Where was Persia. The history of ancient Persia briefly. Where is Persia

History of Ancient Persia

From about 600 to 559, Cambyses I ruled Persia, who was in vassal dependence on the Median kings.

In 558 BC. e. Cyrus II, the son of Cambyses I, became the king of the settled Persian tribes, among which the Pasargadas played the leading role. The center of the Persian state was located around the city of Pasargada, the intensive construction of which dates back to the initial period of the reign of Cyrus. The social organization of Persia at that time can be judged only in the most general terms. The main social unit was a large partiarchal family, the head of which had unlimited power over all his relatives. The tribal (and later rural) community, which united a number of families, remained a powerful force for many centuries. The clans were united into tribes.

When Cyrus II became king of Persia, there were four major powers in the entire Near East, namely Egypt, Babylonia, Media and Lydia.

In 553, Cyrus raised an uprising against the Median king Astyages, in whose vassal dependence the Persians were until that time. The war lasted three years and ended in 550 with a complete victory for the Persians. Ecbatana, the capital of the former Median state, has now become one of the royal residences of Cyrus. Having conquered Media, Cyrus formally retained the Median kingdom and assumed the official titles of the Median kings: "great king, king of kings, king of countries."

From the time of the capture of Media, Persia enters the wide arena of world history, in order to play a politically leading role in it for the next two centuries.

Around 549, the entire territory of Elam was captured by the Persians. In 549 - 548 years. the Persians subjugated the countries that were part of the former Median state, namely Parthia, Hyrcania and, probably, Armenia.

Meanwhile, Croesus, ruler of the powerful kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, was anxiously following Cyrus' rapid successes and began to prepare for the coming war. At the initiative of the Egyptian pharaoh Amasis, around 549, an alliance was concluded between Egypt and Lydia. Soon, Croesus concluded an agreement on assistance with Sparta, the most powerful state in Greece. However, the allies did not realize that it was necessary to act immediately and decisively, and in the meantime, Persia became more powerful every day.

At the end of October 547, near the river. Galis, in Asia Minor, there was a bloody battle between the Persians and the Lydians, but it ended in vain, and neither side risked immediately entering into a new battle.

Croesus retreated to his capital Sardis and, having decided to prepare more thoroughly for the war, he proposed to conclude a military alliance with the king of Babylonia, Nabonidus. At the same time, Croesus sent heralds to Sparta with a request to send an army by spring (i.e., in about five months) to give the Persians a decisive battle. With the same request, Croesus turned to other allies and dismissed the mercenaries who served in his army until spring.

However, Cyrus, who was aware of the actions and intentions of Croesus, decided to take the enemy by surprise and, having swiftly traveled several hundred kilometers, found himself at the gates of Sardis, whose inhabitants did not expect such an attack at all.

Croesus led his cavalry, which was considered invincible, to the plain in front of Sardis. On the advice of one of his commanders, Cyrus placed all the camels following in the wagon train ahead of his army, after placing the soldiers on them. Lydian horses, seeing animals unfamiliar to them and smelling their smell, fled. However, the Lydian horsemen did not lose their heads, jumped off their horses and began to fight on foot. A fierce battle took place, in which, however, the forces were unequal. under pressure superior forces the enemy, the Lydians had to retreat and flee to Sardis, where they were besieged in an impregnable fortress.

Believing that the siege would be long, Croesus sent messengers to Sparta, Babylon, and Egypt asking for immediate assistance. Of the allies, only the Spartans more or less willingly responded to the plea of ​​the Lydian king and prepared an army to be sent on ships, but soon received the news that Sardis had already fallen.

The siege of Sardis lasted only 14 days. An attempt to take the city by storm ended in failure. But one observant warrior from the army of Cyrus, who belonged to the mountain tribe of the Mards, noticed how a warrior descended from the fortress behind a fallen helmet along a steep and impregnable rock, and then climbed back. This part of the fortress was considered completely impregnable and therefore was not guarded by the Lydians. Mard climbed up the rock, and other warriors followed him. The city was taken and Croesus was taken prisoner (546).

conquests

After the capture of Lydia, it was the turn of the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The inhabitants of these cities sent messengers to Sparta asking for help. The danger threatened all the Greeks of Asia Minor, except for the inhabitants of Miletus, who submitted to Cyrus in advance, and the island Hellenes, since the Persians did not yet have a fleet.

When the messengers of the cities of Asia Minor arrived in Sparta and stated their request, the Spartans refused to help them. Cyrus decided to entrust the conquest of the Greeks and other peoples of Asia Minor to one of his commanders. The Persian Tabal was appointed viceroy of Lydia, and Cyrus himself went to Ecbatana to consider plans for campaigns against Babylonia, Bactria, Saks and Egypt.

Taking advantage of the departure of Cyrus to Ecbatany, the inhabitants of Sardis, led by the Lydian Paktius, who was entrusted with the protection of the royal treasury, revolted. They besieged the Persian garrison led by Tabal in the fortress of Sardis and persuaded the Greek coastal cities to send their military detachments to the aid of the rebels.

To suppress the uprising, Cyrus sent an army led by the Medes Mazar, who was also ordered to disarm the Lydians and enslave the inhabitants of the Greek cities, who helped the rebels.

Paktius, having learned about the approach of the Persian army, fled with his adherents, and this ended the uprising. Mazar began the conquest of the Greek cities of Asia Minor. Soon Mazar died of an illness, and the Mede Harpag was appointed in his place. He began to erect high mounds near the walled Greek cities and then take them by storm. Thus, Harpagus soon subjugated all of Asia Minor, and the Greeks lost their military dominance in the Aegean. Now Cyrus, in case of need in the navy, could use Greek ships.

Between 545 and 539 BC e. Cyrus subjugated Drangiana, Margiana, Khorezm, Sogdiana, Bactria, Areya, Gedrosia, the Central Asian Saks, Sattagidia, Arachosia and Gandhara. Thus, Persian domination reached the northwestern borders of India, the southern spurs of the Hindu Kush and the basin of the river. Yaksart (Syrdarya). Only after he had succeeded in reaching the furthest limits of his conquests in the northeast direction did Cyrus move against Babylonia.

In the spring of 539 BC. e. the Persian army set off on a campaign and began to advance down the river valley. Diyala. In August 539, near the city of Opis near the Tigris, the Persians defeated the Babylonian army, commanded by the son of Nabonid Bel-shar-utzur. The Persians then crossed the Tigris south of Opis and surrounded Sippar. The defense of Sippar was led by Nabonidus himself. The Persians met only insignificant resistance from the garrison of the city, and Nabonidus himself fled from it. On October 10, 539, Sippar fell into the hands of the Persians, and two days later the Persian army entered Babylon without a fight. To organize the defense of the capital, Nabonidus hurried there, but the city was already in enemy hands, and the Babylonian king was captured. On October 20, 539, Cyrus himself entered Babylon, for whom a solemn meeting was arranged.

After the capture of Babylonia, all countries to the west of it and to the borders of Egypt voluntarily submitted to the Persians.

In 530, Cyrus undertook a campaign against the Massagetae, nomadic tribes that lived on the plains north of Hyrcania and east of the Caspian Sea. These tribes repeatedly made predatory raids on the territory of the Persian state. To eliminate the danger of such invasions, Cyrus first created a series of border fortifications in the extreme northeast of his state. However, then during the battle to the east of the Amu Darya, he was completely defeated by the Massagets and died. This battle, in all likelihood, took place at the very beginning of August. In any case, by the end of August 530, the news of the death of Cyrus reached distant Babylon.

Herodotus relates that Cyrus at first seized the camp of the Massagetae by cunning and killed them. But then the main forces of the Massagetae under the leadership of Queen Tomiris inflicted a heavy defeat on the Persians, and the severed head of Cyrus was thrown into a bag filled with blood. Herodotus also writes that this battle was the most cruel of all the battles in which the "barbarians" participated, i.e. non-Greeks. According to him, the Persians lost 200,000 people killed in this war (of course, this figure is greatly exaggerated).

Cambyses II

After the death of Cyrus in 530, his eldest son Cambyses II became king of the Persian state. Shortly after his accession to the throne, he began to prepare for an attack on Egypt.

After a long military and diplomatic preparation, as a result of which Egypt was completely isolated, Cambyses set out on a campaign. The land army received support from the fleet of the Phoenician cities, which as early as 538 submitted to the Persians. The Persian army safely reached the Egyptian border town of Pelusium (40 km from modern Port Said). In the spring of 525, the only major battle took place there. In it, both sides suffered heavy losses, and the victory went to the Persians. The remnants of the Egyptian army and mercenaries fled in disarray to the capital of the country, Memphis.

The victors moved into the depths of Egypt by sea and land, without meeting resistance. The commander of the Egyptian fleet, Ujagorresent, did not give an order to resist the enemy and surrendered the city of Sais and his fleet without a fight. Cambyses sent a messenger ship to Memphis demanding the surrender of the city. But the Egyptians attacked the ship and massacred its entire crew, along with the royal messenger. After that, the siege of the city began, and the Egyptians had to surrender. 2000 inhabitants were executed in retaliation for the murder of the king's herald. Now all of Egypt was in the hands of the Persians. The Libyan tribes living to the west of Egypt, as well as the Greeks of Cyrenaica and the city of Barca, voluntarily submitted to Cambyses and sent gifts.

By the end of August 525, Cambyses was officially recognized as king of Egypt. He founded a new, XXVII dynasty of the pharaohs of Egypt. According to official Egyptian sources, Cambyses gave his capture the character of a personal union with the Egyptians, was crowned according to Egyptian customs, used the traditional Egyptian dating system, took the title "king of Egypt, king of countries" and the traditional titles of the pharaohs "descendant of [the gods] Ra, Osiris" and etc. He participated in religious ceremonies in the temple of the goddess Neith in Sais, made sacrifices to the Egyptian gods and showed them other signs of attention. Reliefs from Egypt depict Cambyses in Egyptian costume. To give the seizure of Egypt a legal character, legends were created about the birth of Cambyses from the marriage of Cyrus with the Egyptian princess Nitetida, the daughter of the pharaoh.

Soon after the Persian conquest, Egypt began to live a normal life again. The legal and administrative documents of the time of Cambyses testify that the first years of Persian domination did not cause significant damage to the economic life of the country. True, immediately after the capture of Egypt, the Persian army committed robberies, but Cambyses ordered his soldiers to stop them, leave the temple territories and compensate for the damage caused. Following the policy of Cyrus, Cambyses granted the Egyptians freedom in religious and private life. The Egyptians, like representatives of other peoples, continued to hold their positions in the state apparatus and passed them by inheritance.

Capturing Egypt, Cambyses began to prepare for a campaign against the country of the Ethiopians (Nubia). To this end, he founded several fortified cities in Upper Egypt. According to Herodotus, Cambyses invaded Ethiopia without sufficient preparation, without food supplies, cannibalism began in his army, and he was forced to retreat.

