation of aspect pairs of verbs, the phonetic alternation [а//о] is used, in the root:

• zamor O zit - freeze a you live

  sk O sit - sk a sewing,

  rebuild O it - rebuild a ive.

(There is even a transitional area in the language - morphonology);

to determine the type of word formation, it is necessary to represent the structure of polysemy or distinguish homonyms: “oil” in the meaning of “food product” does not have plural forms, but in the meaning of “fatty substance” it has (lubricating oils); "hops" (plants) in p.p., sg. has the form “in hops”, “hops” (human condition) in P.p., singular. used as "in the hop";

to differentiate verbs into personal and impersonal, it is necessary to consider them in a sentence or a predicative combination (with a possible subject). For instance:

Outside the window with every minute getting dark(impersonal verb).

Over time color photography getting dark(verb 3l., singular).

Basic concepts morphologies as sciences are strung on the concept of the word or follow from it. First of all, these are the word form, word form, lexeme, morphological (grammatical) meaning, morphological (grammatical) category and morphological paradigm.

word form usually called (according to Vinogradov) that expression of it, which, when expressing the same concept (lexical content), expresses "other relations of the same object of thought to other objects of the same sentence." According to A.A. Shakhmatov, "forms are those modifications of a word that it receives depending on its formal (not real) connection with other words." That is, the form of a word is its grammatical content (as opposed to lexical content).

The term " word form" is used in relation to the specific use of the word. A word form is one of the possible forms of a word.

The concept of " lexeme» introduced by V.V. Vinogradov and is defined as "a word taken in the totality of its forms and meanings".

A lexeme is the unity of all forms of a word that have one lexical meaning, but differing in grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. There is another interpretation (L.A. Novikov, V.G. Gak) lexeme (forms) ↔ senema (meanings).

The last terms (GZ and grammatical ways) need an extended interpretation.

2.Grammatical (morphological) meaning- a generalized, abstract from reality, purely linguistic meaning, inherent in a number of the same type of word forms and having a regular, standard morphological expression.

The grammatical meaning is opposed to the lexical one, because, unlike it, it is always abstract and always has a standard external form of expression (eg, inflection, preposition, order of components, etc.).

However, PG is inextricably linked with lexical meaning. For example, depending on the LZ, the word “Lvov” (surname or name of the city) will be expressed differently by GZ Tv.p., singular: Lvov s m or Lviv O m; depending on the LZ of the word “wolf”, its category will be determined:

belonging to the wolf, related to the wolf - possessive or relative (wolf holes, wolf pit);

peculiar to the wolf; such as that of a wolf - high-quality (wolf nature).

(The category of adjectives is a lexico-grammatical category; its very name shows a close connection between LZ and GZ).

Grammatical meanings can be indirectly (through the stage of concepts) connected with reality, such CGs are called referential.

For example, part-of-speech meanings (objectivity, processuality, indicativeness), meanings of number, gender, time.

Another group of grammatical meanings is not even indirectly connected with reality, but is determined only by the connection of word forms in the language (syntactic structures), such GPs are called relational.

For example, case values ​​(not any, for example, Tv. instrumental - referential value), transitivity / intransitivity of verbs, ranks of conjunctions.

In some cases, the CG can express the attitude of the speaker to the reported; those. be expressive.

V.V. Vinogradov noted: “... bright means of expressive expression are laid in the grammatical categories themselves. Suffice it to recall those subtle expressive colors and nuances that are created by the use of verbal categories of tense, mood, person, or such general grammatical categories as gender and number. [“Russian language”, 1972, p. 22].

Recall Lomonosov: "The Russian land can give birth to its own Platos and quick minds of Newtons." Here, a positive author's assessment is conveyed through plural forms, i.e. GZ numbers expressively.

Morphological GPs of words have a hierarchical structure:

The most generalized GP of a word is called

These are objectivity, attribution, procedurality, quantitativeness, etc.

Below are

For example, for verbs, these are aspect, mood, tense, pledge, number.

The set of particular categorical morphological meanings for words of one part of speech is not constant. Exists regular and irregular morphological private categorical meanings (components) → syntagmatic components. Regular - those that occur in all words of a given part of speech, and irregular - those that may be absent from individual lexemes.

