Dynamics of development of internalized object relations
In the theory of object relations (O.F. Kernberg, M. Klein, M. Mahler, A. Freud, W. Fairbairn, E. Jacobson), it is argued that the main motive of life is the need of a person to establish relationships that satisfy him. From the position of this theory, the mental apparatus (Ego, Super-Ego, Id) is born at the earliest stages of the internalization of object relations. The phases of development of internalized object relations, namely: normal autism, symbiosis, separation-individuation, object constancy, reflect the earliest structures of the mental apparatus. Primary libidinal and aggressive instinctual drives gradually change in the process of development, consistently dominating in the oral, anal and phallic erogenous zones, and play an important role in the formation of mental structures and functions of the child.
Normal autistic phase (from the moment of birth to the tenth - twelfth week of life) is characterized by comparative "indifference" (lack of response) to external stimuli. The first object that satisfies the instinctive desire for self-preservation is partial object- the mother's breast, to which the libido of the oral zone is directed, since it satisfies the biological needs of the baby through feeding.
Normal symbiotic phase (from six weeks to the end of the first year of life), characterized by the establishment of a specific affective attachment of the child and mother. The child perceives the mother object and himself as a dual being. Symbiotic relationships are manifested, first of all, by a specific reaction of a smile, which indicates the beginning process of organization. Ego and the emergence of the infant's capacity for internal regulation. Due to the alternation of frustration and satisfaction, the infant begins to become aware of "something outside", beyond the symbiotic dual unity, and develop a stable image of the mother. The conscious or unconscious ways of the mother's behavior towards the infant form the basis for the formation of his image. I(self) - primary bodily and mental impressions of oneself, opposite to impressions of other persons and objects.
The child begins to perceive the mother as a separate being at the end of the first year of life. At first, her absence causes a feeling of discomfort, accompanied by fear, and the presence of strangers frightens the child. These phenomena mark important stages in the development of the ego. Objects begin to appear, memories separate from current perception, precursors of defense against painful stimulation develop. In its primitive functioning, the ego follows the model of bodily functions: the psyche introjects (that is, absorbs, as when feeding) everything that is pleasant and satisfies needs, and seeks to avoid or shield itself from the awareness of what is harmful and unpleasant.
At this stage, the differentiation of self-representation (selfrepresentation) and object-representation (objectrepresentation) arises in connection with needs: at first they are not stable and differentiation disappears as they are saturated and go to sleep. When the child wakes up hungry and cries, the former forms of self and object representation become distinct and separate again.
The onset of the phase separation-individuation occurs at the peak of symbiosis at the age of five to six months and ends at about the age of 24 months. Separation reflects the process of leaving the symbiotic unity with the mother and, along with the formation of ideas about the mother outside the Self, includes the establishment of object relations. Individuation implies the processes of distinguishing and limiting the child's own properties and characteristics and the creation of an intrapsychic image of the Self in the form of a series of successive representations.
At the peak of overcoming the crisis of separation-individuation, approximately in the second year of life, there is a development gender identity, which is the starting point for the formation of heterosexuality. The antecedents of gender identity are the body ego, early body image, and the dyadic sense of "I am not me". Of these, as a result of expansion, detailing and integration, the child's gender identity develops into a male or female self-representation. It usually includes basic internalization of sex differences, identification with one's own sex and complementary identification with the opposite sex, and awareness of the reciprocal reproductive functions of men and women.
M. Mahler distinguishes four subphases in the process of separation-individuation:
1. Differentiation (from the fifth or sixth to the tenth month of life), characterized by a growing awareness of the child's interest in the events of the outside world and "hatching" from a symbiotic unity.
2. Exercise (between the tenth and fifteenth months of life), characterized by the testing and evaluation of nascent motor and cognitive skills, the development of which leads to further physical and psychological separation. However, at this stage of development, the child still cannot do without the support of the mother, whose presence is necessary for emotional nourishment, especially in a state of breakdown or fatigue.