While Cambyses was in Nubia, the Egyptians, aware of his failures, rose in revolt against Persian domination. At the end of 524, Cambyses returned to the administrative capital of Egypt, Memphis, and began a harsh reprisal against the rebels. The instigator of the uprising, the former pharaoh Psammetich III, was executed, the country was pacified.

While Cambyses spent three years without a break in Egypt, unrest began in his homeland. In March 522, while in Memphis, he received news that his younger brother Bardia had raised a rebellion in Persia and became king. Cambyses went to Persia, but died en route under mysterious circumstances, before he could regain power.

According to the Behistun inscription of Darius I, in fact, Bardia was killed on the orders of Cambyses even before the conquest of Egypt, and a certain magician Gaumata seized the throne in Persia, posing as the youngest son of Cyrus. It is unlikely that we will ever know for sure whether this king was Bardia or a usurper who took someone else's name.

On September 29, 522, after seven months of reign, Gaumata was killed by conspirators as a result of a sudden attack by representatives of the seven most noble families of the Persians. Darius, one of these conspirators, became king of the Achaemenid state.

Immediately after the seizure of the throne by Darius I, Babylonia rebelled against him, where, according to the Behistun inscription, a certain Nidintu-Bel declared himself the son of the last Babylonian king Nabonidus and began to reign under the name of Nebuchadnezzar III. Darius personally led the campaign against the rebels. December 13, 522 at the river. The Tigris Babylonians were defeated, and five days later Darius won a new victory in the area of ​​Zazana near the Euphrates. After that, the Persians entered Babylon, and the leaders of the rebels were put to death.

While Darius was busy with punitive actions in Babylonia, Persia, Media, Elam, Margiana, Parthia, Sattagidia, Saka tribes rebelled against him. Central Asia and Egypt. A long, cruel and bloody struggle for the restoration of the state began.

The satrap of Bactria Dadarshish moved against the rebels in Margiana, and on December 10, 522, the Margians were defeated. This was followed by a massacre, during which the punishers killed more than 55 thousand people.

In Persia itself, a certain Vahyazdata opposed Darius under the name of the son of Cyrus, Bardin, and found great support among the people. He also managed to capture the Eastern Iranian regions up to Arachosia. On December 29, 522, near the fortress of Kapishakanish and on February 21, 521, in the region of Gandutava in Arachosia, the troops of Vahyazdata entered into battle with the army of Darius. Apparently, these battles did not bring a decisive victory to either side, and the army of Darius defeated the enemy only in March of that year. But in Persia itself, Vakhyazdata still remained the master of the situation, and the supporters of Darius won a decisive victory over him at Mount Parga in Persia only on July 16, 521. Vakhyazdata was captured and, together with his closest supporters, impaled.

But in other countries, uprisings continued. The first uprising in Elam was put down rather easily, and the leader of the rebels, Assina, was captured and executed. However, soon a certain Marty raised a new uprising in Elam. When Darius managed to restore his power in this country, almost all of Media fell into the hands of Fravartish, who claimed that he was Khshatrita from the clan of the ancient Median king Cyaxares. This uprising was one of the most dangerous for Darius, and he himself opposed the rebels. On May 7, 521, a major battle took place near the city of Kundurush in Media. The Medes were defeated, and Fravartish fled with part of his adherents to the region of Raga in Media. But soon he was captured and brought to Darius, who brutally dealt with him. He cut off Fravartish's nose, ears and tongue and gouged out his eyes. After that, he was taken to Ecbatana and impaled there. Fravartish's closest assistants were also brought to Ecbatana and imprisoned in the fortress, and then they were flayed.

In other countries, the struggle against the rebels still continued. In various regions of Armenia, the commanders of Darius tried for a long time, but unsuccessfully, to pacify the rebels. The first major battle took place on December 31, 522 in the area of ​​Izala. Then the troops of Darius evaded active operations until May 21, 521, when they took the fight in the area of ​​Zuzakhia. Six days later, it happened at the river. Tiger new battle. But it was still not possible to break the stubbornness of the rebellious Armenians, and in addition to the troops of Darius, who was operating in Armenia, a new army was sent. After that, they managed to defeat the rebels in the battle in the Autiara area, and on June 21, 521, the Armenians near Mount Uyama suffered a new defeat.

Meanwhile, Vishtaspa, the father of Darius, who was the satrap of Parthia and Hyrcania, for many months avoided fighting the rebels. In March 521, the battle near the city of Vishpauzatish in Parthia did not bring him victory. Only in the summer, Darius was able to send a fairly large army to help Vishtaspa, and after that, on July 12, 521, the rebels were defeated near the city of Patigraban in Parthia.

But a month later, the Babylonians made a new attempt to achieve independence. Now at the head of the uprising was the Urartian Arach, who pretended to be Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabonidus (Nevuchadnezzar IV). Against the Babylonians, Darius sent an army led by one of his closest associates, and on November 27, 521, Araha's army was defeated, and he himself and his associates were executed.

This was the last major uprising, although unrest still continued in the state. Now, a little over a year after seizing power, Darius was able to consolidate his position and shortly thereafter restored the power of Cyrus and Cambyses to its old borders.

Between 519 - 512 years. the Persians conquered Thrace, Macedonia and the northwestern part of India. This was the time of the highest power of the Persian state, whose borders began to stretch from the river. Indus in the east to the Aegean in the west, from Armenia in the north to Ethiopia in the south. Thus, a world power arose, uniting dozens of countries and peoples under the rule of the Persian kings.

In terms of its socio-economic structure, the Achaemenid state was distinguished by great diversity. It included the regions of Asia Minor, Elam, Babylonia, Syria, Phoenicia and Egypt, which had their own state institutions long before the emergence of the Persian Empire. Along with the listed economically developed countries, the Persians also conquered the backward nomadic Arab, Scythian and other tribes, which were at the stage of decomposition of the tribal system.

Revolts of 522 - 521 showed the weakness of the Persian state and the inefficiency of managing the conquered countries. Therefore, around 519, Darius I carried out important administrative and financial reforms, which made it possible to create a stable system of state administration and control over the conquered peoples, streamlined the collection of taxes from them and increased the contingents of the troops. As a result of the implementation of these reforms in Babylonia, Egypt and other countries, an essentially new administrative system was created, which did not undergo significant changes until the end of the Achaemenid domination.

Darius I divided the state into administrative-tax districts, which were called satrapies. As a rule, the size of the satrapies exceeded the provinces of earlier empires, and in some cases the borders of the satrapies coincided with the old state and ethnographic borders of the countries that were part of the Achaemenid state (for example, Egypt).

Satraps were at the head of the new administrative districts. The post of satrap existed from the emergence of the Achaemenid state, but under Cyrus, Cambyses and in the early years of the reign of Darius, local officials were governors in many countries, as was the case in the Assyrian and Median empires. The reforms of Darius, in particular, were aimed at concentrating leadership positions in the hands of the Persians, and as a rule, Persians were now appointed to the position of satraps.

Further, under Cyrus and Cambyses, civil and military functions were united in the hands of one and the same person, namely, the satrap. Darius limited the power of the satrap by establishing a clear separation of the functions of satraps and military authorities. Now the satraps became only civil governors and stood at the head of the administration of their region, exercised judicial power, monitored the economic life of the country and the flow of taxes, ensured security within the borders of their satrapy, controlled local officials and had the right to mint a silver coin. In peacetime, only a small bodyguard was at the disposal of the satraps. As for the army, it was subordinate to military leaders who were independent of the satraps and reported directly to the king. However, after the death of Darius I, this requirement for the division of military and civilian functions was not strictly observed.

In connection with the implementation of new reforms, a large central apparatus was created, headed by the royal office. The central state administration was located in the administrative capital of the Achaemenid state - Susa. Many dignitaries and minor officials from various parts of the state, from Egypt to India, came to Susa on state affairs. Not only in Susa, but also in Babylon, Ecbatana, Memphis and other cities, there were large state offices with a large staff of scribes.

The satraps and military leaders were closely connected with the central administration and were under the constant control of the king and his officials, especially the secret police ("the ears and the eye of the king"). Supreme control over the entire state and oversight of all officials were entrusted to hazarapatu("Chief of the Thousand"), who was also the head of the Tsar's personal guard.

The satrap office exactly copied the royal office in Susa. Under the command of the satrap there were many officials and scribes, including the head of the office, the head of the treasury, who accepted state taxes, heralds who reported state orders, accountants, judicial investigators, etc.

Already under Cyrus II, the state offices in the western part of the Achaemenid state used the Aramaic language, and later, when Darius spent his administrative reforms, this language became official in the eastern satrapies and was used for communication between the state offices of the entire empire. Official documents in Aramaic were sent from the center throughout the state. Having received these documents locally, scribes who knew two or more languages ​​translated them into the native language of those chiefs of the regions who did not speak Aramaic.

In addition to the common Aramaic language for the entire state, scribes in various countries also used local languages ​​to draw up official documents. For example, in Egypt, the administration was bilingual, and along with Aramaic, Late Egyptian (the language of Demotic documents) was also used to communicate with the local population.

The Persian nobility occupied a special position in the state. She owned large land holdings in Egypt, Syria, Babylonia, Asia Minor and other countries. A vivid idea of ​​farms of this type is given by the letters of the satrap of Egypt in the 5th century BC. BC e. Arshams and other noble Persian nobles to their managers. These letters are for the most part instructions on the management of estates. Arshama had large landholdings not only in Lower and Upper Egypt, but also in six different countries on the way from Elam to Egypt.

Huge land holdings (sometimes entire regions) with the right of hereditary transfer and exemption from taxes were also received by the so-called "benefactors" of the king, who rendered great services to the latter. They even had the right to judge people who lived in the areas that belonged to him.

The owners of large estates had their own army and judicial and administrative apparatus with a whole staff of managers, heads of treasuries, scribes, accountants, etc. These large landowners usually lived in large cities - Babylon, Susa, etc., far from the countryside, on income from land holdings that were administered by their managers.

Finally, part of the land was actually owned by the king, compared with the previous period under the Achaemenids, the size of the royal land increased dramatically. These lands were usually leased. So, for example, according to a contract drawn up in 420 near Nippur, a representative of the Murashu business house turned to the manager of the king's sowing fields, located along the banks of several canals, with a request to lease one field to him for a period of three years. The tenant undertook to pay annually as rent 220 hens of barley (1 hen - 180 liters), 20 hens of wheat, 10 hens of emmer, as well as one bull and 10 rams.

In addition, the king owned many large canals. The king's administrators usually leased these canals. In the vicinity of Nippur, the royal canals rented a house to Murash, who, in turn, sublet them to collectives of small landowners. For example, in 439, seven landowners signed a contract with three tenants of the royal canal, including Murashu's house. Under this contract, the subtenants received the right to irrigate their fields for three days a month with canal water. For this they had to pay 1/3 of the crop.

The Persian kings owned the Akes Canal in Central Asia, forests in Syria, income from fishing in Lake Merida in Egypt, mines, as well as gardens, parks and palaces in various parts states. About the size of the royal economy, a certain idea can be given by the fact that in Persepolis about 15,000 people were fed daily at the expense of the king.