For example, verbs have regular components: aspect, conjugation, transitivity/intransitivity, reflexivity/irrevocability, pledge, mood, number; irregular: tense (it is not present for verbs in the imperative and conditional moods), person (it is not present for verbs in the past tense), gender (it is not present for verbs in the present tense and in the plural of the past tense).

one component in relation to other components is called correlate.

3. Any morphological form of a word is the unity of the morphological grammatical meaning and the formal means (method) of its expression.

There are several ways to express grammatical meanings, they are common to all languages ​​(languages ​​differ only in their specific set). For the Russian language, the main grammatical means is flexion. Our language is inflectional, so most of the grammatical meanings in it are realized through endings. Unlike agglutinative and isolating languages. Formative suffixes, postfixes and prefixes adjoin inflections. For instance:

the past tense suffix of the verb -l-;

participial suffixes;

passive voice postfix -sya- (-s-);

prefixes that form forms of the perfect form of verbs (for example, did - With did).

Taken together, all of the above can be called 1) affixal. Grammar affixes can be zero: table ø , extinguished ø .

In addition to affixations, the Russian language is also characterized by other ways of expressing morphological meanings:

2)connections words or word forms; morphological forms obtained in this way are called analytical; [according to Vinogradov, p.35]

For example, analytical forms of the future tense (I will speak), degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs (less beautiful, beautiful; the largest).

Private connection types:

3)repeats(at interjections, modal words); less often - adjectives and adverbs (superlative degree): kind - kind, barely - barely, etc .;

4)official words:

first of all prepositions(also, the forms are not analytical; they are called a single syntactic construction - prepositional case);

particles(forms of imperative incl. 3l., singular and plural: hello, let them be; conditional infl. - particle “would”). Unions do not participate in the formation of morphological forms;

5)morphonological means:

alternation(e.g. species pairs: from beige at - from run at g//f; co bir at - with brат и//ø);

base truncation(for example, the number forms of the noun: city dweller - townspeople);

building up the foundations, or interfixation(for example, the formation of case forms of heterogeneous nouns: banner - sign (en) and - sign (en) eat, etc.);

6)stress(its movement, for example, participates in the formation of case and numerical forms of nouns):

do "m - do" ma (R.p., singular) - at home "(I.p., pl.); -number

topo "p - axes" (R.p., singular) - axes "(I.p., pl.); -case and number

7) suppletivism (the formation of morphological forms from different bases). For example, this is how case forms of personal pronouns are formed: I - me, he - him, etc. or comparative degrees of some adjectives and adverbs: good - better, bad - worse, etc.

The given means of expressing morphological meanings can act in various combinations with each other. For example, the formation of aspect pairs can be accompanied by suffixation and alternation of vowels in the root: be late - be late, [˄//а];

case meanings are realized with the help of inflections and prepositions: (D.p., singular, f.r., 1 cl.) e.

Some grammatical ways are irrelevant for morphology - word order, intonation; they act only in syntax, and then very limitedly (the exceptions are curious. For example, A.A. Reformatsky gives such an example of the morphological significance of word order: “deaf scientists” and “deaf scientists” - the first word is an adjective, the second is a noun, Wed: you are welcome - FE; you are welcome - a free combination).

4. The most important concept of morphology is grammatical morphological category. This is a system of word forms opposed to each other with homogeneous morphological meanings. The morphological category is characterized by the unity of morphological meaning and formal ways of expressing it. On this basis, morphological categories include gender, number, case, mood, time, etc.

Morphological categories are divided into general (gender, number) and part-of-speech (for nouns - animation / inanimateness; for all names - case; for verb forms - aspect; for verbs - transitivity / intransitivity, inclination). The opposed members of morphological categories are correlates. (they were discussed above in connection with the GC).

From grammatical morphological categories, lexico-grammatical groups of words and their purely formal groupings should be distinguished.

Lexico-grammatical groups (categories) of words do not have standard formal ways of expression, they are combined within parts of speech according to the unity of one lexical-semantic feature and a set of particular categorical morphological meanings. For example, ranks of adjectives (qualities, relative, possessive); proper and common nouns; lexical - grammatical groups of nouns (concrete, material, collective, abstract).

At formal groupings lexemes, on the contrary, have no special morphological meanings (other than part-of-speech) in the presence of special formal indicators.

For example, declensions of nouns (1,2 and 3rd); verb conjugations (I and II). Morphological categories are traditionally divided into inflectional (non-permanent) and non-inflectional (classification, permanent).