3. Recovery (between the sixteenth and twenty-fourth months of life) reflects the process and / or period of resolution of the intrapsychic crisis associated with conflicting desires to remain with the mother, on the one hand, and to be independent, aware of oneself as an independent individual, on the other. The intensity of ambivalence gradually decreases, and the child develops a more realistic perception of himself and increases autonomy. In this subphase, the difficulties that arise between mother and child are reflected in the conflicts of the anal and early oedipal phases of psychosexual development.
4. On the way to object constancy (between the twenty-fourth and thirtieth months of life) - the period when the child begins to be interested in the quality and function of the mother's mental representative. M. Mahler notes: “Speaking of the constancy of the object, we mean that the image of the mother becomes intrapsychically accessible to the child in the same way as the real mother is libidinally available - for support, comfort and love.” The intrapsychic representation of the mother receives a positive cathexis even when the child becomes angry with the mother or separates from her for a while.
Because neither memories nor psychic representations can fully replace the actual love of an object, the period "on the way to object constancy" is a limitless, lifelong process that can never be completed. Also, object constancy and mutually satisfactory object relations have a significant influence on the development of the ego, and vice versa.
A further phase in the development of object relations, phallic-oedipal, falls on the age of two to five and a half years. The Oedipus complex comes to the fore - an ordered set of love and hostile desires of the child, directed at the parents. During this period, the child strives for sexual union (differently represented depending on his cognitive abilities) with the parent of the opposite sex and wishes for the death or disappearance of the parent of the same sex. Along with these positive Oedipal strivings, there is the so-called negative oedipus complex, that is, the child also desires sexual union with the parent of the same sex and, in connection with this, shows rivalry with the parent of the opposite sex. In a typical case positive oedipus complex prevails over the negative in the formation of heterosexual orientation and identity of a well-adapted adult. However, on an unconscious level, the girl's attachment to her mother, as well as the boy's desire to surrender to the mercy of his father in the hope of passively gaining masculinity, endless love and protection, continue to have a profound effect on mental life and subsequent choice of object.
In the phallic-oedipal phase, an important milestone in the development of sexual orientation is the formation sexual identity. The growing pressure of drives directed at incestuous objects, the restructuring of dyadic object relations into triadic ones, the increased fear of castration and the corresponding structuring of the psyche make this period critical for the development of sexual orientation. Boys who develop a heterosexual identity identify with their father and repress incestuous desires for their mother without replacing erotic interest in women with identification. Heterosexual girls continue to identify with their mother, but transfer their phallic libidinal interest in the mother towards a more acceptable genital orientation, that is, to the father or those who replace him. Also, the development of sexual identity in the oedipal phase is characterized by the formation of concepts of masculinity and femininity (different from the basic sense of belonging to the male or female sex) and personal eroticism, which is expressed in sexual fantasies and object choice.
During this period, the Super-Ego is formed - a system of the psyche responsible for moral consciousness, self-observation and the formation of ideals. The superego is the internalization of parental attitudes and values in the form of a conscience designed to control the sexual and aggressive drives of the oedipal phase, which initiates the affect of guilt and punishment for wrongdoing. Although there are elements of the pre-oedipal and post-oedipal phases in the Super-Ego system, it is the oedipal period that makes the main contribution to it. In addition, as a result of idealization, an Ego-ideal is formed in the structure of the Super-Ego. The two main starting parts of the ego-ideal are the ideal concepts of the self and the idealized qualities of love objects. In general, the ego-ideal correlates with the values, aspirations and aspirations of the parents. Failure to meet these standards usually leads to feelings of shame.
At this stage of development, due to the resolution of the Oedipal conflict and the formation of a discrete, organized Super-Ego, a stable character organization individual - a set of patterns of thinking, feeling and action, consolidating in the form of compromise formations, reflecting the ways of resolving the intrapsychic struggle between the impulses of drives on the one hand, and the various forces of containment, change and satisfaction of these drives - on the other. Under the influence of the experiences of the phallic-oedipal phase, the early features of the development of the psyche are transformed, and therefore do not appear in adulthood.
Upon completion of the formation of the Oedipus complex, at the beginning of the sixth year of life, comes latent a period that continues until adolescence. At this phase, the pressure of sexual activity decreases, desexualization of object relations and feelings occurs (the predominance of tenderness over sexual desires is noted), feelings such as shame and disgust appear, moral and aesthetic aspirations arise. The child directs all attention to the outside world, developing mental, cognitive and social skills of contact with a variety of perceived objects.