Under the Achaemenids, such a system of land use was widely used, when the king planted his soldiers on the land, who cultivated the allotments allocated for them collectively, in whole groups, served military service and paid a certain monetary and in-kind tax. These allotments were called allotments of the bow, horse, chariot, etc., and their owners had to perform military service as archers, horsemen and charioteers.

In the most developed countries of the Persian state, slave labor was widely used in the main sectors of the economy. In addition, a large number of slaves were used to perform various types of domestic work.

When the owners could not use the slaves in agriculture or the workshop, or considered such use unprofitable, the slaves were often left to their own devices with the payment of a certain standardized dues from the peculia owned by the slave. Slaves could dispose of their peculium as free people, lend, mortgage or lease property, etc. Slaves could not only participate in the economic life of the country, but also have their own seals, act as witnesses at the conclusion of various business transactions by freemen and slaves. In legal life, slaves could act as full-fledged people and sue among themselves or with free people (but, of course, not with their masters). At the same time, apparently, there were no differences in the approach to protecting the interests of slaves and freemen. Further, slaves, like freemen, testified about crimes committed by other slaves and freemen, including their own masters.

Debt slavery in Achaemenid times was not widespread, at least in the most developed countries. Cases of self-mortgage, not to mention the sale of oneself into slavery, were relatively rare. But in Babylonia, Judea, and Egypt, children could be given as collateral. In case of non-payment of the debt within the prescribed period, the creditor could turn the debtor's children into slaves. However, the husband could not pledge his wife, at least in Elam, Babylonia and Egypt. In these countries, a woman enjoyed a certain freedom, had her own property, which she herself could dispose of. In Egypt, a woman even had the right to divorce, in contrast to Babylonia, Judea and other countries, where only a man had such a right.

On the whole, in relation to the number of free, there were relatively few slaves even in the most developed countries, and their labor was not able to supplant the labor of free workers. The basis of agriculture was the labor of free farmers and tenants, and the craft was also dominated by the labor of a free artisan, whose occupation was usually inherited in the family.

Temples and individuals were forced to resort on a large scale to the use of skilled labor of free workers in handicrafts, agriculture and, especially, to perform difficult types of work (irrigation facilities, construction work, etc.). There were especially many hired workers in Babylonia, where they often worked in the construction of canals or in the fields in batches of several dozen or several hundred people. Part of the mercenaries who worked in the temple farms of Babylonia consisted of Elamites who came to this country during the harvest.

In comparison with the western satrapies of the Achaemenid state, slavery in Persia had a number of peculiar features. By the time of the emergence of their state, the Persians knew only patriarchal slavery, and slave labor was not yet of serious economic importance.

Documents in the Elamite language, compiled at the end of the 6th - the first half of the 5th century. BC e., contain exceptionally abundant information about the workers of the royal economy in Iran, who were called kurtash. Among them were men, women and adolescents of both sexes. At least some of the kurtash lived in families. In most cases, kurtash worked in detachments of several hundred people, and some documents speak of kurtash parties numbering more than a thousand people.

Kurtash worked in the royal household all year round. Most of them were employed in construction work in Persepolis. Among them were workers of all specialties (masons, carpenters, sculptors, blacksmiths, encrusters, etc.). At the same time, at least 4,000 people were employed in construction work in Persepolis, and the construction of the royal residence continued for 50 years. The scale of this work can be given by the fact that already on preparatory stage about 135,000 sq. m. of uneven rocky surface into a platform of a certain architectural form.

Many kurtash worked outside of Persepolis. These were mainly sheep herders, winemakers and brewers, and also, in all likelihood, plowmen.

As for the legal status and social status of the kurtash, a significant part of them consisted of prisoners of war who were forcibly taken to Iran. Among the kurtashas there were also a certain number of subjects of the Persian king, who were serving their labor service for a whole year. Apparently, kurtash can be considered semi-free people, planted on royal land.

Taxes were the main source of government revenue.

Under Cyrus and Cambyses, there was still no firmly established system of taxes based on the economic capabilities of the countries that were part of the Persian state. Subjugated peoples delivered gifts or paid taxes, which, at least in part, were paid in kind.

Around 519, Darius I established a system of state taxes. All satrapies were obliged to pay strictly fixed monetary taxes for each region, established taking into account the size of the cultivated land and its fertility.

As for the Persians themselves, they, as a ruling people, did not pay monetary taxes, but were not exempted from deliveries in kind. The rest of the peoples paid a total of about 7740 Babylonian talents of silver per year (1 talent was equal to 30 kg). Most of this amount was paid by the peoples of the economically most developed countries: Asia Minor, Babylonia, Syria, Phoenicia and Egypt. Only a few temples received tax exemptions.

Although the system of gifts was also retained, the latter were by no means voluntary. The amount of gifts was also set, but unlike taxes, they were paid in kind. At the same time, the overwhelming majority of subjects paid taxes, and gifts were delivered only by peoples living on the borders of the empire (kolki, Ethiopians, Arabs, etc.).

The amounts of taxes established under Darius I remained unchanged until the end of the existence of the Achaemenid state, despite significant economic changes in the countries subject to the Persians. The situation of taxpayers was especially negatively affected by the fact that in order to pay cash taxes, they had to borrow money against the security of real estate or family members.

After 517 BC. e. Darius I introduced a single monetary unit for the entire empire, which formed the basis of the Achaemenid monetary system, namely, a gold darik weighing 8.4 g. way in the Asia Minor satrapies. The image of the Persian king was placed on both the darik and the shekels.

Silver coins were also minted by the Persian satraps in their residences, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor for retribution with mercenaries during military campaigns, and autonomous cities, and dependent kings.

However, Persian minted coins were little used outside of Asia Minor and even in the Phoenician-Palestinian world of the 4th century BC. BC e. played a minor role. Before the conquests of Alexander the Great, the use of coins almost did not extend to countries far from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. For example, under the Achaemenids, minted coins did not yet circulate in Babylonia and were used only for trade with Greek cities. Approximately the same situation was in Egypt of the Achaemenid time, where silver was weighed with the "royal stone" upon payment, as well as in Persia itself, where the workers of the royal household received payment in uncut silver.

The ratio of gold to silver in the Achaemenid state was 1 to 13 1/3. The precious metal that belonged to the state was subject to minting only at the discretion of the king, and most of it was kept in ingots. Thus, the money that came as state taxes was deposited in the royal treasuries for many decades and was withdrawn from circulation, only a small part of this money came back as a salary to mercenaries, as well as for the maintenance of the court and administration. Therefore, for trade there was not enough minted coins and even precious metals in ingots. It hurt great harm the development of commodity-money relations and forced the preservation of a subsistence economy or forced them to resort to a direct exchange of goods.

In the Achaemenid state, there were several large caravan roads that connected regions that were many hundreds of kilometers away from each other. One such road began in Lydia, crossed Asia Minor and continued to Babylon. Another road went from Babylon to Susa and on to Persepolis and Pasargadae. Of great importance was also the caravan road that connected Babylon with the Ecbatans and continued further to Bactria and the Indian borders.

After 518, by order of Darius I, a canal was restored from the Nile to Suez, which existed even under Necho, but later became non-navigable. This canal connected Egypt by a short route across the Red Sea to Persia, and thus a road was also laid to India. The expedition of the navigator Skilak to India in 518 was also of no small importance for strengthening trade relations.

For the development of trade, the difference in nature and climatic conditions of the countries that were part of the Achaemenid state was also of great importance. The trade of Babylonia with Egypt, Syria, Elam and Asia Minor became especially lively, where Babylonian merchants bought iron, copper, tin, scaffolding and semi-precious stones. From Egypt and Syria, the Babylonians exported alum for bleaching wool and clothes, as well as for the production of glass and medical purposes. Egypt supplied grain and linen to the Greek cities, buying wine and olive oil from them in return. In addition, Egypt provided gold and ivory, and Lebanon - a cedar tree. Silver was delivered from Anatolia, copper from Cyprus, and copper and limestone were exported from the regions of the upper Tigris. Imported gold from India ivory and fragrant wood, from Arabia - gold, from Sogdiana - lapis lazuli and carnelian, and from Khorezm - turquoise. Siberian gold came from Bactria to the countries of the Achaemenid state. Ceramic products were exported from mainland Greece to the countries of the East.

The existence of the Achaemenid state largely depended on the army. The core of the army was made up of Persians and Medes. Most of the adult male population of the Persians were warriors. They began to serve, apparently, from the age of 20. In the wars waged by the Achaemenids, the Eastern Iranians also played an important role. In particular, the Saka tribes supplied for the Achaemenids a significant number of horse archers, accustomed to constant military life. The highest positions in the garrisons, in the main strategic points, in the fortresses, etc., were usually in the hands of the Persians.

The army consisted of cavalry and infantry. The cavalry was recruited from the nobility, and the infantry from the farmers. The combined actions of cavalry and archers ensured victory for the Persians in many wars. Archers disrupted the ranks of the enemy, and after that the cavalry destroyed him. The main weapon of the Persian army was the bow.

Starting from the 5th c. BC e., when the position of the agricultural population in Persia began to deteriorate due to class stratification, the Persian infantry began to retreat into the background, and they were gradually replaced by Greek mercenaries, who played a large role due to their technical superiority, training and experience.

The backbone of the army was 10 thousand "immortal" warriors, the first thousand of which consisted exclusively of representatives of the Persian nobility and was the personal guard of the king. They were armed with spears. The remaining regiments of the "immortals" consisted of representatives of various Iranian tribes, as well as Elamites.

Troops were stationed in the conquered countries to prevent uprisings of the conquered peoples. The composition of these troops was motley, but they usually lacked the inhabitants of this area.

On the borders of the state, the Achaemenids planted warriors, endowing them with land plots. Of the military garrisons of this type, we know best of all the Elephantine military colony, created to carry out guard and military service on the borders of Egypt with Nubia. The Elephantine garrison included Persians, Medes, Carians, Khorezmians, etc., but the main part of this garrison were Jewish settlers who served there under the Egyptian pharaohs.

Military colonies, similar to the Elephantine, were also located in Thebes, Memphis and other cities of Egypt. Arameans, Jews, Phoenicians and other Semites served in the garrisons of these colonies. Such garrisons were a strong support of Persian domination and during the uprisings of the conquered peoples remained loyal to the Achaemenids.

During the most important military campaigns (for example, the war of Xerxes with the Greeks), all the peoples of the Achaemenid state were obliged to allocate a certain number of soldiers.

Under Darius I, the Persians begin to play a dominant role at sea as well. Naval wars were waged by the Achaemenids with the help of the ships of the Phoenicians, Cypriots, inhabitants of the islands of the Aegean and other maritime peoples, as well as the Egyptian fleet.

Iran in the 5th century BC e.

In the VI century. BC e. in economic and cultural terms, among the Greek regions, the leading role did not belong to the Balkan Peninsula, but to the Greek colonies that were part of the Persian Empire on the coast of Asia Minor: Miletus, Ephesus, etc. These colonies had fertile lands, handicrafts flourished in them, they were the markets of the vast Persian state are available.