Inflectional categories characteristic of morphological forms of the same word; these categories distinguish the word forms of one lexeme. For example: gender, number, case of adjectives; mood, tense, number of verbs.

Classification categories cannot be represented by forms of the same word; these are categories that oppose various lexemes. For example: gender, animation / inanimateness of nouns; appearance, time, pledge of participles.

Classification categories that are inherent in all word forms of one lexeme are constant, unchanged for this lexeme, which allows you to combine different lexemes in common given categories into certain grammatical classes (hence the name of the categories - classification). For example: masculine nouns; active participles. (But there are no groups of singular nouns, masculine participles - that is, according to inflectional categories).

Not all morphological categories unambiguously belong to one of the two groups. For example, the part-time nature of a word stands, as it were, above the categories: they stand out within the parts of speech. We can say that the part of speech is the most general grammatical category, and all the rest are private in relation to it. There is no unequivocal decision about separate, morphological verbal categories (type, voice) - they are referred either to classification or to inflectional categories. The number of correlates in the composition of morphological categories can change historically (remember, the three-numeric system of the ancient Russian language); the number of categories within the parts of speech is also variable (in the ancient Russian language there was no category of the aspect of the verb).

Morphological categories of the same name - common to different parts of speech - for some parts of speech are classificatory, for others - inflectional. For example: gender is a classification category for nouns; for adjectives, verbs, participles - inflectional; case, number - inflectional category for all parts of speech.

Some parts of speech are devoid of grammatical categories: adverbs, auxiliary parts of speech, interjections, modal words.

Like grammatical meanings, grammatical morphological categories can be classified according to a logically mediated relationship with reality into relational and referential.

Referential express certain semantic abstractions associated with reality - for example, time, inclination, pledge.

relational indicate only the features of the combination of a word form with other word forms as part of a syntactic unity (that is, they are not connected with reality even indirectly - logically); relational categories are also called conciliatory, or syntactic. For example, the category of case. Most of the morphological categories, being referential, also perform a coordinating function, that is, they combine both characteristics. For example: number, person, gender.

5. Word-changing morphological categories form morphological paradigms of word forms.

Morphological paradigm is a system of forms of the same word. V.V. Vinogradov notes: “... in the circle of parts of speech, individual categories are closed systems of forms built according to strict grammar rules, most often rotating within the paradigm” [“Russian language”, p.35]. Paradigms are usually divided into general and particular.

General two paradigms - declination(or nominal paradigm) and conjugation(or verbal paradigm). These are paradigms that combine many forms of different inflectional categories. Declension is a system of number, case and gender paradigms (for parts of speech other than nouns). Conjugation is a system of paradigms for person and number.

Private paradigms characterize one inflectional category (degrees of comparison of adjectives, moods of verbs).

Morphological paradigms can form both synthetic and analytical forms of words.

Synthetic forms are formed by means of affixes, mainly inflections. These are single word forms.

Analytical forms are formed by combining words. These are, as a rule, two-word forms (degrees of comparison of adjectives; future tense of imperfective verbs; mood forms, etc.). Synthetic forms in the Russian language are the majority, but there are tendency towards analytics. Back in the 70s of the nineteenth century, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and his students at the Kazan Linguistic School noted the movement of the Russian language from a synthetic system to an analytic-synthetic one.

A paradigm can only be composed of synthetic forms (the paradigm of adjective declension), only analytical forms (the paradigm of the conditional mood of the verb), as well as synthetic and

analytic forms together (declension paradigm of adjective comparison). Paradigms can be complete and incomplete(defective, defective). It depends on the characteristics of a particular lexeme. For example, the verb "know" has a complete conjugation paradigm (it has all the members - the forms of all persons and numbers); and the verb “to win” has a flawed paradigm (it does not have a form of 1l., singular). In a flawed paradigm, more members may also be missing (for example, in the paradigm of degrees of comparison of the adjective “mild”, both synthetic forms are missing).

Individual words have paradigms zero, because they lack morphological forms (functional parts of speech, gerunds, unchangeable nouns like "sad", "coffee", "cinema").

Basic information about morphological forms, meanings and categories can be obtained in the following dictionaries:

1.A.A. Zaliznyak grammar dictionary Russian language. Inflection. - M, 1977 and other publications.

2. Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language: Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. - M, 1989

3. Explanatory dictionaries: ALS; MAC; Ozhegov, Shvedova; BTS (at the end of the dictionary entry).

4. Eskova N.A. Concise Dictionary difficulties of the Russian language. Grammatical forms. stress. -M, 1994

5. Efremova T.F., Kostomirov V.N. Dictionary of grammatical difficulties of the Russian language. -M, 1986

6. Sazonov I.K. Russian verb and its participial forms. -M, 1989

7.B.T.Panov, A.V.Tekuchev School grammar and spelling dictionary of the Russian language. -M, 1996

And also in system dictionaries and reference books of difficulties and correctness of the Russian language (for example, D.E. Rosenthal).

Morphology is a branch of linguistics that studies parts of speech and their grammatical features.

Morphology and syntax make up grammar.

Parts of speech in Russian

Parts of speech are groups of words united on the basis of the commonality of their features.

The features on the basis of which words are divided into parts of speech are not uniform for different groups of words.

So, all the words of the Russian language can be divided into interjections and non-interjective words. Interjections are unchangeable words denoting emotions (oh, alas, damn it), expressions of will (stop, that's it) or being formulas speech communication(thanks Hi). The peculiarity of interjections lies in the fact that they do not enter into any syntactic relations with other words in the sentence, they are always separated intonation and punctuation.

Non-interjectional words can be divided into independent and auxiliary. The difference between them lies in the fact that independent words can appear in speech without auxiliary ones, and auxiliary words cannot form a sentence without independent ones. Functional words are immutable and serve to convey formal semantic relations between independent words. The service parts of speech include prepositions (to, after, during), conjunctions (and, as if, despite the fact that), particles (exactly, only, not at all).

Independent words can be divided into significant and pronominal. Significant words name objects, signs, actions, relations, quantity, and pronominal words indicate objects, signs, actions, relations, quantity, without naming them and being substitutes for significant words in a sentence (cf .: table - he, convenient - such, easy - so, five - how many). Pronominal words form a separate part of speech - the pronoun.

Significant words are divided into parts of speech, taking into account the following features:

1) generalized value,

2) morphological features,

3) syntactic behavior (syntactic functions and syntactic links).

There are at least five significant parts of speech: a noun, an adjective, a numeral (a group of names), an adverb and a verb.

Thus, parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words, i.e., classes of words distinguished taking into account their generalized meaning, morphological features and syntactic behavior.

Moreover, each independent part of speech is determined on three grounds (generalized meaning, morphology, syntax), for example: a noun is a part of speech that denotes an object, has a gender and changes in numbers and cases, performs the syntactic function of a subject or object in a sentence.

However, the significance of the bases in determining the composition of a particular part of speech is different: if a noun, an adjective, a verb are determined for the most part by their morphological features (it is said that the noun denotes an object, but it is specifically stipulated that this is such a “generalized” object), that is two parts of speech, distinguished on the basis of meaning, are the pronoun and the numeral.

The pronoun as a part of speech combines morphologically and syntactically heterogeneous words that "do not name an object or attribute, but point to it." Grammatically, pronouns are heterogeneous and correlate with nouns (I, who), adjectives (this, which), numerals (how many, several).

The numeral as a part of speech combines words that are related to the number: they indicate the number of objects or their order when counting. At the same time, the grammatical (morphological and syntactic) properties of words of the type three and third are different.

Complex 1 (its latest editions) and complex 2 propose to allocate more parts of speech. So, participle and gerund in them are considered not as forms of the verb, but as independent parts of speech. In these complexes, the words of the state are highlighted (it is impossible, it is necessary); in complex 1 they are described as an independent part of speech - a category of state. In complex 3, the status of these words is not clearly defined. On the one hand, their description completes the section "Adverb". On the other hand, it is said about the words of state that they “are similar in form to adverbs”, from which, apparently, it should follow that they are not adverbs. In addition, in complex 2, the pronoun is expanded by including in it non-significant words that are grammatically correlated with adverbs (there, why, never, etc.).

The question of parts of speech in linguistics is debatable. Parts of speech are the result of a certain classification, depending on what is taken as the basis for the classification. So, in linguistics there are classifications of parts of speech, which are based on only one feature (generalized meaning, morphological features or syntactic role). There are classifications using several bases. School classification is of this kind. The number of parts of speech in different linguistic works is different and ranges from 4 to 15 parts of speech.

In the Russian language there are words that do not fall into any of the parts of speech allocated by the school grammar. These are sentence words yes and no, introductory words not used in other syntactic functions (so, total) and some other words.