Dictionary of borrowed words from the Greek language. Dictionary of Ancient Greek Culture

Head: Remorov Ivan Alexandrovich,

Candidate of Philological Sciences, Department of Ancient Languages, NSU

Introduction

Language is the most complex creation of the human mind, and perhaps the condition that allowed man to fully reveal the essence of the mind itself. For us, thinking is inseparable from speech, and not a single cognitive (mental, cognitive) process can be carried out without the mediation of language. Now, at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries, when humanity stands on the threshold of a new, informational stage of social development, a new approach to scientific research: the anthropological factor takes on a dominant role. Thus, in linguistics there is a shift in emphasis from the language system to the linguistic personality - the subject of verbal activity - and the influence of language on culture and thinking.

Right now, the problem of the relationship between language and objective reality is becoming particularly relevant. On the one hand, this is a complex linguistic question about whether thought is carried out through language, or whether mental processes are universal, and only their result is expressed in verbal form. These opposing points of view underlie the theories of verbalists, who believe that thought is realized in the word, and averbalists, who are inclined to believe that the units of thought and speech are different. On the other hand, the problem of the relationship between language and culture is closely related to the problem of the relationship between language and reality. Based on the anthropological paradigm of scientific research, linguoculturology, a new linguistic discipline that considers language as a cultural phenomenon, is becoming increasingly relevant. At modern approach In addition to scientific research, there is a need to consider a specific linguistic phenomenon not as an element of the linguistic structure, but as a cultural phenomenon and part of the picture of the world created by a given language.

The language is constantly being improved, responding flexibly to changes in the historical era and cultural traditions. It is not an isolated system, but a system open to interaction with other languages ​​and cultures, therefore the composition of each language is constantly replenished by foreign language units. At the same time, the borrowing of linguistic phenomena is necessarily accompanied by the interaction of cultures, i.e. the fact of borrowing indicates the contact of cultures at the linguistic level and - if we accept the hypothesis of the verbalists - that the borrowed unit changes the picture of the world dictated by the borrowing language. Thus, our work comes down to searching for an answer to the following question: do borrowings appear as elements of a worldview that is not characteristic of us, embedded in the borrowing language system, or do they become an integral part of it.

We decided to consider borrowings from the Greek language in detail, because... it was he who played a huge role in the formation Slavic writing, Old Slavonic language. In addition, the cultural achievements of Greek civilization not only had a significant impact on Russian culture, but also almost completely laid the foundations of the Western European civilizational type.
Borrowings occur at all language levels, but in our work it is most convenient to work with borrowed vocabulary, because in this case, it is possible to obtain a fairly complete picture of interlingual and intercultural interaction based on dictionary data.

The purpose of our work is to consider, at the lexical level, from the perspective of linguoculturology, the functioning of Greek borrowings in modern Russian language.
To do this, it is necessary to analyze a certain group of words of Greek origin (Grecisms) and determine the main features inherent in them as elements of a foreign language picture of the world included in the Russian one. Thus, the following tasks can be distinguished: a) study universal features
borrowing theoretically;
b) determine the research material (based on data from an etymological dictionary, compile a selection of words of Greek origin);
c) classify Greekisms according to the method of their penetration into the Russian language and note the main features of the words of each group (whether they are perceived as alien - from a cognitive point of view - elements);
d) determine the role of Greek borrowings in the formation of the Russian concept sphere (the concept sphere is understood as a set of concepts - culturally significant concepts);
e) note the peculiarities of the use of Greekisms in modern discourse;

f) establish the nature of the influence of Greekisms on the Russian linguistic picture of the world. It is necessary to point out that, although practical research is based on etymological data (the definition of Greekisms - the main material and the direct object of research), the tasks of the work are reduced to considering the material not in a diachronic, but in a synchronic aspect, i.e. to the study of the modern linguistic situation. In this regard, we do not focus on how long ago the word was borrowed, how much it has changed appearance

and lexical meaning when borrowing. In this work, borrowings are considered from an unusual perspective - as linguistic elements that have passed from one linguistic picture of the world to another, i.e. as an object of study of linguoculturology.