In 500, an uprising took place in Miletus against Persian domination. Greek cities in the south and north of Asia Minor joined the rebels. The leader of the uprising, Aristagoras, in 499 turned to the mainland Greeks for help. The Spartans refused any help whatsoever, citing the distance. The mission of Aristagoras failed, since only the Athenians and Eretrians on the island of Euboea responded to the call of the rebels, but they also sent only a small number of ships. The rebels organized a campaign against the capital of the Lydian satrapy Sardis, captured and burned the city. The Persian satrap Artafen, together with the garrison, took refuge in the acropolis, which the Greeks failed to capture. The Persians began to gather their troops and in the summer of 498 defeated the Greeks near the city of Ephesus. After that, the Athenians and Eretrians fled, leaving the Greeks of Asia Minor to their fate. In the spring of 494, the Persians laid siege to Miletus from the sea and land, which was the main stronghold of the uprising. The city was captured and completely destroyed, and the population was taken into slavery. In 493, the uprising was suppressed everywhere.

After the suppression of the uprising, Darius began preparations for a campaign against mainland Greece. He understood that Persian rule in Asia Minor would be fragile as long as the Greeks of the Balkan Peninsula retained their independence. At this time, Greece consisted of many autonomous city-states with different political systems, which were in constant hostility and wars with each other.

In 492, the Persian army marched and passed through Macedonia and Thrace, which had been conquered two decades earlier. But near Cape Athos on the Chalkis Peninsula, the Persian fleet was defeated by a strong storm, and about 20 thousand people died and 300 ships were destroyed. After that, the land army had to be withdrawn back to Asia Minor and re-prepare for the campaign.

In 491, Persian ambassadors were sent to the cities of mainland Greece demanding "land and water", i.e. obedience to the power of Darius. Most of the Greek cities agreed to the demands of the ambassadors, and only Sparta and Athens refused to obey and even killed the ambassadors themselves. The Persians began to prepare for a new campaign against Greece.

In early August, the Persian army, with the help of experienced Greek guides, sailed on ships to Attica and landed on the Marathon plain, 40 km from Athens. This plain stretches for a length of 9 km, and its width is 3 km. The Persian army hardly numbered more than 15 thousand people.

At this time, in the Athenian popular assembly, there were sharp disputes regarding the forthcoming tactics of the war with the Persians. After a long discussion, it was decided to send the Athenian army, which consisted of 10 thousand people, to the Marathon plain. The Spartans promised to help, but were in no hurry to send an army, referring to the old custom, according to which it was impossible to march before the full moon.

At Marathon, both sides waited for several days, not daring to fight. The Persian army was located on an open plain where cavalry could be used. The Athenians, who had no cavalry at all, gathered in a narrow part of the plain where the Persian horsemen could not operate. Meanwhile, the position of the Persian army was becoming difficult, because it was necessary to decide the outcome of the war before the arrival of the Spartan army. At the same time, the Persian cavalry could not move into the gorges where the Athenian soldiers were stationed. Therefore, the Persian command decided to transfer part of the army to capture Athens. After that, on August 12, 590, the Athenian army marched on the enemy with a swift march to give a general battle.

The Persian soldiers fought courageously, crushed the Athenian ranks in the center and began to pursue them. But on the flanks the Persians had fewer forces, and there they were defeated. Then the Athenians began to fight the Persians, who had broken through in the center. After that, the Persians began to retreat, suffering heavy losses. 6,400 Persians and their allies remained on the battlefield, and only 192 Athenians.

Despite the defeat suffered, Darius did not leave the thought of a new campaign against Greece. But the preparation of such a campaign required a lot of time, and meanwhile, in October 486, an uprising broke out in Egypt against Persian domination.

The reasons for the uprising were heavy tax oppression and the deportation of many thousands of artisans to build palaces in Susa and Persepolis. A month later, Darius I, who was 64 years old, died before he could restore his power in Egypt.

Darius I was succeeded on the Persian throne by his son Xerxes. In January 484, he succeeded in putting down an uprising in Egypt. The Egyptians were subjected to ruthless reprisals, the property of many temples was confiscated.

But in the summer of 484 a new uprising broke out, this time in Babylonia. This uprising was soon crushed, and its instigators were severely punished. However, in the summer of 482 the Babylonians rebelled again. This rebellion, which engulfed most of the country, was especially dangerous, since Xerxes at that time was already in Asia Minor, preparing for a campaign against the Greeks. The siege of Babylon lasted a long time and ended in March 481 with a brutal massacre. The city walls and other fortifications were torn down, and many houses were destroyed.

In the spring of 480, Xerxes set out on a campaign against Greece at the head of a huge army. All the satrapies from India to Egypt sent their contingents.

The Greeks decided to resist in a narrow mountain pass called Thermopylae, which was easy to defend, since the Persians could not deploy their army there. However, Sparta sent there only a small detachment of 300 soldiers, led by King Leonidas. The total number of Greeks guarding Thermopylae was 6500 people. They resisted staunchly and for three days successfully repulsed the frontal attacks of the enemy. But then Leonid, who commanded the Greek army, ordered the main forces to retreat, while he himself, with 300 Spartans, remained to cover the retreat. They fought bravely until the end, until they all died.

The Greeks adhered to such tactics that they should attack at sea and defend on land. The combined Greek fleet stood in the bay between the island of Salamis and the coast of Attica, where the large Persian fleet was unable to maneuver. The Greek fleet consisted of 380 ships, of which 147 belonged to the Athenians and were built recently, taking into account all the requirements of military technology. The talented and determined commander Themistocles played a large role in leading the fleet. The Persians had 650 ships, Xerxes hoped to destroy the entire enemy fleet with one blow and thus end the war victoriously. However, shortly before the battle, a storm raged for three days, many Persian ships were thrown onto a rocky coast, and the fleet suffered heavy losses. After this, on September 28, 480, the battle of Salamis took place, which lasted for twelve whole hours. The Persian fleet was pinned down in a narrow bay, and its ships interfered with each other. The Greeks won a complete victory in this battle, and most of the Persian fleet was destroyed. Xerxes with part of the army decided to return to Asia Minor, leaving his commander Mardonius with an army in Greece.

The decisive battle took place on September 26, 479 near the city of Plataea. Persian mounted archers began shelling the Greek ranks, and the enemy began to retreat. Mardonius, at the head of a thousand selected warriors, broke into the center of the Spartan army and inflicted great damage on it. But the Persians, unlike the Greeks, did not have heavy weapons, and in military art they were inferior to the enemy. The Persians had first-class cavalry, but, due to the conditions of the area, they could not take part in the battle. Soon Mardonius, along with his bodyguards, died. The Persian army was split into separate detachments, which acted inconsistently.

The Persian army was defeated, and its remnants crossed on ships to Asia Minor.

At the end of the autumn of the same year, 479, a major naval battle took place at Cape Mycale off the coast of Asia Minor. During the battle, the Greeks of Asia Minor betrayed the Persians and went over to the side of the mainland Greeks; The Persians were completely defeated. This defeat served as a signal for the widespread uprisings of the Greek states in Asia Minor against Persian domination.

The Greek victories at Salamis, Plataea and Mycale forced the Persians to abandon the idea of ​​capturing Greece. Now, on the contrary, Sparta and Athens transferred hostilities to the territory of the enemy, to Asia Minor. Gradually the Greeks managed to expel the Persian garrisons from Thrace and Macedonia. The war between the Greeks and Persians continued until 449.

In the summer of 465, Xerxes was killed as a result of a conspiracy, and his son Artaxerxes I became king.

In 460, an uprising broke out in Egypt led by Inar. The Athenians sent their fleet to help the rebels. The Persians suffered several defeats, and they had to leave the city of Memphis.

In 455, Artaxerxes I sent against the rebels in Egypt and their allies the satrap of Syria, Megabyzus, with a strong land army and a Phoenician fleet. The rebels, along with the Athenians, were defeated. V next year the uprising was completely crushed, and Egypt again became a Persian satrapy.

Meanwhile, the war of Persia with the Greek states continued. However, soon, in 449, a peace treaty was concluded in Susa, under the terms of which the Greek cities of Asia Minor formally remained under supreme authority Persian king, but the Athenians received the actual right to rule them. In addition, Persia pledged not to send its troops west of the river. Galis, along which, according to this agreement, the border line was supposed to pass. For its part, Athens left Cyprus and pledged not to provide future assistance to the Egyptians in their struggle against the Persians.

The constant uprisings of the conquered peoples and military defeats forced Artaxerxes I and his successors to radically change their diplomacy, namely, to set one state against another, while resorting to bribery. When the Peloponnesian War broke out in Greece in 431 between Sparta and Athens, which lasted until 404, Persia helped one or the other of these states, being interested in their complete exhaustion.

In 424 Artaxerxes I died. After the troubles in the palace in February 423, the son of Artaxerxes Oh, who took the throne name of Darius II, became king. His reign is characterized by a further weakening of the state, the strengthening of the influence of the court nobility, palace intrigues and conspiracies, as well as uprisings of conquered peoples.

In 408, two energetic military leaders arrived in Asia Minor, who were determined to quickly and victoriously end the war. One of them was Cyrus the Younger, the son of Darius II, who was the governor of several Asia Minor satrapies. In addition, he became commander of all Persian forces in Asia Minor. Cyrus the Younger was a capable general and statesman and sought to restore the former greatness of the Persian state. At the same time, the leadership of the Lacedaemonian army in Asia Minor passed into the hands of the experienced Spartan commander Lysander. Cyrus pursued a policy friendly to Sparta and began to help her army in every possible way. Together with Lysander, he cleared the Asia Minor coast and many islands of the Aegean Sea from the Athenian fleet.

In March 404, Darius II died, and his eldest son, Arsaces, became king, taking the throne name Artaxerxes II.

In 405, an uprising broke out in Egypt under the leadership of Amyrtheus. The rebels won one victory after another, and soon the entire Delta was in their hands. The satrap of Syria, Abrokom, gathered a large army to throw it against the Egyptians, but at that time, in the very center of the Persian state, Cyrus the Younger, the satrap of Asia Minor, revolted against his brother Artaxerxes II. Abrokom's army was sent against Cyrus, and the Egyptians were given a respite. Amyrtheus by the beginning of the 4th century. established his control over all of Egypt. The insurgents transferred hostilities even to the territory of Syria.

Cyrus gathered a large army to try to seize the throne. The Spartans decided to support Cyrus and assisted him in recruiting Greek mercenaries. In 401, Cyrus with his army moved from Sardis in Asia Minor to Babylonia and, without meeting any resistance, reached the area of ​​Kunaks on the Euphrates, 90 km from Babylon. There was also the army of the Persian king. The decisive battle took place on September 3, 401. The Greek mercenaries of Cyrus were located on both flanks, and the rest of the army occupied the center.