With achievement adolescence the individual has the possibility of sexual satisfaction through an external object. Now he is forced to confront his own fantasies and desires, some of which are derivatives of partial drives that were not previously accepted on a conscious level. After the sexual elements are organized in the primacy of the genitals, the remnants of infantile sexuality find normal expression in the form of preliminary erotic play (looking, touching, kissing, etc.). The maturation of the sexual organization is combined, as a rule, with the taming of the aggressive drive, the increase in control over instinctive manifestations, and the merging of loving tenderness and sexual desire in a single object relationship. Some individuals, however, do not achieve adult genital organization due to constitutional differences, developmental problems, or intrapsychic conflict. Their sexual activity resembles that of infantile sexuality in terms of the conditions or mode of discharge necessary to achieve satisfaction, or in terms of the nature of the object relationship (eg attachment to partial objects).
In adolescence, the formation of such specific ego functions as the ability to develop emotional, friendly relations with other people, even in the presence of hostile feelings, is completed. This ability is closely connected with the formation of positive mental images of these objects. Another ability is to maintain stable positive object relations and their corresponding mental representations for a long time, despite occasional episodes of hostile interaction. In general, the psychological changes that occur during this phase of the development of internalized object relations help the individual gain a unique sense of their own identity.
The improvement of the specific functions of the ego continues in adulthood when the individual's ability to love, work and adapt to the outside world reaches its maximum. Mature object relations and mature love involve the understanding that the object and the person themselves are independent, and that his or her needs may sometimes come into conflict with the needs of the individual himself. They also involve acceptance, understanding and the ability to tolerate ambivalence in relation to the object, the ability to accept both some dependence and independence, the ability to perceive and correlate one's changing needs and requirements with similar requirements of the object.
Thus, an important role in the development of mental structures and functions of an individual is played by the internalization (introjection and identification) of an object or its properties. It is on the basis of the processes of introjection and identification that the Ego, Super-Ego and Ego-ideal develop, the model for the formation of which is the child's parents. The main conditions for the ability to establish stable object relations of an adult individual is the integration of love and hatred (libidinal and aggressive drives) in self- and object-representations, that is, the transformation of partial object relations into integral ones (obtaining object constancy).
Although there were disagreements between representatives of classical psychoanalysis almost from the very beginning, which often led to the fact that the followers of Freud offered new (and I must say very productive) ideas and approaches, object relations theory became the first truly alternative school of psychoanalysis.
Its creator, Melanie Klein (née Reitses), was born in Vienna in 1882, studied art history at the University of Vienna and, due to her own psychological difficulties, was personally analyzed by such luminaries of psychoanalysis as Carl Abraham and Sandor Ferenczi. Interested in psychoanalytic teaching, Melanie Klein got acquainted with the work of Z. Freud in 1919 - "Beyond the pleasure principle", which largely predetermined the essence of her theory.
Melanie Klein dedicated herself to deep problem solving early development child, about which before her classical psychoanalysis made general inferences. Through the identification of psychological patterns that are formed in the very early childhood, M. Klein was able to approach the solution of problems that her predecessors considered insoluble, namely, the treatment of children and persons with psychotic disorders.
Although Z. Freud himself conducted an analysis of the five-year-old boy Hans, as well as an analysis of his own daughter Anna (at that time, the ethical principles of modern psychoanalysis were not yet developed, which did not allow work with loved ones), it was still believed that children, like psychotic individuals are unable to develop transference, which is the main tool of psychoanalysis. It is also obvious that it is impossible to work with young children in the technique of free association, since speech activity they have not yet developed.
Watching young children, M. Klein suggested that with from birth, they perceive the world around them and themselves through fantasies, the form and content of which are determined by the peculiarities of children's perception. So, it is believed that children are not from birth capable of perceiving the objects around them and themselves as a whole; moreover, they are incapable of separating the inside from the outside. For example, a mother is perceived not as a single object, but as a set of "motherly objects" - a face, eyes, hands, breasts, etc. Moreover, each such partial object can be divided into "good" and "bad". If the object gives pleasure, then the baby perceives it as "good".