Part one. Basic theoretical principles
I. Linguoculturology as a modern integrated discipline
Language is the most important factor determining human activity. Any cognitive (cognitive, related to information processes) activity is impossible without verbal materialization of information about the surrounding reality. Thus, language serves as a means of accumulating and storing culturally significant information. There is no generally accepted opinion about the nature of the connection between language and culture, but the existence of this relationship is not questioned.
Linguoculturology is “a science that arose at the intersection of linguistics and cultural studies and studies the manifestations of the culture of a people, which are reflected and entrenched in the language.” This discipline examines linguistic facts through the prism of spiritual culture, and considers language itself as a cultural phenomenon. Unlike linguistic and regional studies, linguoculturology studies not only the national realities reflected in the language, but also the features of cognitive processes characteristic of a given society, as well as the role of language in the formation of cultural universals. The subject of research in linguoculturology can be any linguistic and cultural phenomena in their interrelation. In our case, the subject of research is borrowing as a result of the interaction of cultures.

II. The concept of the linguistic picture of the world
A person records the results of cognition of the objective world in words. The totality of this knowledge, captured in linguistic form, represents what is commonly called the linguistic picture of the world. “If the world is a person and the environment in interaction, then the picture of the world is the result of processing information about the environment and the person.” Each language has its own linguistic picture of the world, according to which the native speaker organizes the content of the utterance. This is how the specifically human perception of the world, recorded in language, manifests itself. Thus, the concept of a linguistic picture of the world is basic in linguoculturology, from the point of view of verbalists (see “Introduction”). The verbalistic understanding of this term logically follows from the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, according to which “the world as a whole is perceived by a person through the prism of his native language.” Based on this hypothesis, it can be assumed that any borrowing changes the linguistic picture of the world.

The picture of the world as a “system of intuitive ideas about reality” can be represented using spatial, temporal, quantitative, ethnic and other parameters. Its formation is greatly influenced by traditions, cultural characteristics of the ethnic group, social characteristics of the linguistic personality and much more.
The linguistic picture of the world precedes specialized scientific pictures and shapes them, because a person is able to study the world only thanks to language, in which socio-historical experience is consolidated. Studying the linguistic picture of the world, Yu.D. Apresyan called it a naive picture, emphasizing its pre-scientific origin.

Within the framework of linguoculturology, this term takes on a special meaning. Language is a semiotic (sign) system, therefore, any linguistic unit has its own semantic side and is thus connected with the linguistic picture of the world. The essence of this mechanism can be most clearly seen at the lexical level: each lexeme contains one or another concept that reflects part of the picture of the world. Similar to how, by changing the general, pre-verbal, picture of the world, on the basis of an archetype, a cultural phenomenon, on the basis of this or that phenomenon, reality is built as a linguistic fact, changing the linguistic picture. It is logical to assume that if a change in the preverbal picture of the world leads to a change in the linguistic one, then any linguistic phenomenon within the framework of linguoculturology, it appears as a consequence of a cultural phenomenon. Then, based on these judgments, we can say that borrowing is a direct consequence of the interaction of different cultures, i.e. linguistic continuity naturally follows from the continuity of cultural phenomena.

III.Borrowing as a result of intercultural interaction
The enrichment of the vocabulary of a language at the expense of the vocabulary of other languages ​​is usually a consequence of different political, economic, and trade relations. Let us note that there is no generally accepted definition of the concept of culture, but if we consider culture as “the totality of production, social and spiritual achievements of people,” then everything that has to do with the reality surrounding a person, perceived and transformed by him, from everyday objects to abstract philosophical categories, to one degree or another connected with culture. In this case, with any interethnic interaction there is an exchange of cultural information, which, in turn, cannot but be reflected in the language.

Often, when borrowing, a new word comes along with a new reality that did not exist in the culture of speakers of the borrowing language, and therefore is not recorded in the linguistic picture of the world. In some cases, a borrowed word comes as a synonym for a word that already existed in the vocabulary of the borrowing language (for example, the words import and export appeared as synonyms for the Russian import and export). The reasons for such duplication of words can be different: the desire for terminology, especially when the borrowed word is an international term, or the opportunity to emphasize some connotative connotation that is unclear in the original word, and sometimes simply a fashion for foreign language, which is typical for slang borrowings.

IV. Main ways of borrowing
There are two main classifications of borrowings according to the way they penetrate into the borrowing language.
Oral or written (book) way of borrowing. In the first case, foreign words quite easily and quickly undergo full assimilation in the borrowing language, but at the same time they are often subject to distortions and folk etymology. In the second case, words in sound appearance and lexical meaning remain close to the original, but remain unmastered longer.
In our work related to the study of borrowings as a consequence of intercultural interaction, the second classification seems more important.