In front of the king's army were scythed chariots, which with their sickles cut everything that came across them on the way. But the right flank of the army of Artaxerxes was crushed by Greek mercenaries. Cyrus, seeing Artaxerxes, rushed at him, leaving his soldiers far behind. Cyrus managed to inflict a wound on Artaxerxes, but he was immediately killed himself. After that, the rebellious army, having lost its leader, was defeated. 13 thousand Greek mercenaries who served Cyrus the Younger, at the cost of great efforts and losses in the spring of 400, managed to reach the Black Sea, passing through Babylonia and Armenia (the famous "Ten Thousand Campaign" described by Xenophon).

Fall of the Persian Empire

Around 360, Cyprus fell away from the Persians. At the same time, uprisings took place in the Phoenician cities and unrest began in the satrapies of Asia Minor. Soon Kariya and India fell away from the Persian state. In 358, the reign of Artaxerxes II ended, and his son Oh, who took the throne name Artaxerxes III, came to the throne. First of all, he exterminated all his brothers in order to prevent a palace coup.

The new king turned out to be a man of iron will and firmly held the reins of government in his hands, removing the eunuchs who were influential at the court. He energetically undertook the restoration of the Persian state in its former borders.

In 349, the Phoenician city of Sidon rebelled against Persia. Persian officials who lived in the city were captured and killed. The king of Sidon, Tennes, hired Greek soldiers with money willingly provided by Egypt, and inflicted two major defeats on the Persian army. After this, Artaxerxes III took command and in 345 led a large army against Sidon. After a long siege, the city surrendered and was brutally massacred. Sidon was burned and turned into ruins. None of the inhabitants escaped, because at the very beginning of the siege, they, fearing cases of desertion, burned all their ships. The Persians threw many Sidonians together with their families into the fire and killed about 40 thousand people. The survivors were enslaved.

Now it was necessary to suppress the uprising in Egypt. In the winter of 343, Artaxerxes set out on a campaign against this country, where Pharaoh Nectaneb II reigned at that time. The army of the pharaoh came out to meet the Persians, in which there were 60 thousand Egyptians, 20 thousand Greek mercenaries and the same number of Libyans. The Egyptians also had a strong navy. When the Persian army reached the border city of Pelusia, the commanders of Nectaneb II advised him to immediately attack the enemy, but the pharaoh did not dare to take such a step. The Persian command took advantage of the respite and managed to lead their ships up the Nile, and the Persian fleet was in the rear of the Egyptian army. By this time, the position of the Egyptian army stationed at Pelusium had become hopeless.

Nectaneb II retreated with his army to Memphis. But at this time, the Greek mercenaries who served the pharaoh went over to the side of the enemy. In 342, the Persians captured all of Egypt and sacked its cities.

In 337, Artaxerxes III was poisoned by his personal physician at the instigation of a court eunuch. In 336, the Armenian satrap Kodoman took the throne, taking the throne name Darius III.

While the top of the Persian nobility was busy with palace intrigues and coups, a dangerous enemy appeared on the political horizon. The Macedonian king Philip captured Thrace, and in 338, under Chaeronea in Boeotia, he defeated the combined forces of the Greek states. The Macedonians became the arbiters of the fate of Greece, and Philip himself was chosen as the commander of the united Greek army.

In 336, Philip sent 10,000 Macedonian soldiers to Asia Minor to capture the western coast of Asia Minor. But in July 336, Philip was killed by conspirators, and Alexander, who was only 20 years old, became king. The Greeks of the Balkan Peninsula were ready to revolt against the young king. By decisive action, Alexander consolidated his power. He understood that great preparations were required for the upcoming war with Persia, and withdrew the Macedonian army from Asia Minor, thereby lulling the vigilance of the Persians.

Thus, Persia received a respite for two years. However, nothing was done by the Persians to prepare for the inevitable Macedonian threat. During this critical period, the Persians did not even strive to improve their army and completely ignored the military achievements of the Macedonians, especially in the field of siege. Although the Persian command understood all the advantages of the Macedonian weapons, it did not reform its army, limiting itself only to increasing the contingent of Greek mercenaries. In addition to inexhaustible material resources, Persia also had superiority over Macedonia in the navy. But the Macedonian warriors were equipped with the best weapons for their time and they were led by experienced generals.

In the spring of 334, the Macedonian army set out on a campaign. It consisted of 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry. The core of the army was heavily armed Macedonian infantry and cavalry. In addition, there were also Greek infantrymen in the army. The army was accompanied by 160 warships. The trip was carefully prepared. Siege engines were brought in to storm cities.

Although Darius III had a larger army, in terms of its fighting qualities it was much inferior to the Macedonian (especially heavy infantry), and the Greek mercenaries were the most persistent part of the Persian army. The Persian satraps boastfully assured their king that the enemy would be defeated in the very first battle.

The first collision took place in the summer of 334 on the banks of the Hellespont at the river. Granik. Alexander was the winner. After that, he captured the Greek cities in Asia Minor and moved inland. Of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, Halicarnassus remained loyal to the Persian king for a long time and stubbornly resisted the Macedonians. In the summer of 333, the latter rushed to Syria, where the main Persian forces were concentrated. In November 333 a new battle took place, at Issus, on the border of Cilicia with Syria. The core of the Persian army was 30 thousand Greek mercenaries. But Darius III in his plans assigned a decisive role to the Persian cavalry, which was supposed to crush the left flank of the Macedonians. Alexander, in order to strengthen his left flank, concentrated the entire Thessalian cavalry there, and he himself, with the rest of the army, struck at the right flank of the enemy and defeated him.

But Greek mercenaries broke into the center of the Macedonians, and Alexander hurried there with part of the army. The fierce battle continued, but Darius III lost his temper and, not waiting for the outcome of the battle, fled, leaving his family, who were captured. The battle ended in a complete victory for Alexander, the entrance to Syria and the Phoenician coast was opened for him. The Phoenician cities of Arad, Byblos and Sidon surrendered without resistance. The Persian fleet lost its dominant position at sea.

But the well-fortified Tire offered fierce resistance to the invaders, and the siege of the city lasted seven months. In July 332, Tire was taken and destroyed, and its population was enslaved.

Having rejected the requests of Darius III for peace, Alexander began to prepare for the continuation of the war. In the autumn of 332, he captured Egypt, and then returned to Syria and headed for the area of ​​Gaugamela, not far from Arbela, where the Persian king was with his army. On October 1, 331, a battle took place. The center of the army of Darius III was occupied by Greek mercenaries, and Macedonian infantry was located against them. The Persians were outnumbered on the right flank and upset the Macedonian ranks. But the decisive battle took place in the center, where Alexander, together with his cavalry, penetrated into the middle of the Persian army. The Persians brought chariots and elephants into the battle, but Darius III, as under Issus, prematurely considered the ongoing battle lost and fled. After that, only the Greek mercenaries resisted the enemy. Alexander won a complete victory and captured Babylonia, and in February 330 the Macedonians entered Susa. Then Persepolis and Pasargada fell into the hands of the Macedonians, where the main treasuries of the Persian kings were kept.

Darius and his associates fled from Ecbatana to Eastern Iran, where he was killed by the Bactrian satrap Bessus, and the Persian state ceased to exist.

Persia (which country is now, you can find out from the article) existed more than two thousand years ago. It is known for its conquests and culture. In the territory ancient state ruled by many nations. But they could not eradicate the culture and traditions of the Aryans.

From the middle of the sixth century BC, the Persians appeared on the arena of world history. Until that time, the inhabitants of the Middle East had heard very little about this mysterious tribe. It became known about them only after they began to seize lands.

Cyrus II, the king of the Persians from the Achaemenid dynasty, was able to capture Media and other states in a short time. His well-armed army began preparations to march against Babylon.

At this time, Babylon and Egypt were at enmity with each other, but when a strong enemy appeared, they decided to forget about the conflict. Babylon's preparation for war did not save her from defeat. The Persians captured the cities of Opis and Sippar, and then took possession of Babylon without a fight. Cyrus the Second decided to move further to the East. In a war with nomadic tribes, he died in 530 BC.

The successors of the deceased king, Cambyses II and Darius I, managed to capture Egypt. Darius was able not only to strengthen the eastern and western borders of the state, but also to expand them from the Aegean to India, as well as from the lands of Central Asia to the banks of the Nile. Persia absorbed the famous world civilizations of the ancient world and owned them until the fourth century BC. The empire was conquered by Alexander the Great.

Second Persian Empire

The Macedonian soldiers took revenge on the Persians for the ruin of Athens by incinerating Persepolis. On this, the Achaemenid dynasty ceased to exist. Ancient Persia fell under the humiliating power of the Greeks.

It was only in the second century BC that the Greeks were driven out. The Parthians did it. But they were not allowed to rule for a long time, they were overthrown by Artaxerxes. The history of the second Persian state began with him. In another way, it is commonly called the power of the Sassanid dynasty. Under their rule, the Achaemenid Empire is revived, albeit in a different form. Greek culture is being replaced by Iranian.

In the seventh century, Persia lost its power and was included in the Arab Caliphate.

Life in Ancient Persia through the eyes of other nations

The life of the Persians is known from the works that have survived to this day. Mostly Greek writings. It is known that Persia (which country is now, you can find out below) very quickly conquered the territories of ancient civilizations. What were the Persians like?

They were tall and physically strong. Life in the mountains and steppes made them hardened and hardy. They were famous for their courage and unity. In everyday life, the Persians ate moderately, did not drink wine, and were indifferent to precious metals. They wore clothes sewn from animal skins, their heads were covered with felt caps (tiaras).

During the coronation, the ruler had to put on the clothes that he wore before becoming king. He was also supposed to eat dried figs and drink sour milk.

The Persians had the right to live with several wives, not counting concubines. Closely related ties were allowed, for example, between an uncle and a niece. Women were not to be seen by strangers. This also applied to wives and concubines. Proof of this are the preserved reliefs of Persepolis, on which there are no images of the fair sex.

Persian achievements:

• good roads;
• minting own coins;
• creation of gardens (paradises);
• cylinder of Cyrus the Great - a prototype of the first charter of human rights.

Before Persia, but now?

It is not always possible to say exactly which state is in place ancient civilization. The world map has changed hundreds of times. Changes are taking place even today. How to understand where was Persia? What is the current country in its place?

Modern states on whose territory there was an empire:

• Egypt.
• Lebanon.
• Iraq.
• Pakistan.
• Georgia.
• Bulgaria.
• Turkey.
• Parts of Greece and Romania.

These are not all countries that are related to Persia. However, Iran is most often associated with the ancient empire. What is this country and its people?

The mysterious past of Iran

The name of the country is modern form the word "Ariana", which translates as "country of the Aryans." Indeed, from the first millennium BC, the Aryan tribes inhabited almost all the lands of modern Iran. Part of this tribe moved to Northern India, and part went to the northern steppes, calling themselves Scythians, Sarmatians.

Later strong kingdoms were formed in Western Iran. Media became one of such Iranian formations. She was subsequently captured by the army of Cyrus the Second. It was he who united the Iranians in his empire and led them to conquer the world.