If the object becomes a source of displeasure, frustration, then for the baby it is “bad”, hostile, dangerous. For example, if a child is tormented by hunger, and his mother does not feed him, then he, not yet able to distinguish the external from the internal, perceives this situation in such a way that he is attacked by a “bad” breast. If the baby is fed in excess, then for him this is also a “bad”, aggressive, pursuing breast.
When an infant experiences interaction with a “good” object, he develops a sense of security, security, trust, openness to the world around him.
If the “bad” experience of the infant prevails over the “good”, then aggression intensifies in him, which, according to M. Klein, comes from an innate drive to death, which comes into conflict with the drive to self-preservation.
The infant experiences a constant fear of persecution, a feeling mortal danger and reacts to the "bad" pursuing objects with its own aggression.
In his fantasy, the infant tries to keep the "good" and "bad" objects separate, otherwise the "bad" ones can spoil the "good" ones by mixing with them.
M. Klein herself called this first stage of a child’s development, which lasts the first 3-4 weeks from birth, a “schizoid-paranoid position”, emphasizing that this is not just a transient period of life, but a certain predisposition that becomes personal quality person for the rest of his life.
At the next position, which M. Klein called "depressive-manic", the child gradually begins to perceive his mother as an integral object, which no longer breaks up into "good" and "bad". Thus, if the child's previous experience was predominantly bad, and he tried to destroy the "bad" mother with his aggression, now it turns out that he simultaneously tried to destroy the nursing, caring "good" mother. Each time, following an outburst of aggression, the child has a fear that he could destroy his “good” mother too. He begins to feel guilt (depression) and tries to make amends for it, i.e. to do something that could restore the "destroyed" by him "good" mother.
Otherwise, the child can use the fantasy of his omnipotence, the ability to completely control, destroy and restore the object (mania). To the “good” aspects of the mother, her ability to give milk, love and care, the child may feel envy, devalue them. If the child experiences this stage of his development relatively calmly, then he develops the ability to experience reciprocity, gratitude, the ability to accept and provide assistance.
M. Klein also developed A New Look on the formation of a super-ego in the child, which proceeds in different ways in boys and girls, since the boy in his attraction to his mother always competes only with his father, while the girl is forced to compete with her primary object of love - her mother - for the sake of her new love - her father . M. Klein also introduced a new concept into psychoanalytic use - a specific defense mechanism, which she called "projective identification", the essence of which is still being discussed, however, in general, it means a situation when a person attributes his "bad" qualities to another and himself for this he begins to treat him with hostility.
The technique of psychoanalytic work with children according to M. Klein is based on the interpretation of the game, which reflects the relationship of the child with objects that are significant to him. By speaking with the child about the plot of the game, the analyst streamlines the child's inclinations, makes them more manageable for the child, thereby reducing his anxiety and aggression.
Adult psychoanalysis according to M. Klein is distinguished by an active interpretation of the client's fantasies and drives, unfolding in the transference, as a rule, bypassing the interpretation of defense mechanisms.
What are the levels of relationships? According to the Vedas, there are eight different levels of relationships where people can be compatible with each other.
In this article you will find eight levels of relationship between a man and a woman, described in the Vedas¹. You will also learn how to make them long and strong.
LEVELS OF RELATIONSHIPS
1st level of relationship - "bodily"
This level is also called "disco" love. This is the lowest level, for which Mars is responsible, relations here are built on the lower centers (bodily).
Harmony in such relationships will be present for about 6 months, but after a maximum of 2-3 years, such relationships will become obsolete.
As a rule, partners find each other at entertainment events, such as discos. Happiness for them exists only on a physical level. A marriage in which only this compatibility is present is doomed to break.
Relationship level 2 - Venus level
People who are compatible at this level tend to find common happiness in common hobbies, travel, camping, guitar songs, sports, etc.
Level 3 relationship - the level of the Sun
Compatibility at this level gives people a sense of harmony, peace and comfort. The female manifestation of happiness is expressed in the joy of being close to a beloved man, as a rule, respected in society and with prosperity, and the male manifestation of happiness is in a state of peace and tranquility to be near such a woman.