Borrowing is direct or with the help of intermediary languages ​​(indirect). In the first case, the word is directly borrowed from foreign language, in the second - through transmission languages, as a result of which both the sound and lexical meaning of the word can greatly change. With direct borrowing, the connection between the original source and the borrowing is quite obvious; the borrowed word can be called the point of contact between two linguistic pictures of the world. With indirect borrowing, the borrowed word is the result of a chain interaction of several cultures; its lexical meaning is imprinted by different linguistic patterns. Often the same word is borrowed twice - both directly and indirectly. Thus, the German Būrgemistr directly entered the Russian language as burgomaster, and through Polish - as burgomaster.

Separately from borrowing, tracing is usually considered - “the formation of new words and expressions according to the lexical-phraseological and syntactic models of another language using elements of a given language.” There are several types of tracing papers: lexical, or word-formation (a word created according to a foreign language word-formation model, but using morphemes of a given language, i.e. morpheme-by-morpheme translation of a word), semantic (a word obtaining a new meaning under the influence of a foreign word), syntactic (syntactic construction , formed according to the model of a foreign language), phraseological (literal translation of a foreign language idiom). In our work related to the study of language material at the lexical level, word-formation and semantic tracings are significant. In the future, when speaking about borrowings, we will mean words that appeared in the language as a result of both borrowing itself and tracing.

V. Mastering foreign words
Borrowed vocabulary, replenishing the vocabulary of the borrowing language, becomes its integral part, interacts with other linguistic units, expanding the semantic and stylistic capabilities of the language. First of all, the borrowing language system masters foreign words, subordinates them to its structure: phonetic, lexical and grammatical.

Phonetic mastery. Once in a foreign language, a word receives sound design in accordance with the current phonetic laws of the borrowing language; sounds alien to this language are lost or replaced by similar ones. Phonetic acquisition does not always occur completely. There are words in the Russian language in which vowel sounds in a weak position are not subject to reduction: for example, b[o]a, kaka[o] - no qualitative reduction occurs<о>. In addition, in many borrowed words, before the sound [e] (graphically designated after consonants by the letter “e”), not a soft, but a hard consonant is pronounced: ka[fe], a[te]lie, etc.

Grammar mastery. The borrowing becomes part of the grammatical system of the borrowing language, is recognized as a word of one or another part of speech, and in accordance with this acquires certain morphological characteristics and syntactic function. Often, when borrowing, individual grammatical features or even parts of speech change. This phenomenon is associated with the external form of the borrowed lexeme. Many borrowings are not amenable to grammatical mastery. For example, the nouns “coat”, “madam”, “kangaroo” and other indeclinables have acquired constant morphological characteristics, but manifest them at the syntactic level, and the case meanings of these words are expressed only analytically.

Lexical acquisition. Those borrowings that are mastered phonetically and grammatically do not always become part of the main vocabulary of the language, because due to the peculiarities of the sphere of use or stylistic coloring, they do not become commonly used (for example, “colloquium”, “incunabula”, etc.). Among the lexically unmastered borrowed words one can distinguish barbarisms and exoticisms. Barbarisms are foreign language inclusions, often used in texts even while preserving the original graphics: “Like a London dandy is dressed...” (A.S. Pushkin), etc.
Exoticisms are words that name the realities of another culture (“Sejm”, “Janissaries”, etc.); These words are usually used to give speech a local flavor when describing foreign customs.
Words that are mastered in all three indicators - usually they are included in the main vocabulary - are not recognized by native speakers as borrowed; the foreign language nature of such vocabulary is established only through etymological analysis. In this case, quite often the original word is replaced by a borrowed analogue.

VI.Greek language. General information
The Greek language with its varieties constitutes a separate, Greek, group of Indo-European languages. Now it is widespread in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and the adjacent islands of the Ionian and Aegean seas.
There are three main periods in the history of the Greek language: Ancient Greek (XIV century BC - IV century AD), Central Greek (V - XV centuries) and Modern Greek (from the XV century). Special role in the formation European culture and many Indo-European languages ​​were played by ancient Greek. This language belongs to the earliest Indo-European written languages. Its oldest monuments, written in syllabic script and associated with the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, date back to the 15th-11th centuries.