How does modern Persia live (what country is now, it became clear)?

Life in modern Iran through the eyes of foreigners

For many people, Iran is associated with the revolution and the nuclear program. However, the history of this country covers more than two thousand years. She absorbed different cultures: Persian, Islamic, Western.

The Iranians have elevated pretense to a real art of communication. They are very courteous and sincere, but this is only the outer side. In fact, behind their obsequiousness lies the intention to find out all the intentions of the interlocutor.

Former Persia (now Iran) was captured by the Greeks, Turks, Mongols. At the same time, the Persians were able to preserve their traditions. They know how to get along with strangers, their culture is characterized by a certain flexibility - to take the best from the traditions of strangers, without abandoning their own.

Iran (Persia) was ruled by the Arabs for centuries. At the same time, its inhabitants were able to preserve their language. Poetry helped them in this. Most of all they honor the poet Ferdowsi, and the Europeans remember Omar Khayyam. The teaching of Zarathustra, which appeared long before the invasion of the Arabs, contributed to the preservation of culture.

Although Islam plays the leading role in the country now, the Iranians have not lost their national identity. They remember well their centuries-old history.

In the middle of the VI century. BC e. the Persians entered the arena of world history - a mysterious tribe, about which the previously civilized peoples of the Middle East knew only by hearsay.

About manners and customs ancient Persians known from the writings of the peoples who lived next to them. In addition to their mighty growth and physical development, the Persians had a will hardened in the fight against the harsh climate and the dangers of nomadic life in the mountains and steppes. At that time they were famous for their moderate way of life, temperance, strength, courage and unity.

According to Herodotus, Persians wore clothes made of animal skins and felt tiaras (caps), did not drink wine, ate not as much as they wanted, but as much as they had. They were indifferent to silver and gold.

Simplicity and modesty in food and clothing remained one of the main virtues even during the reign of the Persians over, when they began to dress in luxurious Median outfits, wear gold necklaces and bracelets, when Persian kings and nobility were brought to the table in fresh fish from distant seas, fruits from Babylonia and Syria. Even then, during the rite of coronation of the Persian kings, the Achaemenides who ascended the throne had to put on the clothes that he wore when he was not a king, eat some dried figs and drink a cup of sour milk.

The ancient Persians were allowed to have many wives, as well as concubines, to marry close relatives, such as nieces and half-sisters. Ancient Persian customs forbade women to show themselves to strangers (among the numerous reliefs in Persepolis there is not a single female image). The ancient historian Plutarch wrote that the Persians are characterized by wild jealousy not only in relation to their wives. They even kept slaves and concubines locked up so that outsiders could not see them, and carried them in closed wagons.

History of ancient Persia

Persian king Cyrus II of the Achaemenid clan short term conquered Media and many other countries and had a huge and well-armed army, which began to prepare for a campaign against Babylonia. Appeared in Asia Minor new power who managed in a short time - in just a few decades- completely change political map Middle East.

Babylonia and Egypt abandoned their long-standing hostile policy towards each other, because the rulers of both countries were well aware of the need to prepare for war with the Persian Empire. The start of the war was only a matter of time.

The campaign against the Persians began in 539 BC. e. decisive battle between the Persians and the Babylonians took place near the city of Opis on the Tigris River. Cyrus won a complete victory here, soon his troops took the well-fortified city of Sippar, and the Persians captured Babylon without a fight.

After that, the eyes of the Persian ruler turned to the East, where for several years he waged a grueling war with nomadic tribes and where he eventually died in 530 BC. e.

The successors of Cyrus - Cambyses and Darius completed the work begun by him. in 524-523 BC e. Cambyses marched on Egypt, as a result of which established the power of the Achaemenids on the banks of the Nile. became one of the satrapies of the new empire. Darius continued to strengthen the eastern and western borders of the empire. By the end of the reign of Darius, who died in 485 BC. e., the Persian state dominated over a vast area from the Aegean in the west to India in the east, and from the deserts of Central Asia in the north to the rapids of the Nile in the south. The Achaemenids (Persians) united almost the entire civilized world known to them and owned it until the 4th century BC. BC e., when their power was broken and subjugated by the military genius of Alexander the Great.

Chronology of the rulers of the Achaemenid dynasty:

• Achaemenes, 600s BC.
• Teispes, 600 BC
• Cyrus I, 640 - 580 BC.
• Cambyses I, 580 - 559 BC.
• Cyrus II the Great, 559 - 530 BC.
• Cambyses II, 530 - 522 BC
• Bardia, 522 BC
• Darius I, 522 - 486 BC
• Xerxes I, 485 - 465 BC
• Artaxerxes I, 465 - 424 BC
• Xerxes II, 424 BC
• Secudian, 424 - 423 BC
• Darius II, 423 - 404 BC
• Artaxerxes II, 404 - 358 BC
• Artaxerxes III, 358 - 338 BC
• Artaxerxes IV Arces, 338 - 336 BC
• Darius III, 336 - 330 BC
• Artaxerxes V Bessus, 330 - 329 BC

Map of the Persian Empire

The tribes of the Aryans - the eastern branch of the Indo-Europeans - by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. inhabited almost the entire territory of present-day Iran. Samo the word "Iran" is the modern form of the name "Ariana", i.e. land of the Aryans. Initially, these were warlike tribes of semi-nomadic pastoralists who fought on war chariots. Part of the Aryans moved even earlier and captured it, giving rise to the Indo-Aryan culture. Other Aryan tribes, closer to the Iranians, remained nomadic in Central Asia and the northern steppes - Saks, Sarmatians, etc. The Iranians themselves, having settled on the fertile lands of the Iranian Highlands, gradually abandoned their nomadic life, took up farming, adopting skills. It reached a high level already in the XI-VIII centuries. BC e. Iranian craft. His monument is the famous "Luristan bronzes" - skillfully made weapons and household items with images of mythical and really existing animals.

"Luristan bronzes"- cultural monument of Western Iran. It was here, in the immediate neighborhood and confrontation, that the most powerful Iranian kingdoms were formed. The first of them Mussel intensified(Northwest Iran). The Median kings participated in the crushing of Assyria. The history of their state is well known from written monuments. But the Median monuments of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. very poorly studied. Even the capital of the country, the city of Ecbatany, has not been found yet. It is only known that it was located in the vicinity of the modern city of Hamadan. Nevertheless, the two Median fortresses already explored by archaeologists from the time of the struggle with Assyria speak of a rather high culture of the Medes.

In 553 BC. e. Cyrus (Kurush) II, the king of the subject Persian tribe from the Achaemenid clan, rebelled against the Medes. In 550 BC. e. Cyrus united the Iranians under his rule and led them to conquer the world. In 546 BC. e. he conquered Asia Minor, and in 538 BC. e. fell. The son of Cyrus, Cambyses, conquered, and under King Darius I at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. before. n. e. Persian power reached its greatest expansion and prosperity.

Monuments of its greatness are the royal capitals excavated by archaeologists - the most famous and best studied monuments of Persian culture. The oldest of them is Pasargada, the capital of Cyrus.

Sassanid Revival - Sassanian Empire

In 331-330 years. BC e. the famous conqueror Alexander the Great destroyed the Persian Empire. In retaliation for Athens once ravaged by the Persians, Greek Macedonian soldiers brutally looted and burned Persepolis. The Achaemenid dynasty ended. The period of Greek-Macedonian dominion over the East began, which is usually referred to as the era of Hellenism.

For the Iranians, the conquest was a disaster. The power over all neighbors was replaced by humiliated submission to old enemies - the Greeks. The traditions of Iranian culture, already shaken by the desire of kings and nobles to imitate the vanquished in luxury, were now completely trampled. Little changed after the liberation of the country by the nomadic Iranian tribe of the Parthians. The Parthians expelled the Greeks from Iran in the 2nd century BC. BC e., but they themselves borrowed a lot from Greek culture. The Greek language is still used on the coins and inscriptions of their kings. Temples are still built with numerous statues, according to Greek models, which seemed to many Iranians blasphemy. Zarathushtra in ancient times forbade the worship of idols, commanding to honor the inextinguishable flame as a symbol of the deity and to make sacrifices to it. It was religious humiliation that was the greatest, and it was not for nothing that the cities built by the Greek conquerors were later called “Dragon buildings” in Iran.

In 226 AD e. the rebellious ruler of Pars, who bore the ancient royal name Ardashir (Artaxerxes), overthrew the Parthian dynasty. The second story begins Persian Empire - Sassanid Powers, the dynasty to which the winner belonged.

The Sassanids sought to revive the culture of ancient Iran. The very history of the Achaemenid state by that time had become a vague legend. So, as an ideal, the society that was described in the legends of the Zoroastrian priests-mobeds was put forward. The Sassanids built, in fact, a culture that had never existed in the past, thoroughly imbued with a religious idea. This had little in common with the era of the Achaemenids, who willingly adopted the customs of the conquered tribes.

Under the Sassanids, the Iranian decisively triumphed over the Hellenic. Greek temples completely disappear, the Greek language goes out of official use. The broken statues of Zeus (who was identified with Ahura Mazda under the Parthians) are being replaced by faceless altars of fire. Naksh-i-Rustem is decorated with new reliefs and inscriptions. In the III century. The second Sasanian king Shapur I ordered his victory over the Roman emperor Valerian to be carved on the rocks. On the reliefs, the kings are overshadowed by a bird-like farn - a sign of divine patronage.

Capital of Persia became the city of Ctesiphon, built by the Parthians next to the empty Babylon. Under the Sassanids, new palace complexes were built in Ctesiphon and huge (up to 120 hectares) royal parks were laid out. The most famous of the Sasanian palaces is Taq-i-Kisra, the palace of King Khosrov I, who ruled in the 6th century. Along with monumental reliefs, palaces were now decorated with fine carved ornaments made from lime mixture.

Under the Sassanids, the irrigation system of Iranian and Mesopotamian lands was improved. In the VI century. the country was covered by a network of kariz (underground water pipes with clay pipes), stretching up to 40 km. Cleaning of karizs was carried out through special wells dug every 10 m. Karizs served for a long time and ensured the rapid development of agriculture in Iran in the Sasanian era. It was then that Iran began to grow cotton and sugar cane, and horticulture and winemaking developed. At the same time, Iran became one of the suppliers of its own fabrics - both woolen and linen and silk.

Sasanian power was much less Achaemenid, covered only Iran itself, part of the lands of Central Asia, the territory of present-day Iraq, Armenia and Azerbaijan. She had to fight for a long time, first with Rome, then with byzantine empire. Despite all this, the Sassanids lasted longer than the Achaemenids - over four centuries. Ultimately, exhausted by continuous wars in the west, the state was engulfed in a struggle for power. This was used by the Arabs, who carried the force of arms new faith- Islam. In 633-651. after a fierce war, they conquered Persia. So it was over with the ancient Persian state and ancient Iranian culture.