Relationship level 4 - Moon level
Happiness for people at this level is in conversation. They find each other in their good qualities character.
Such people can be united by joint work for the benefit of people. Relationships begin with friendship, a woman in such a relationship wants to be protected and protected. it best view harmony, since the Moon is a symbol of the strength of relationships².
Level 5 relationship - Mercury level
Happiness for people who are compatible at this level of relationship lies in a subtle perception of the world. They often know the feeling of trembling happiness.
Relationship Level 6 - Saturn Level
The relationship between a man and a woman at this level contributes to a joint deep understanding of the world.
Relationship level 7 - Jupiter level
People who seek to find their chosen one at this level are constantly engaged in self-improvement. The girl is looking for a husband as a mentor with whom she can do spiritual practice together. When they find each other, they do not immediately understand the need to be together all their lives.
8th level - the highest level, the level of the divine
People at this level of harmony leave marriage for the spiritual world.
The higher the level at which people begin to build relationships with each other, the easier it will be for them to subsequently develop all the levels below; the stronger and more harmonious such a union will be.
For long relationship Compatibility at least three of the eight levels listed is desirable.
Notes and feature articles for a deeper understanding of the material
¹ Vedas - a collection of the most ancient scriptures Hinduism in Sanskrit (
The term "object" is used in connection with the concept of attraction. An object (an object, a person as a whole, a partial person, a fantasy) serves to satisfy a need, relieve the tension caused by it. In Freud, this term first appears in "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality" and is used to interpret sexual drives.
The concept of "object relation" is also found in Freud, but, while developing the psychology of an individual organism, he still does not pay much attention to human relations, understanding them only from the standpoint of the subject himself. Object relation means interdependence, i.e. the influence of the subject on objects and the reverse influence - objects on the personality. The problem of the object and object relations is the subject of study by many psychoanalysts. We will consider the views of M. Klein, H. Kohut and M. Balint.
English school of object relations. M. Klein
Melanie Klein (1882-1960) attaches great importance to the preoedipal stages of the development of the individual, in which both object relations and elementary defense mechanisms are clearly traced. These conclusions of Klein contradict both classical and more modern views psychoanalysts on the development of the child.
She discovers that she is already early stages In the development of the child, such manifestations of the I and the Super-I are observed, which Freud attributed to later stages of development, for example, to the phallic. In her 1932 book "Psychoanalysis of Children" and in her later works "Sadness and its relation to manic-depressive states" in 1940, "Notes on some schizoid mechanisms" in 1946, she showed that from birth, the child reveals two opposite instincts - the drive to life and the drive to death. The death drive is perceived by the infant as a persecution, therefore, in order to cope with this fear, he defends himself with the help of primitive defense mechanisms. Does this mean that the baby has an elementary sense of self from birth? M. Klein answers this question in the affirmative. She says that to cope with their own fears, the child uses two mechanisms - projection and introjection. The first allows you to take everything unpleasant outward, and the second - to absorb everything pleasant into yourself. The projection of negative experience, as well as the introjection of positive experience, occurs with the help of objects, which for the child is the mother's breast. To carry out these operations, the child splits a partial object - the mother's breast into "good" - nourishing, receiving and "bad" - attacking, absorbing. The projection of the death drive occurs due to the projection of one's aggressive impulses onto the "bad" object. The internalization of a "good" object contributes to the formation and development of the self. "Thanks to the introjection of a good breast, the child not only feels comfortable and happy, but also begins to accumulate positive objects in the self, due to which he is strengthened and becomes more and more capable of coping with the demands that are placed on him both from the inside and from the outside. Thanks to the projection of negative qualities on the chest, the child feels more free, and this helps him maintain his inner sense of security "(Risenberg R. Creativity Melanie Klein // Encyclopedia of Depth Psychology. Vol. 3. M .: Cogito - Center, 2002 P. 94). All these processes are observed in the first months of a child's life, which belong to the paranoiac-schizoid stage of development. Klein emphasizes that the designation of stages using terms borrowed from psychiatry indicates only the nature of relationships, fears and defense mechanisms during this period and has nothing to do with pathology.