Phonemic Greek writing, dating back to Phoenician, presumably arose in the 9th-8th centuries. BC. Alphabetical Greek writing was divided into two branches: eastern and western. Western Greek writing became the source for Etruscan, Latin and Old Germanic, while Eastern Greek developed into classical ancient Greek and Byzantine writing. The modern pan-Greek alphabet of 27 letters was formed in the 5th-4th centuries. BC. It was on the basis of Greek writing that Slavic writing was created by the Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius.
The enormous influence of the Greek language on the culture of the peoples of the Indo-European language family at a certain historical stage is undeniable. Until now, in many countries of the world, a sign of a person’s education is his knowledge of Greek - especially ancient Greek - the language.

Part two. Research of Greekisms
I. Main organizational points
The study of Greekisms in the modern Russian linguistic picture of the world was carried out in several main stages:
1. Compiling a selection of words of Greek origin from an etymological dictionary. The “Concise Etymological Dictionary...” by N.M. was used. Shansky. The bulk of words presented in this dictionary, stylistically neutral, is included in the main vocabulary of the Russian language, which allows you to calmly work with any contexts in the future, focusing only on the material of this sample. In cases where Shansky’s dictionary offered exclusively a hypothetical etymology of a possible Greekism, the controversial origin of the word was clarified using the “Etymological Dictionary...” by M. Vasmer.
2. Dividing the words of the main sample into groups according to the method of their penetration into the Russian language. This classification allows us to create a fairly clear and complete picture of the interaction of Greek borrowings with other elements of the linguistic picture of the world.
3. Conducting a survey among high school students of school No. 156. (See “Appendix 3”) This survey is aimed at determining the place of Greekisms in the minds of a native speaker, finding out whether Greek linguistic elements are perceived as alien. In addition, such a technique allows us to consider the word-formation capabilities of the words of the group under study (using several examples) and to study the possibilities of culturally significant Greekisms in replenishing the core (main) and peripheral (connotative) volume of concepts. The survey was conducted only in high school (10th and 11th parallels), because Schoolchildren of this age can already be considered as adult native speakers of the language, ready to actively participate in its development and the formation of its conceptual sphere. In addition, according to the age periodization of D.B. Elkonin, schoolchildren at this age are already at the youthful stage mental development, at this time their cognitive abilities and memory capacity reach their maximum. Two classes from each parallel participated in the survey: economic and humanitarian-aesthetic. This allows us to consider the responses of people with different predominant types of thinking (verbal-logical and figurative, respectively).
4. Study of representations of Greekisms in the discourse of modern newspapers. This part of the study allows us to consider some of the features that the words of the main sample of Greekisms have: the frequency of use of these words in modern discourse, features of word usage, etc. It was newspaper discourse that was examined, because The journalistic style is permeable to different styles of vocabulary, but in general it is stylistically neutral. In addition, although this style implies subjectivity, its author's originality can be neglected if a sufficiently large number of articles are examined. Considering, for example, literary texts would not be entirely correct, because the stylistic features of a given context would be tied to the specific linguistic personality of the author. Two all-Russian periodicals were considered, intended for reading by a wide segment of the population, regardless of gender, age and social affiliation: “Youth of Siberia” and “Honest Word”. At this stage, the main research method was contextual analysis.

II.The degree of adaptation of Greekisms in the Russian language
Almost all words in the original sample are adapted to the morphological system of the Russian language. Not all Greek words are included in the main vocabulary of the language (scientific terminology: onomastics, orthoepy, etc.; church vocabulary: oil, diocese, etc.), but the bulk of the words are commonly used, i.e. we can talk about general lexical mastery. In addition, on high degree The lexical adaptability of Greekisms is indicated by the fact that among them there are quite a lot of stylistically colored ones: the presence of outdated words indicates that Greekisms, along with original words, can lose their relevance when any external circumstances change (barber, actor - archaisms), the presence of high or reduced vocabulary shows that Greekisms occupy a fairly stable position in the Russian language - they penetrate into speech different styles(fofan is an element of common folk vocabulary, many tracings - chastity, retribution, splendor, etc. - belong to the high style).