Persian system of government

The ancient Greeks, who got acquainted with the organization of state administration in the Achaemenid Empire, admired the wisdom and foresight of the Persian kings. In their opinion, this organization was the pinnacle of development monarchical form board.

The Persian kingdom was divided into large provinces, called satrapies by the title of their rulers - satraps (Persian, "kshatra-pawan" - "guardian of the region"). Usually there were 20 of them, but this number fluctuated, since sometimes the administration of two or more satrapies was entrusted to one person and, conversely, one region was divided into several. This mainly pursued the goals of taxation, but also sometimes took into account the characteristics of the peoples who inhabited them, and historical features. Satraps and rulers of smaller areas were not the only representatives of local government. In addition to them, in many provinces there were hereditary local kings or possessing priests, as well as free cities and, finally, "benefactors" who received cities and districts for life, and even hereditary possession. These kings, governors, and high priests differed in position from the satraps only in that they were hereditary and had a historical and national connection with the population, who saw them as bearers of ancient traditions. They independently carried out internal administration, preserved local law, a system of measures, language, imposed taxes and duties, but were under the constant control of the satraps, who could often intervene in the affairs of the regions, especially during unrest and unrest. The satraps also resolved border disputes between cities and regions, litigation in cases where the participants were citizens of various urban communities or various vassal regions, and regulated political relations. Local rulers, like the satraps, had the right to communicate directly with the central government, and some of them, such as the kings of the Phoenician cities, Cilicia, Greek tyrants, maintained their own army and fleet, which they personally commanded, accompanying the Persian army on large campaigns or performing military orders of the king. However, the satrap could at any time demand these troops for the royal service, put his garrison in the possessions of local rulers. The main command over the troops of the province also belonged to him. The satrap was even allowed to recruit soldiers and mercenaries on his own and at his own expense. He was, as they would call him in an era closer to us, the governor-general of his satrapy, ensuring its internal and external security.

The supreme command of the troops was carried out by the heads of four or, as during the subjugation of Egypt, five military districts into which the kingdom was divided.

Persian system of government gives an example of amazing respect by the winners of local customs and the rights of conquered peoples. In Babylonia, for example, all documents from the time of Persian rule do not differ legally from those relating to the period of independence. The same thing happened in Egypt and Judea. In Egypt, the Persians left the former not only the division into nomes, but also the sovereign families, the location of troops and garrisons, as well as the tax immunity of temples and priesthood. Of course, the central government and the satrap could intervene at any time and decide matters at their own discretion, but for the most part it was enough for them if the country was calm, the taxes were being paid properly, the troops were in order.

Such a system of governance took shape in the Middle East not immediately. For example, initially in the conquered territories it relied only on the force of arms and intimidation. The areas taken "with a fight" were included directly in the House of Ashur - the central region. Those who surrendered to the mercy of the conqueror often retained their local dynasty. But over time, this system turned out to be ill-suited to managing a growing state. The reorganization of government carried out by King Tiglath-Pileser III in the UNT c. BC e., in addition to the policy of forced migrations, it also changed the system of administration of the regions of the empire. The kings tried to prevent the emergence of overly powerful families. To prevent the creation of hereditary possessions and new dynasties among the rulers of the regions, to the most important posts often appointed eunuchs. In addition, although large officials received huge land holdings, they did not form a single array, but were scattered throughout the country.

But still, the main support of the Assyrian domination, as well as the Babylonian later, was the army. Military garrisons literally encircled the entire country. Taking into account the experience of their predecessors, the Achaemenids added to the force of arms the idea of ​​a "kingdom of countries", that is, a reasonable combination of local characteristics with the interests of the central government.

The vast state needed the means of communication needed to control the central government over local officials and rulers. The language of the Persian office, in which even royal decrees were issued, was Aramaic. This is explained by the fact that in fact it was in common use in Assyria and Babylonia back in Assyrian times. The conquests by the Assyrian and Babylonian kings of the western regions, Syria and Palestine, further contributed to its spread. This language gradually took the place of the ancient Akkadian cuneiform in international relations; it was used even on the coins of the Asia Minor satraps of the Persian king.

Another feature of the Persian Empire that admired the Greeks there were great roads, described by Herodotus and Xenophon in the stories about the campaigns of King Cyrus. The most famous were the so-called Royal, which went from Ephesus in Asia Minor, off the coast of the Aegean Sea, to the east - to Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian state, through the Euphrates, Armenia and Assyria along the Tigris River; the road leading from Babylonia through the Zagros mountains to the east to another capital of Persia - Ecbatana, and from here to the Bactrian and Indian border; the road from the Issky Gulf of the Mediterranean Sea to Sinop on the Black Sea, crossing Asia Minor, etc.

These roads were laid not only by the Persians. Most of them existed in Assyrian and even earlier times. The beginning of the construction of the Royal Road, which was the main artery of the Persian monarchy, probably dates back to the era of the Hittite kingdom, located in Asia Minor on the way from Mesopotamia and Syria to Europe. Sardis, the capital of Lydia conquered by the Medes, was connected by road with another large city - Pteria. From it the road went to the Euphrates. Herodotus, speaking of the Lydians, calls them the first shopkeepers, which was natural for the owners of the road between Europe and Babylon. The Persians continued this route from Babylonia further east, to their capitals, improved it and adapted it not only for trading purposes, but also for state needs - mail.

The Persian kingdom also took advantage of another invention of the Lydians - a coin. Until the 7th century BC e. subsistence economy dominated throughout the East, money circulation was just beginning to emerge: the role of money was played by metal ingots of a certain weight and shape. These could be rings, plates, mugs without chasing and images. The weight was different everywhere, and therefore, outside the place of origin, the ingot simply lost the value of a coin and had to be weighed again each time, that is, it became an ordinary commodity. On the border between Europe and Asia, the Lydian kings were the first to switch to the minting of a state coin of a clearly defined weight and denomination. Hence the use of such coins spread throughout Asia Minor, to Cyprus and Palestine. The ancient trading countries -, and - retained the old system for a very long time. They began to mint coins after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and before that they used coins made in Asia Minor.

Establishing a unified tax system, the Persian kings could not do without the minting of coins; in addition, the needs of the state that kept the mercenaries, as well as the unprecedented flourishing of international trade, caused the need for a single coin. And in the kingdom a gold coin was introduced, and only the government had the right to mint it; local rulers, cities and satraps, in order to pay mercenaries, received the right to mint only silver and copper coins, which remained an ordinary commodity outside their area.

So, by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. in the Middle East, through the efforts of many generations and many peoples, a civilization arose that even the freedom-loving Greeks was considered ideal. Here is what the ancient Greek historian Xenophon wrote: “Wherever the king lives, wherever he goes, he makes sure that everywhere there are gardens called paradises, full of everything beautiful and good that the earth can produce. He spends most of his time in them, if the season does not interfere with this ... Some say that when the king gives gifts, those who distinguished themselves in the war are first called up, because it is useless to plow a lot if there is no one to protect, and then they cultivate the land in the best possible way, for the strong could not exist if there were no workers ... ".

It is not surprising that this civilization developed precisely in Western Asia. It not only arose earlier than others, but also developed faster and more vigorously, had the most favorable conditions for its development due to constant contacts with neighbors and the exchange of innovations. Here, more often than in other ancient centers of world culture, new ideas arose and important discoveries were made in almost all areas of production and culture. Potter's wheel and wheel, bronze and iron making, war chariot as fundamentally new means of warfare, various forms of writing from pictograms to the alphabet - all this and much more genetically goes back to Western Asia, from where these innovations spread to the rest of the world, including other centers of primary civilization.

Persia has existed for more than two and a half thousand years. Once it was a great and powerful state with rich cultural achievements. But today, not everyone knows what happened to it and where it is located today.

Today, the modern country of Persia, as in former times, is a fairly developed state economically and culturally. But let's look into the past...

History of Persia

In the VI century BC in the territory Middle East Persian tribes appeared. In a short period, under the leadership of King Cyrus II, they managed to achieve significant military successes. The power of the Persian army became so great that Babylon surrendered to the Persians without a fight.

Cyrus II personally participated in the battles and died in one of them in 530 BC. His successor Cambyses II led the Persian army and it successfully conquered Ancient Egypt. The territories of Persia began to stretch from India to the Aegean Sea. Persia held a huge amount of land under its influence for more than two hundred years until the 4th century BC. The history of this ancient country is well described by Wikipedia.

Dark times for Persia came with campaigns Alexander the Great. The desire to avenge the sack of Athens led to large-scale battles in which Persia suffered many defeats. The entire royal family of the Achaemenids ceased to exist, and Persia was subjected to humiliating oppression by the Greeks for two long centuries.

Parthians succeeded in overthrowing the Greeks, after which Artaxerxes became the ruler. He tried to return the former greatness to the lands of ancient Persia and revived the empire.

In fact, this is the beginning of the era of the second Persian empire. In this format, Persia existed until the seventh century AD, after which its influence greatly weakened and it was absorbed Arab Caliphate.

After the advent of the Islamic period, Persia was divided into several separate lands with their rulers coming to power by force and at enmity with each other. Fragmentation allowed the Mongol invasion to easily raid and plunder Persian cities.

Officially, the country began to be called in 1935. For many, the name has become completely unknown and not everyone always understands what kind of state it is. But not for the Persians themselves. Such a decision was made in rather difficult times in order to get rid of the past trace of the Persian empire. The word Aryān itself appeared around the 6th century AD. So the Persians themselves called themselves, because they were Aryans or Aria. Over time, the language changed and the name also changed to its current form.

Where is Persia

Answer exactly where Persia is located on modern map pretty hard. After all, countries have constantly undergone territorial changes. During the heyday of its influence, Persia controlled large areas of such modern countries:

This is an incomplete list of countries in which Persia once existed. But nowadays, when talking about Persia, most often there is a reference to Iran. That's what it's called now. It was on the land of this country that the key events of the existence of the Persian state took place.

Here remains the greatest cultural influence of the once great empire. A more detailed map of the location of ancient Persian possessions can be found on Wikipedia.

Country today

Modern is not a terrible revolutionary country with nuclear developments as it is described in many media. Here, the interweaving of several cultures at once is concentrated: Western, Islamic and Persian proper.

Residents of Iran are very courteous and friendly to guests. Millennium grips different nations taught native Iranians to get along with almost everyone. But behind the outward friendliness lies the intention to find out in detail for what purpose the interlocutor arrived.

This manner of behavior allowed the Iranian people to preserve their rich cultural heritage. traditions, while taking the best of each of the cultures of the alien peoples.

Being under the control of the Arab Caliphate for centuries, the Iranians managed to preserve their language. In our time, although Islamic culture dominates in the country, the Persians continue to keep knowledge of their ancient culture. originality.

Today Persia is an original country with large quantity ancient sights and cultural monuments.

The history of Ancient Persia (although it is more correct to call it Iran (that is how it is called in the sources of that time; the name ‘Persia’ was coined by the Greeks) begins with the conquests of Cyrus II. But you can’t immediately go to his accomplishments, first you need to find out who this Cyrus was?