In the future (at the depressive stage), the child, under the influence of positive impressions, learns that good and bad breasts refer to the same object. From that moment on, he begins to integrate the whole object both as good and as bad. Working through the feeling of fear at a previous stage of development (before 4 months of age) allows the child to cope with his anxiety without resorting to splitting. The perception of a partial object is replaced by the perception of an integral object - the mother. Then the child begins to take into account other people, especially his father, and this lays the foundation of the Oedipus complex.
At first, parents are perceived as a single whole, somehow combined in the child's ideas. In the process of differentiation of the figures of mother and father, feelings of jealousy, envy and autonomy begin to arise in the child. The predominance of positive experiences in the child's experience leads to the fact that he works out his fears that arose at the oedipal stage, resorting not to defenses, but to a realistic assessment of reality and satisfaction.
In addition to Melanie Klein's research, English school object relations include the work of S. Isaacs, J. Riviere and P. Heimann.
The problem of the basic defect in the works of M. Balint
Mikael Balint was interested in how it is possible to work with people who have more significant problems than the difficulties of the oedipal stage of development. To resolve this issue, he proposes to distinguish several mental levels: the sphere of the Oedipal conflict, the sphere of the basic defect and the sphere of creation.
The peculiarities of the oedipal level are the presence of a tripartite relationship between the Self and two other objects, as well as the possibility of a conflict between them. Psychotherapeutic work with such clients is built on a common basis using "conventional, common language, or the language of adults."
The second level is called the basic defect level. Balint specifically emphasizes that this is not about a conflict, position or complex, but about a defect. The features of this level are the presence of dyadic relations, as well as the detection of a defect that resembles "a flaw, a certain violation in the mental apparatus, a deficit that must be filled" (M. Balint, 2002. p. 36). The language of adults (interpretation) turns out to be unacceptable for communication with clients who have a basic defect. Special Moves, used by the analyst (in particular, non-verbal communication) allow creating conditions for the client under which he can use the analyst as a primary object, trust him, know himself through another person, through the "healing power of object relations."
Analysis of the self in the works of H. Kohut
The normal mental development of the child is based on favorable relations with the immediate environment. The introjection of the images of the parents allows the child to feel his perfection, greatness, consistency.
Traumatic shortcomings of self-objects, lack of empathy can lead to serious personality disorders, such are people with a narcissistic type of character. These are clients who have not been easily described in terms of drive theory or ego psychology (due to the inflexibility psychological defenses), or the theory of object relations (the activation of internal objects from which the patient has inadequately separated).
Instead of being overwhelmed with primitive introjections, they complained of emptiness - rather of the absence of internal objects than of being engulfed by them. These people lacked intrinsic motivation, guiding values, and the meaning of life. Such patients were classified as narcissistic individuals, people with internal doubts about their own worth and unstable self-esteem. According to the analyst's impressions, they were distinguished by indifference, boredom, vague irritation, depreciation of the psychotherapist, underestimation or overestimation.
H. Kohut formulated a new theory of self, explaining possible violations and features of development as a consequence of growing up without objects. The approach to personality analysis has changed. Its central element is "I", self-images (self-representations), self-respect. From these positions, they began to consider any person (and not just a narcissistic one) and distinguish the desire for self-respect, the presence of a sense of connectedness, continuity. Protection came to be seen not only as a remedy for anxiety caused by the ID, Ego, Super-Ego, but also as a way to maintain a consistent, positive sense of self.
In the ancient Indian treatise on love, The Peach Branch, it was noted that each person can love on three levels - body, mind and soul. Then it was noted that the relationship is heterogeneous, they have different levels. To date, there are many studies devoted to the rationale and description of various levels of relationships.
Functions of interpersonal relations, -
1) help to adapt to new environment;
2) cognitive function (social cognition, knowledge of another person);
3) satisfy the needs of a person in contact with other people.
The main phenomena of interpersonal relations: 1) sympathy - selective attractiveness. Causes a cognitive, emotional, behavioral response, emotional attractiveness;
2) attraction - attraction, attraction of one person to another, the process of preference, mutual attraction, mutual sympathy; 3) dislike:
4) empathy (empathy, the response of one person to the experience of another). Empathy has several levels. The first involves cognitive empathy. manifested as understanding mental state another person (without changing his state). The second level involves empathy in the form of not only understanding the state of the object, but also empathy with it, i.e. emotional empathy. The third level includes cognitive, emotional and, most importantly, behavioral components. This level involves interpersonal identification, which is mental (perceived and understood), sensual (empathetic) and active;
5) compatibility (optimal combination psychological features partners contributing to the optimization of their joint activities) - incompatibility;
6) harmony (satisfaction with communication; coordination of actions).