To consider Greek borrowings on the basis of lexical mastery, it is advisable to give some examples of terminological vocabulary that is not included in our list, but noted in the dictionary of foreign words. It was discovered that terms of Greek origin make up the terminology of almost all areas of science and art: biology (amitosis, autogenesis, anabiosis, anaphase, etc.) and, in particular, botany (anabasis, adonis, etc.), geology and mineralogy (anamorphism, alexandrite, etc.), physics (acoustics, analyzers, anaphoresis, etc.), economics (anatocism, etc.), medicine (acrocephaly, anamnesis, etc.), psychology ( autophilia, etc.), astronomy (anagalactic, etc.), chemistry (ammonia, amphoteric, etc.), architecture (acroteria, etc.), geography (aklina, etc.), music (agogy, etc.), literary criticism (Acmeism, anapest, etc.) and linguistics (anadiplosis, amphiboly, etc.). (Only examples from the section on the letter “A” are considered in detail.) Some of these terms were already formed in the Russian language, but from Greek morphemes.
We see that Greekisms in the Russian language play a huge role in creating a scientific picture of the world; this can be explained by the fact that it was in ancient Greek works that the foundations of the scientific worldview were laid.

III. Methods of penetration of Greek linguistic units into the Russian language
The words of the main sample were divided into several groups depending on the way they penetrated into the borrowing language:
1. Direct borrowings.
Of the 332 words in the main sample, 64 are direct borrowings from Greek, which constitutes approximately 20% of the research material. These are book words related to various spheres of human activity: church vocabulary (monk, monastery, etc.), terminology, mainly general scientific, with a fairly wide scope of use (atom, geometry, etc.). It is noteworthy that a significant number of such words were borrowed from the Old Russian language. It follows from this that it was at an early stage of development that the Russian language was influenced by Greek, directly borrowing from it the names of new realities (including scientific concepts) associated with Greek culture.

2. Indirect borrowings.
158 words from the main group were borrowed through other languages ​​- 49% of Greek words. Words of this category came into the Russian language through the European languages ​​of Romance (French - 51% of indirect borrowings, Latin - 6%, Italian - 2%), Germanic (German - 14%, English - 3%, Dutch - 1%), Slavic ( Polish – 8%, Old Church Slavonic – 12%), Baltic (Lithuanian – 1%) groups. This shows that Greek had a huge influence on many Indo-European languages. In addition, two words were discovered that were directly borrowed from the languages ​​of the Turkic family (estuary, ship). This fact indicates that a number of names penetrated into the Turkic languages ​​from Greek when borrowing cultural realities, because culture of ancient Greece, Hellenism, Byzantium for a long time determined the development of the spiritual sphere not only of Europe, but also of Asia (let us note that the cultural traditions of the Byzantine Empire combined both Western and Eastern trends).

A large number of words borrowed through Western European languages ​​is a consequence of the enormous influence of Greek culture on the development of the culture of Western European countries. There are significantly fewer direct borrowings from Greek in the Russian language than indirect ones. This is due to the fact that the direct interaction of Russian and Greek civilizations was quite limited (due to differences in the national worldview and people’s thinking caused by historical and geographical factors), and the culture of many European countries goes back to antiquity. The bulk of words in this group were borrowed from French and German; this can be explained by the fact that Russian culture is historically connected with the culture of France and Germany. So, perhaps, many French Greekisms (plastic, period, cream, scandal, etc.) appeared in the era of enlightenment, when Russian art and directions of scientific thought were formed under the influence of French philosophy.

It should be noted that when calculating in this group, it was taken into account from which language the direct borrowing into Russian occurred, because often one Greek word undergoes sequential borrowing through several European languages ​​(for example, many words, before entering the Russian language, were borrowed from Greek into German, and then into French, or vice versa - through French into German). In this case, various connotative increments are gradually superimposed on the original motivation of the word, and the most clearly expressed will be those semantic features of the word that were introduced into the periphery of its meaning by the last of the borrowing languages ​​(before Russian). Thus, indirect borrowing appears as a kind of connecting link between several pictures of the world.

3. Words borrowed through Greek.
The words of this group (5% of Greek words) are close in origin to lexemes from the previous category; these are also indirect borrowings. The fundamental difference is that in this case the Greek language acts not as the primary source, the system in which this word appeared, but as an intermediary language. The picture of the world he forms actually becomes a link between the Russian worldview and the picture of the world of a linguistic personality speaking the original language. Although such words are not actually Greek, they are significant in our study, because with the sequential borrowing of one word by several languages, as noted above, it not only undergoes graphic, phonetic, grammatical development, but also acquires new connotations, and sometimes even changes some of the core semes of the concept as a result of functioning in the new linguistic picture of the world. This group includes, for example, all the currently used names of the months, dating back to Latin (from the Roman calendar), in addition, the words panther, sugar (Indian), papyrus (Egyptian), hosanna, Satan (Hebrew), sandals (Persian), incense (Arabic), doll (Latin).