The first mention of Persia

The first mention of Persia is found in Assyrian sources of the 9th century BC. It is known that it was a tribal union in the southwest of modern Iran, led by the noble family of the Achaemenids. A century later, they began to expand their possessions, but after establishing Assyria on these lands, they recognized the power of their king. Later, the Persians came under the rule of King Astyages, the ruler of the Median state. He also gave his daughter in marriage to Cambyses I, the ruler of the Persians. From this union, the son Cyrus I the Great was born.

Legend of Kira

Nothing exact can be said about Kira's childhood. However, there is a legend. Once King Astyages had a dream that a tree grows from the womb of his daughter and covers all the Median lands with its crowns. The priests interpreted this dream in such a way that the son born to his daughter would seize power from his grandfather. Astyages was frightened and ordered his courtier Harpagus to throw the baby Cyrus I in the forests of Media. He, in turn, ordered the shepherd Mithridad to take the child to the forest. But Mithridar and his wife had a dead child, they could not leave Cyrus in the forests. They decided to put their stillborn son in the cradle of Cyrus, and raise the prince as their own.

The truth was revealed when Cyrus was ten years old. He played with the sons of the courtiers and was chosen king among them. One of the boys refused to obey him, so he beat him. The boy's father complained to Astyages that the shepherd's son dared to beat his master. Kira was taken to the palace. Seeing him, Astyages realized that his grandson was alive. He turned to the priests again. But they assured him that the dream had already come true - the boy was elected king among his peers. Having calmed down, the king of Media sent him to his parents in Persia.

Rebellion of Cyrus and capture of the provinces

Cyrus revolted against Media in 553 BC. most of the Medes voluntarily went over to the side of Cyrus. By 550 B.C. Media was conquered. Then Cyrus began to conquer its provinces: Susa (Elam), Parthia, Hyrcania and Armenia. In 547 B.C. Cyrus launched an offensive against the Lydian kingdom. The first battle near the Galis River ended in nothing, the second time Cyrus showed cunning and put camels in front of his army. Lydian horses, sensing an unfamiliar smell, fled from the battlefield.

Then Cyrus subjugated the entire Asia Minor coast. And he turned his gaze towards the East Iranian and Central Asian territories: Afghanistan, the northwestern part of India, Pakistan, Drangiana, Margiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Hydrosia, Khorezm and Sogdiana. Miletus and the rest of the countries up to Egypt voluntarily submitted to Cyrus. Moreover, Phoenician, Babylonian and Asia Minor merchants advocated the creation of a strong centralized state. Egypt was now the target of Cyrus. But the nomads-Massageta on the northeastern outskirts of the empire brought a lot of anxiety. On a campaign against them in 530 BC. Cyrus was wounded and died.

Rise of the Persian Empire

The case of Cyrus the Great was continued by his son Cambyses II. He led a campaign against Egypt. At this time, Egypt experienced not the best of times: a weak army, inept Pharaoh Psammetich III, high taxes. Population dissatisfaction. Before embarking on a campaign, Cambyses enlisted the help of nomads from the waterless Sinai desert, who helped his army reach the city of Pelusium. The Egyptian commander-in-chief Phanes and the head of the fleet Ujagorresent went over to the side of the Persians.

In 525 BC. There was a battle near the city of Pelusium. Both sides suffered heavy losses, but the Persians won. The capital of Memphis was plundered, the population was taken into slavery, the son of Pharaoh Psammetikh was executed, but the pharaoh was spared. In the same year, Cambyses became the pharaoh of Egypt. Nubia became the next point of conquest, but a sandstorm claimed the lives of most of the Persian wax and they were forced to return to Egypt, where the former pharaoh Psammetich rebelled against Cambyses. The Shah brutally suppressed the uprising: Psammetich was now executed.

In connection with the above events, the shah was in Egypt for three years. In Iran itself, uprisings began against the oppression of the Persians. Rumors reached the shah that one of the leaders of the rebels was his brother Bardiya. Cambyses rushed back, but died on the way home under mysterious circumstances.

Rebellion of Bardiya Gaumata

There is a lot of information about the uprising of Bardia. Firstly, Bardia was not the Shah's brother at all, but the Median priest and impostor Gaumata. He began his rebellion in Babylonia, where he received universal support, and moved to Pasagard (the capital of Persia). Having won and subjugated Persia, Gaumata abolished tax and military service for three years in order to keep the provinces of the empire. All domestic politics was aimed at displacing the Persian elite and replacing it with the Median, as well as depriving them of all privileges.

Gaumata ruled for a short time - only seven months - and was killed as a result of a palace conspiracy of the seven most noble Persian families. It was they who elected the new shah. They became the 28-year-old Darius, who restored the privileges of the Persians and began the restoration of the empire in its former borders. The task was not easy. The state disintegrated: Babylonia, Armenia, Margiana, Elam, Parthia, Saks and others. In each province, an impostor appeared who proclaimed himself either Cambyses, who miraculously survived on the way to his homeland, or the king, overthrown by the Persians.

Campaign of Darius

Many did not believe in the success of Darius's campaign. However, he won victory after victory. The rebellions were suppressed with particular cruelty. In honor of all the victories, Darius erected the Behistun inscription, carved on a rock in the Pasagard region. It shows the enslaved kings of the provinces of the Achaemenid state, bringing tribute to their shahanshah Darius the Great. The kings look smaller than Darius, which indicates their subordinate position. Above the Shahanshah of Persia rises the sign of divine grace - farr.

In Zoroastrian mythology (Zoroastrianism, although it was not official religion Empire, had a dominant position at the Persian court) Far or Khvaren was considered a sign of the gods who blessed the Shah to reign. However, if the shah failed to fulfill his obligations or used his power for evil, the gods would deprive him of farr and transfer him to another worthy candidate for the title of shahanshah.

Persian reforms of Darius

The uprisings of the Achaemenid state pointed Darius to the ‘holes’ in its administrative and military systems. I take into account the mistakes of the past, the shah carried out a number of reforms that did not change until the end of the empire:

1) The empire was divided into satrapies. Most often, the borders of the satrapies were equivalent to the borders of the states located in these territories (Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt). At the head were the satraps, who were appointed by the Shah and came from Persian families. In the hands of the satraps, only administrative power was concentrated: they monitored the collection of taxes, the observance of order in the satrapy, and exercised judicial power. There were also military leaders in the satrapies, but they were subordinate only to the shah. The satrapies also included autonomous regions such as the Phoenician cities, Cyprus and Cilicia. They were ruled with the help of local kings or tribal leaders.

2) The new capital of Susa was established central office headed by the shah's office. In large cities - Babylon, Ecbatana, Memphis and others - royal offices also appeared. The offices included scribes and officials. Accounting for taxes, taxes and even gifts was introduced, royal correspondence was conducted. official language The Achaemenid state was Aramaic, but the satrap offices also used the local language. The entire administrative system was under the control of the Shah: a secret police was created (the ears and an eye of the king), as well as a new position of a thousand chief - the commander of the Shah's personal guard, who supervised the officials.

3) Conducted work on the codification of the laws of the conquered countries and the study of ancient laws in order to combine them into one single code for all peoples. True, it is worth noting that the Persians occupied a privileged place in them.

4) Darius introduced new system taxes: each satrapy paid a fixed amount of taxes, which was based on the fertility of the soil, the number of male population, etc. the Persians did not pay monetary taxes, but supplied food. The gift system was no longer voluntary - their size was also strictly fixed.

5) They began to mint a single coin - a gold darik.

6) The power of the empire directly depended on the army. Its core was made up of Persians and Medes. The army consisted of infantry (recruited from farmers) and cavalry (it included the Persian nobility). The Saka nomads played an important role in the Persian army as mounted archers. The horsemen's armament was usually a bronze shield, an iron shell and spears. The backbone was 10 thousand ‘immortals’. The first thousand were the personal guards of the king and were recruited from the sons of noble Persian families. The rest were recruited from the Elamites and Iranian tribes. This detachment was considered the most privileged in the entire Achaemenid army. Each satrapy had an army to prevent rebellions. Their composition was rather motley, but did not contain representatives of this province. On the border of the country, the soldiers were allocated a small piece of land. Every month each warrior received grain and meat. And being retired - land plots on which crops were grown, or sold or donated.

7) Darius started construction of roads and post offices. The satrapies were interconnected by post offices so that in case of war it would be possible to reach their destination as quickly as possible.

After carrying out such successful reforms, the shah turned his gaze against the Scythians, who disturbed the borders of the empire, and the Greeks, who rebelled against the power of the Persians. From the campaign of Darius to Athens, it is considered to be the beginning of the Greco-Persian wars.

Provincial uprisings

The reason for the uprisings was the ever-increasing tax burden and the removal of artisans from the cities (at that time, the construction of the palace of Persepolis (Takhte Jamshid) - the new residence of the Achaemenids) was being completed. Egypt was the first to express dissatisfaction (in 486 BC). The uprising was crushed, but took away too many forces of Darius - he died in the same year. Now his son Xerxes became Shah, who spent his whole life in constant suppression of uprisings. It turned Egypt back on. In 484 BC. Babylon rose, and with it another half of the provinces of the state. The uprising was finally suppressed only in 481 BC. its population was taken into slavery, and all the defensive fortifications of the city were destroyed.

In 480 B.C. Xerxes launched a second military campaign against the Greeks. Troops were gathered from all the satrapies from India to Egypt. According to Geradot, the Persian army numbered 1,700,000 infantry, 80,000 horsemen, 20,000 camels. But such calculations are hardly correct: if we take into account all the facts, such as the number of male population in the satrapies, their mortality from diseases and simply hard physical labor, then the total number of soldiers will not exceed 100,000 people. But even this figure was terrifying at the time. But this campaign also turned out to be a failure. Such famous battles at Salamis, Thermopylae and Plataea did not bring victory to the Persians. Greece gained independence. Moreover, she began her campaign in Asia Minor and the Aegean Sea against the Achaemenids.

Fall of the Persian Empire

After the death of Xerxes, the shahs mainly tried to keep the empire within its borders, and also waged internecine wars with each other for the throne. In 413 BC. the Lydian state revolted; in 404 BC Egypt separated, where the XXIX dynasty was proclaimed; in 360 BC Cyprus, Cilicia, Lydia, Khorezm, northwestern India, Karia, the Phoenician city of Sidon gained independence.

However, the main danger came from Asia Minor from the Greek province of the shepherds of Macedonia. While Greece was busy fighting Athens and Sparta, and Persia frantically tried to hold its borders, the young Macedonian prince Alexander in 334 BC. went on a campaign against the Achaemenids. The ruling shah, Darius III, suffered defeat after defeat. The satraps voluntarily went over to the side of Alexander. In 331 BC. there was a decisive battle at Gaugamela, after which Great Persia ceased to exist. Darius III fled and took refuge in a mill, the owner of which, seduced by the rich clothes of a stranger, stabbed him to death at night. Thus ended his life the last shah of the Achaemenid dynasty. All previously subject lands of the Achaemenids came under the rule of Alexander the Great.

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