Interpersonal relationships- these are objectively experienced, to varying degrees, perceived relationships between people.
Types of interpersonal relationships:
1) by modality (positive (positive), negative (negative), ambivalent (dual, neutral);
2) by goals (business, personal);
3) by direction (vertical (different hierarchical levels), horizontal (one level
interpersonal relationship historically arose in the conditions of experiencing the need for joint action. Each person enters into a relationship with each other and thus a person turns out to be the subject of numerous and diverse relationships.
Types of social relations:
Conjunctive
Dejunctive
Interpersonal, intergroup.
Communication, its functions and structure
Communication - the process and result of establishing and developing contacts between people, including the exchange of information, the development of a common strategy for interaction, people's perception and understanding of each other.
♦ communicative: consists in the exchange of information between people;
♦ interactive: consists in organizing interaction between people, for example, you need to coordinate actions, distribute functions or influence the mood, behavior, beliefs of the interlocutor;
♦ perceptual: includes the process of perception of each other by partners in communication and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.
Communication functions:
informational(communicative)
binder(cohesion, contact, interactive)
emotional expression(self-expression, emotive, emotional)
self-knowledge(self-awareness, self-determination)
§ transfer of information
§ perception of each other
§ mutual evaluation by partners of each other
§ mutual influence of partners
§ interaction of partners
§ activity management, etc.
Means and types of communication
The specifics of human communication:
it intersubjective process involving active exchange of information
Assumes change in partner's behavior for communication
Assumes Adoption unified system values which enables partners to understand each other
Assumes the existence of specific communication barriers
Iconic communication systems:
verbal communication ( human speech as a universal sign system )
Non-verbal communication: optical-kinetic sign system(gestures, facial expressions, pantomime, general motility of body parts .) para- and extra-linguistic sign systems(voice quality, range, tonality, insertion of coughing, laughter into the voice.) proxemic sign system(organization of space and time of the communicative process).
In accordance with the content, the following types of communication can be distinguished:
· Material - the exchange of objects or products of activity.
· Cognitive communication - exchange of information, knowledge. When we find out from friends about the weather on the street, food prices, the start time of the concert, ways to solve mathematical problem, we are dealing with a cognitive type of communication.
Conditional or emotional communication - exchange emotional states between communicating individuals. Cheer up a sad friend is an example of emotional communication. It is based on the phenomenon of emotional contagion.
· Motivational communication - the exchange of desires, motivations, goals, interests or needs. It takes place both in business and in interpersonal communication. Examples are: staff motivation for successful work at an enterprise (business communication), a conversation aimed at persuading a friend to go to a concert with you (interpersonal communication).
· Activity - the exchange of skills and abilities, which is carried out as a result of joint activities. Example: learn to cross stitch in a circle of embroidery.
Depending on the communication technique used and its goals, the following types can be distinguished:
Contact masks - formal communication when there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality traits of the interlocutor. The usual masks are used (politeness, courtesy, indifference, modesty, sympathy, etc.) - a set of facial expressions, gestures, standard phrases that allow you to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor.
· Secular communication - its essence is non-objectivity, that is, people do not say what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; this communication is closed, because the points of view of people on a particular issue do not matter and do not determine the nature of communication. For example: formal politeness, ritual communication.
· Formal-role communication - when both the content and means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, knowledge of his social role is dispensed with.
· Business communication is a process of interaction in communication, in which information is exchanged to achieve a certain result. That is, this communication is purposeful. It arises on the basis of and about a certain kind activities. At business communication take into account the characteristics of the personality, character, mood of the interlocutor, but the interests of the case are more significant than possible personal differences.
· Interpersonal communication (intimate-personal) - the deep structures of the personality are revealed.
Manipulative communication - aimed at obtaining benefits from the interlocutor.