4. Tracing paper.
84 words of the studied group, which is 25.5%, are calques from Greek. Often tracings are not at all perceived by native speakers as something foreign, because they are composed of Russian morphemes, but it is through the example of calques that one can consider a clear connection between the ways of conceptualizing the world in two different languages. From the point of view of cognitive science, with this type of borrowing the following happens: a word, the motivation of which reflects the peculiarities of the mental activity of native speakers, is “translated” into a foreign language with an attempt to preserve the original motivation. In this case, the word usually acquires a new stylistic coloring and fundamentally new shades of meaning, because perfect semantic identity of units of different languages ​​seems unlikely.

The Russian language contains mainly word-forming calques from Greek. Most of them are Old Slavonic, which can be explained by the word-creative activity of Slavic enlighteners, who sought to create Russian book vocabulary using Greek examples. Among cripples of this type, abstract nouns predominate (splendor, virtue, indifference, etc.), denoting concepts of moral and philosophical categories. These words play a significant role in the formation of the conceptual sphere of the Russian language, representing the most valuable constants of culture (“concepts that appeared in ancient times, can be traced to the present day through the views of philosophers, writers and ordinary native speakers”). Despite the fact that derivational tracings are composed of Russian morphemes, they are often unconsciously perceived by native speakers as elements of foreign culture, because the external form of these words comes into conflict with the internal one, which conveys the mental logic of speakers of another language.

It is interesting that two words from this group are a kind of “double calques” - the Russian word is a calque of the Latin calque of the Greek: insect, common noun (name). The existence of such words confirms the relationship between Greek and Roman cultures.
In addition to word-formation cripples, four semantic ones were discovered: gender (grammatical), ink, chapter, verb (part of speech). Such words also reflect in their internal form motivation that appeared in the Greek language.

In some cases, the same Greek word served as a source for two borrowings in the Russian language: penetration of the word into the borrowing language directly (or indirectly) and calque. In some cases, the resulting words remain identical in lexical meaning and word usage - all words in pairs can act as synonyms, but often tracing paper acquires a slightly different meaning or a different stylistic coloring. The following examples can be given: the alphabet and alphabet; spelling and spelling; the outdated word anchorite, not noted in our sample, and the now used hermit (different stylistic connotations); not noted on our list atheist and atheist; Orthodox and Orthodox (divergence lexical meaning, the second word acquired a more specific, private meaning); geometry and surveying; missing from our sample were anesthesia (a medical term) and insensibility (a common term); anonymous and nameless; philanthropy and philanthropy not noted on our list; the word synagogue and cathedral, not noted in our list (borrowing and tracing began to denote the realities of different religious subcultures); symphony and harmony (these two words are connected by the theme of unity, present in all meanings); missing from our sample is the word sympathy and compassion.

5. Author's neologisms.
Creation of author's neologisms is one of effective ways replenishment of the vocabulary of the language. Not all such words become an element of the linguistic picture of the world; a significant part of them are able to function only in a given context. But individual author’s neologisms not only acquire a completely independent lexical meaning and stylistic coloring, but also become part of the active vocabulary of the language. These are some poetic words that have lost their expressiveness when used outside the author's context, as well as words created to denote new realities (usually these are terms introduced in certain scientific works).

Among the studied words, 2.5% are original neologisms composed of Greek morphemes by origin. It is worth noting that the way such words penetrated into the Russian language was through direct borrowing from the language in which they were created. It is advisable to give here all the discovered examples of such words: nitrogen - a neologism by A. Lavoisier (a chemical term; literally “not giving life”); biology – neologism of J.-B. Lamarck (discipline of the natural science cycle; literally “the study of living things”); dynamite is a neologism by A. Nobel (now the word is included in the main vocabulary; literally “strong”); logarithm – neologism of D. Napier (mathematical term; literally “ratio of numbers”); neon is a semantic neologism by W. Ramsay (chemical term; literally “new”); panorama – Barker's neologism (literally “the whole view”); parachute – Blanchard neologism (literally “against the fall”); semantics – neologism by M. Breal (linguistic term; literally “meaningful”).

Thus, almost all words in this group are terms. This indicates that, even when direct borrowing of terminological vocabulary from Greek no longer occurs, Greek morphemes actively serve to produce new terms. Although such words are not Greekisms in the strict sense of the word, their semantics, derived from the semantics of individual morphemes, is of certain interest for our work. Such neologisms are created on the basis of existing significant parts of a word to convey a new concept. Wide range of possibilities creating terms using Greek roots (usually quite simple to be understood by native speakers of the Russian language - due to the fact that these morphemes are used in many words of the basic vocabulary and are intuitively understandable: -aero-, -auto-, -phono-, etc.) etc.) prove that the Greek language serves as a kind of connecting link between naive and scientific paintings peace.
To illustrate the results on the methods of borrowing Greekisms, diagrams are provided in the appendix

IV.Analysis of survey results
The questionnaire offered to high school students consisted of three parts
Part one
The first question is aimed at clarifying the following points: whether Greekisms of various groups (see “Ways of penetration of Greek linguistic units into the Russian language”) are perceived as borrowed elements and with what other linguistic pictures of the world Greek borrowings are correlated for native speakers. The task material (to identify borrowed words from those proposed in the list) included commonly used words from each group and some terms that were not included in the main sample. To obtain objective results, several words borrowed from other languages ​​(Latin, English) and several native Russian words were added to the list.

The following results were obtained:
1. Many Greek words (especially terminological vocabulary) were indicated as borrowed from Latin (and vice versa), which confirms the connection between the Greek and Latin pictures of the world, which has already been repeatedly noted in our work.
2. Complex terms, in the morphemic composition of which there are any of the fairly well-known international elements (-phono-, -cardio-, poly-, -morpho-, etc.) in most works were indeed considered as Greek, and borrowed through French, the words gramophone and bureaucrat, in which only the second root is Greek, were also noted in many works as Greekisms. This indicates that in this case the students made conclusions based on the external form of the word.
3. Calques were usually perceived as original words, but a fairly large number of people pointed to their Old Slavonic or Greek nature. This confirms the above assumption that in tracings there is a contradiction between external and internal forms.
4. The Greek practice, protocol, and symbol that were completely mastered phonetically, lexically, and grammatically were perceived by almost all respondents as native Russian, in contrast, for example, to a thermos that was not fully mastered phonetically (“e” does not convey the softness of the preceding consonant).
5. The words oil and orthodox were perceived by many as borrowed from Church Slavonic or Hebrew. This is due to the fact that these Greekisms are related to the church sphere. Thus, in the minds of native speakers, the Greek linguistic picture of the world is closely connected with Christian religious ideas.
6. Some respondents pointed to the borrowed nature of the words under study, but assumed that they originated from Western European languages ​​of the Romance and Germanic groups; others associated the same words with the languages ​​of the Indian branch or even the Turkic family. This indicates that elements of both Western and Eastern cultures are naturally intertwined in the Greek linguistic picture of the world.

Part two
The second question is aimed at determining the cultural significance of Greekisms in the linguistic picture of the world, their place in the Russian concept sphere. Students were asked to indicate the associations that the specified words evoked in them. The task included seven words fully mastered in the Russian language, which are presumably quite significant cultural concepts. The following results were obtained:
1. The respondents cited a huge number of associations based on various principles (similarity, contiguity, contrast, etc.); associative connections are created on the basis of concepts about moral values ​​and human qualities (kindness, tenderness), categories of time (eternity), space (endless), color (blue, white), etc. This allows us to talk about these Greekisms as concepts that occupy an important place in the linguistic picture of the world.
2. Among the above associations there are the most important constants of Russian culture (water, earth, light, sky, etc.), i.e. These Greekisms are closely related to the Russian worldview.
3. The respondents often associated these words with elements of foreign culture, in particular Greek. Thus, many words were given associations related to Greek mythology (Orpheus - for the word lyre; Achilles, Hercules - for the word hero, etc.). The connection with Greek culture was especially clear in associations with the word lyre, which even now, outside of a poetic context, is often perceived as exoticism: Greeks, Greece, harp, muse, etc. In addition, many of the words cited as associations are themselves Greek in origin. These facts indicate that Greekisms are still inseparable from the picture of the world formed by the Greek language, and introduce elements of non-Russian culture into the Russian linguistic picture of the world.

Part three
The third question is aimed at determining the word-formation possibilities of Greekisms in the modern Russian language. High school students were asked to choose words with the same root as those indicated in the task. Among the six words given, three (nerve, symbol, magnet) are commonly used, the other three (acoustics, hydrophobia and spelling) are terms. The survey results showed that the word-formation nest of the first three words includes a huge number of cognate words. In general, based on the responses of the respondents, it was possible to completely restore the word-formation nests given in the corresponding dictionary entries of the dictionary by A.N. Tikhonov. This indicates that Greekisms that have been sufficiently mastered in the Russian language are close in their word-formation capabilities to the original words. Of the words with the same root as the three terms, only the adjectives acoustic, hydrophobic, and orthographic were given. In addition, some students cited words with one of the roots of the words hydrophobia and spelling (phobia, hydrolysis, orthoepia, graphic, etc.), which again confirms the universal nature of Greek morphemes.

V. The use of Greekisms in modern discourse
In the discourse of the studied periodicals (see “Main organizational aspects”), published in one week, the words of the main sample of Greekisms and their derivatives appeared 236 times.
The words of the group under study are capable of participating in the formation of lexicalized combinations. Thus, several cases were discovered of the use of speech cliches (one of the components is a Greek word), which are metaphors that have lost their expressiveness (a scandal broke out, save time and nerves, etc.). In addition, in some contexts, terms expressed by phrases (higher nervous activity, etc.) were used.

No pronounced features of word usage or valency of words of Greek origin were identified on the basis of the newspaper discourse under study. In addition, it can be noted that the words under study are part of a wide variety of syntactic structures.
From all of the above it follows that words of Greek origin are used quite often in modern discourse, i.e. on modern stage development of language and culture, they are able to successfully perform the same functions as native words.

VI. Place of words of the group under study in the linguistic picture of the world
Putting together the results of all the work done, we can draw the following conclusions:
1. In modern discourse, mastered Greek borrowings function according to the same basic laws of the language system as original words, perform the same functions and are often not recognized by native speakers as borrowed elements.
2. Greekisms are an integral part of the Russian linguistic picture of the world; they are closely related to many of its other elements. Forming a certain fragment of the linguistic picture of the world, they act as elementary units of cognitive processes, shaping the worldview of a native speaker.
3. Among the Greek borrowings there are the most valuable constants of culture (space, angel, hero, etc.), associated with such constants of Russian culture as light, sky, earth, water, etc. The concepts formed by Greekisms are distinguished by one characteristic feature: the preservation of connotations determined by Greek culture. Because Many Indo-European languages ​​were influenced by Greek at one time or another; now the cultural constants formed by Greekisms can be considered universal, having an international character.
4. Through Old Church Slavonic (mainly through tracings), the Greek language had a huge influence on the formation of the abstract book vocabulary of the Russian language.
5. Because the main directions of Western European scientific thought were formed precisely in Greece, and the main layer of terminological vocabulary of almost all scientific fields goes back to the Greek language, the Greek linguistic picture of the world can be called a kind of connecting link between the naive picture of the world and the scientific one, translating the simplest cognitive ones into the form of a scientific worldview elements of the linguistic picture of the world.
6. Through indirect borrowings from Greek and through Greek, it is carried out and consolidated in verbal form connection between Russian (Slavic) culture and cultures foreign countries- predominantly Western Europe, and to some extent the East (this is how the historical connection between Greek and Eastern cultures is preserved).

Conclusion
So, our work devoted to the study of borrowings from the Greek language in the linguocultural aspect is completed. Of course, the analysis presented here cannot be considered completely complete, because Only some of the most basic aspects of the implementation of Greekisms in the modern Russian language were considered, but in general a fairly clear picture of the functioning of Greekisms in the Russian language picture of the world was obtained.

The following directions for further research in this area can be identified:
1) clarify the obtained data using a larger number of studied words;
2) analyze the representations of Greek borrowings in various discourses;
3) consider in detail the composition of concepts originating from Greek culture;
4) consider the features of borrowings from some other language, for example, Latin, and compare the results with those obtained in this work.

Now linguoculturology is a young and promising linguistic direction, which is finding more and more followers every year. Each new study examines one question and opens up the next. Thus begins a new stage of scientific research. It is impossible to know the full depth of this wonderful science, and today we are happy that we were able to touch a little on the solution to the mystery of the relationship between language and culture - the two greatest creations of the mind.